TASK FORCE ON THE RE-ALIGNMENT OF THE EDUCATION SECTOR TO THE CONSTITUTION OF KENYA 2010

REPUBLIC OF KENYA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

TASK FORCE ON THE RE-ALIGNMENT OF THE EDUCATION
SECTOR TO THE CONSTITUTION OF KENYA 2010

TOWARDS A GLOBALLY COMPETITIVE QUALITY EDUCATION FOR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

REPORT OF THE TASK FORCE

FEBRUARY 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRELIMINARIES
List of Tables ………………………………………………………..………………………vii
List of Figures……………………………………………………….………………………viii
Letter of Transmittal ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ix
Acknowledgement --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xiii
Abbreviations and Acronyms ---------------------------------------------------------------------------xv
Executive Summary ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- xxi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 CONTEXT AND MANDATE OF THE TASK FORCE --------------------------------- 1
1.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.2 The Task Force Mandate ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.3 Rationale ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.4 Terms of Reference of the Task Force ------------------------------------------------------ 2
1.5 Working Committees -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.6 Interpretation of the Terms of Reference---------------------------------------------------- 4
1.7 Methodology ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
1.8 The New Constitution, 2010 and its implication on the Education Sector ------------- 6
1.9 Vision 2030 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.10 Organization of the Report -------------------------------------------------------------------20
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 VISION, MISSION AND GOALS OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING -----------22
2.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.2 Philosophy of Education ----------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.3 Vision -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.4 Mission ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.5 Mandate -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.6 Guiding Principles ----------------------------------------------------------------------------23
2.7 National Goals of Education and Training -------------------------------------------------23
2.8 Performance Targets --------------------------------------------------------------------------26
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 STRUCTURE AND CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION SYSTEM------------------28
3.1 Structure ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------28
3.2 Curriculum and its Relevance to Vision 2030 ---------------------------------------------48
3.3 TIVET -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------52
3.4 University ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------55
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 ACCESS, EQUITY, QUALITY AND RELEVANCE -----------------------------------56
4.1 Background Information ---------------------------------------------------------------------56
4.2 Situational Analysis ---------------------------------------------------------------------------57
4.3
Issues and Challenges ------------------------------------------------------------------------60
ii

4.4
4.5
4.6

Recommendations -----------------------------------------------------------------------------64
Special Focus on Marginalised Areas and Disadvantaged Communities -------------66
Non Formal Education ------------------------------------------------------------------------69

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 STANDARDS AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ------------------------------------------73
5.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
5.2 Standards and Quality Assurance at Various Levels -------------------------------------76
5.3 Primary School Level -------------------------------------------------------------------------77
5.4 Secondary School Level ----------------------------------------------------------------------78
5.5 TIVET Level --------------------------------------------------------------------------------8080
5.6 Teacher Education Level ---------------------------------------------------------------------81
5.7 University Level -------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
5.8 Adult Basic Education Level ----------------------------------------------------------------84
5.9 Context of Quality Assurance ------------------------------------------------------------- 877
5.10 Monitoring and Evaluation -------------------------------------------------------------------87
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 THE NATIONAL ASSESSMENT SYSTEM AND THE NATIONAL
QUALIFICATION FRAMEWORK IN KENYA ----------------------------------------92
6.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 922
6.2 National Assessment System (NAS)------------------------------------------------------ 977
6.3 National Qualification Framework (NQF) -------------------------------------------------98
6.4 NQF at ECDE --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100100
6.5 NQF at Primary Level ---------------------------------------------------------------------1011
6.6 NQF at the Secondary Level --------------------------------------------------------------- 101
6.7 NQF at the Tertiary Level -----------------------------------------------------------------1011
6.8 NQF at University Level ------------------------------------------------------------------1022
6.9 NQF in the Work Environment -----------------------------------------------------------1022
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 FINANCING, INVESTMENT AND RESOURCE MOBILIZATION --------------- 104
7.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 104
7.2 Projected Demand for Education and Enrolment --------------------------------------- 110
7.3 Further Elaborations are given Level - by - Level -------------------------------------1133
7.4 Resource Mobilization and Roles for Various Stakeholders by Level --------------1188
7.5 Incentives for Private Sector Provision of Education ---------------------------------- 121
7.6 Areas of Management and Fiscal Concern ---------------------------------------------- 122
7.7 Financing Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) -----------------------1255
7.8 Financing Primary Education -------------------------------------------------------------1288
7.9 Financing Secondary Education ----------------------------------------------------------1355
7.10 Financing Special Needs Education -----------------------------------------------------1399
7.11 Financing Adult and Continuing Education (ACE) -----------------------------------1455
7.12 Financing Technical, Industrial, Vocational, Entrepreneurship and Training -----1522
7.13 Financing of University Education and Training --------------------------------------1578
7.14 Summaries of Overall Costs: 2011-2015---------------------------------------------- 15769

iii

CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE OF EDUCATION
AND TRAINING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 171
8.1
Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17171
8.2 Situational analysis on Governance in the Education Sector ----------------------- 17575
CHAPTER NINE
9.0 HUMAN CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING------------------------1933
9.1
Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1933
9.2 Situational analysis -------------------------------------------------------------------------1933
9.3 Overview of Skills and Competences ---------------------------------------------------1966
9.4 Issues/Challenges in Human Capacity---------------------------------------------------1977
9.5 General Recommendations/Proposals for Human Capacity Development --------1988
CHAPTER TEN
10.0 MENTORING AND MOULDNG TO NURTURE NATIONAL VALUES --- 200200
10.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20000
10.2 Current Status -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 203
10.3 204 Issues and Challenges -----------------------------------------------------------------2044
10.4 Recommendations --------------------------------------------------------------------------2055
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT----------------------------------------------------- 208
11.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2088
11.2 Importance of Research in Education ---------------------------------------------------2088
11.3 Current Status of Research in Education and Training in Kenya -------------------2099
11.4 Issues and Challenges ---------------------------------------------------------------------2122
11.5 Recommendations --------------------------------------------------------------------------2133
CHAPTER TWELVE
12.0 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION ------------------------------------2166
12.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2166
12.2 Current Status -------------------------------------------------------------------------------2166
12.3 Challenges and Findings -------------------------------------------------------------------2188
12.4 ST&I Infrastructure ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 22020
12.5 Recommendations ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 22121
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
13.0 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ) IN
EDUCATION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 227
13.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 227
13.2 Situational Analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 228
13.3 Issues andChallenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 229
13.4 Recommendations --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 230
13.5 Recommended Actions --------------------------------------------------------------------- 231
13.6 Expected Outputs---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 235

iv

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14.0 OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING IN EDUCATION ------------------------------ 236
14.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 236
14.2 Current Status--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 236
14.3 Issues and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 237
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
15.0 TEACHER EDUCATION AND MANAGEMENT ------------------------------------- 240
15.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 240
15.2 Situational analysis -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 241
15.3 Issues and Challenges in Teacher Education -------------------------------------------- 244
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
16.0 PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP AND SPONSORSHIP IN EDUCATION
AND TRAINING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 247
16.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 247
16.2 Developments Partners ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 247
16.3 Private Investors in Education and Training --------------------------------------------- 251
16.4 Sponsored Schools---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 255
16.5 General Recommendations ------------------------------------------------------------------ 258
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
17.0 REGULATORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK --------------------------------------- 261
17.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 261
17.2 Situational analysis-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 262
17.3 Policy Documents --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 263
17.4 Purpose of Regulation ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 263
17.5 Government Ministries with Regulatory Functions in Education -------------------- 264
17.6 MOE Directorates with Regulatory Functions ------------------------------------------ 267
17.7 Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies with Regulatory Functions -------------- 269
17.8 The Legal Framework Governing Education in Kenya -------------------------------- 275
17.9 Statutes Touching on Education and Training ------------------------------------------ 278
17.10 Children Act, Act No.8 of 2001 ----------------------------------------------------------- 279
17.11 The Persons with Disabilities Act (Act No. 14) of 2003 ------------------------------ 280
17.12 Borstal Institutions Act, Cap. 92 ---------------------------------------------------------- 281
17.13 The Prisons Act, Cap. 90 ------------------------------------------------------------------- 281
17.14 The National Youth Service Act, Cap. 208---------------------------------------------- 281
17.15 The Industrial Training Act, Cap. 237 --------------------------------------------------- 281
17.16 Board of Adult Education Act, Cap. 233, Revised 1967 ----------------------------- 281
17.17 Universities Act, Cap. 210B -------------------------------------------------------------- 282
17.18 Issues and Challenges ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 282
17.19 Major findings and issues from the cluster hearings, submissions and literature - 284
17.21 The Proposed Bill --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 286

v

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
18.0 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION -------- 291
18.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 288
18.2 Recommendations ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 288

vi

List of Tables
Table 1.1:
Enrolment at ECDE level ------------------------------------------------------------14
Table 3.1: The Current Education Structure ----------------------------------------------------29
Table 3.2: International Comparative Analysis of Structures -------------------------------31
Table 4.1: The number of institutions for the period 2006 to 2010 -------------------------58
Table 4.2 (a): Primary Enrolments by gender for selected years -------------------------------59
Table 4.2 (b): Secondary Students Enrolments by gender for selected years -----------------60
Table 4.3: University Enrolments by gender: 2006 to 2010 (All programmes) ----------64
Table 7.1: Education Expenditure, 2005/6 to 2009/10 ------------------------------------- 105
Table 7.2: Public Education Expenditure 2005/6 to 2009/10 ----------------------------- 106
Table 7.3: Unit Public Spending by Level, 2005 to 2008 (Kshs.) ------------------------ 107
Table 7.4: Benefit Incidence of Public Spending on Education (%) --------------------- 110
Table 7.5:
School Age Projections 2009 to 2015 (Millions) ------------------------------ 111
Table 7.6: Distributions of Primary Teachers by Qualification, 2003-2007 ------------- 114
Table 7.7: Distributions of Secondary Teachers by Qualification, 2003-2007 ---------- 116
Table 7.8: Enrolments in Teacher Training and Diploma Colleges by Gender --------- 117
Table 7.9: Proposed ECDE Annual Capitation Grants, 2011 ----------------------------- 128
Table 7.10: Components funded under the 2003 FPE Programme ------------------------ 130
Table 7.11: Current and Proposed Per Capita Annual Grants (Ksh.) --------------------- 131
Table 7.12: Current and Proposed Level of Capitation (Ksh.)------------------------------ 136
Table 7.13: Proposed Unit Cost for SNE by Category of Disabilities per Year --------- 142
Table 7.14: Adult Education Centres per Province 2003 – 2010 --------------------------- 146
Table 7.15: Trend in Learners‘ enrolment from 2000 to 2010 ----------------------------- 148
Table 7.16: Number of Full-time Adult Education Teachers by gender and province -- 149
Table 7.17: Number of Part-time Adult Education Teachers by gender and province - 150
Table 7.18 University and Module 1 University Enrolments, 1994 - 1998 -------------- 159
Table 7.19: Summary of Cost Projections ----------------------------------------------------- 169
Table 13.1: Projected Costs for Implementation (Million Ksh.) 2010- 2015 ------------ 235
Table 15.1: Levels of Teacher Education in Kenya ------------------------------------------ 241
Table 15.2: Primary Teacher Training College Enrolment --------------------------------- 243
Table 16.1: Some Development Partners who have participated PET -------------------- 248
Table 16.2 (a): Number of Private Schools compared to Public Schools - 2004 - 2010 -- 251
Table 16.2 (b): Enrolments in Public and Private Schools (2004 - 2010) ------------------- 252
Table 16.2 (c): Enrolment of Private Training and Diploma Colleges ---------------------- 252
Table 16.3: Number of Universities per Category ------------------------------------------ 253
Table 6.9:
M1 University Enrolments, 1994 – 2008 and Estimates through 2015 ---- 306

vii

List of Figures
Figure 1.1:
Figure 1.2:
Figure 1.3:
Figure 3.1:
Figure 5.1:
Figure 6.1:
Figure 7.1:
Figure 8.1:
Figure 8.2

Primary School Level Enrolment Trends 2004 - 2010 --------------------------15
Primary completion rate (PCR) and primary to secondary transition rate ---17
Secondary Schools Gross Enrolment Rate (GER and (NER)……………. ..18
Recommended Structure of Education and Training ----------------------------40
Framework for understanding Educational Quality -----------------------------89
Assessments of Learning Achievement Across the System -------------------95
Enhanced Role of Higher Education Loans Board ---------------------------- 166
Proposed MOE Organogram ------------------------------------------------------ 190
Proposed County Education Organogram -------------------------------------- 192

Appendices
Appendix I:
Appendix II:
Appendix III:
Appendix IV:

Curriculum content for the various stages of Basic Education ------------- 291
Presentations From Various Stakeholders ------------------------------------- 294
List of Policy Documents -------------------------------------------------------- 303
University and University M1 University Enrolments ---------------------- 306

viii

PRELIMINARIES

THE TASK FORCE ON THE RE-ALIGNMENT OF THE EDUCATION
SECTOR TO THE NEW CONSTITUTION

31st January, 2012
Hon. Amb. Prof. Sam K. Ongeri, MP, EGH
Minister for Education
P.O. Box 30040
NAIROBI
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
We, the members of the Task Force on Realignment of the Education Sector to the new
Constitution were appointed by you, under Gazette Notice No. 1063 of 28th January, 2011.
The Task Force was launched on 2nd February, 2011 and started work on the same day.
We were mandated, under our Terms of Reference, to realign the education sector with the
Constitution 2010 and Vision 2030. The Task Force was also mandated to review the
necessary literature, consult the stakeholders and receive submissions/memoranda and make
recommendations to guide education and training along the lines of both blueprints Constitution 2010 and Vision 2030.
The Task Force started by interpreting the Terms of Reference, which informed the formation
of four (4) broad thematic working committees. The main themes were developed into
distinctive chapters in this Report. The Task Force reviewed the Acts and policies governing
Education and Training as well as Research, Science, Technology and Innovation. Based at
the Kenya Institute of Education, the Task Force undertook extensive consultations with
various key stakeholders across the country – including major educational institutions and
Counties. The Internet was used to access information and data on international policies and
perspectives on education, training and research. Several country models were explored to
inform our analysis.
Following the review and consultative process, the Task Force prepared a Report on the
findings and recommendations. From the Report, a draft Policy Document was prepared. The
Bills proposing a legal framework will be submitted for review and discussion by you, the
Permanent Secretary and senior officials of the Ministry of Education. They will also be
reviewed by a National Stakeholders‘ Conference. The Bills will also be reviewed by the
Parliamentary Committee on Education and draftsmen from the Attorney General‘s
Chambers (State Law Office) in consultation with the Task Force.

ix

The Task Force Report addresses mainly the issues of access, relevance, quality, retention,
transition, equity, governance and management, in the light of the devolved governments to
the County.
Honourable Minister, we have the pleasure to present to you our Report and to sincerely
thank you for the honour and privilege given to us to serve our country, Kenya.

Yours sincerely,
1.

Prof. Douglas Odhiambo, EBS

-

Chairman--------------------------------------------

2.

Dr. Peter N. Keiyoro

-

Vice Chairman--------------------------------------

3.

Mr. Samuel Sawa Maneno, OGW

-

Member----------------------------------------------

4.

Mr. Joel Kumoi Ole Leshao

-

Member----------------------------------------------

5.

Prof. Wangari Mwai

-

Member----------------------------------------------

6.

Prof. Ben Murumbi Sihanya

-

Member----------------------------------------------

7.

Mr. Philip Ochieng, OBS

-

Member----------------------------------------------

8.

Mr. Cleopas Tirop

-

Member----------------------------------------------

9.

Mr. Terry Childs

-

Member----------------------------------------------

10.

Mr. Abdallah Mohamed Kamwana

-

Member----------------------------------------------

11.

Bishop Maurice Crowley

-

Member----------------------------------------------

12.

Mr. Joseph Karuga

-

Member----------------------------------------------

13.

Ms Vane Nyaboke Akama

-

Member----------------------------------------------

14.

Hon. Lady Justice Njoki Ndung‘u

-

Member----------------------------------------------

x

15.

Mrs. Maureen Onyango

-

Member----------------------------------------------

16.

Rev. Samuel Njoroge

-

Member----------------------------------------------

17.

Ms Jennifer Kimani, MBS

-

Member----------------------------------------------

18.

Dr. Grace Cheserek, PhD

-

Member----------------------------------------------

19.

Mr. Dima Dima Wilson

-

Member----------------------------------------------

20.

Mr. Donald Kaniaru

-

Member----------------------------------------------

21.

Mr. Paul M. Nyambala

-

Member----------------------------------------------

22.

Dr. Gituro Wainaina

-

Member----------------------------------------------

23.

Mr. Andiwo Obondoh

-

Member----------------------------------------------

24.

Prof. James Legilisho Ole Kiyiapi, -

Ex-officio Member---------------------------------

CBS
25.

Prof. George I. Godia, EBS

-


26.

Mr. Paul Wasanga

-


27.

Mr. Gabriel Lengoiboni, MBS

-


28.

Mrs. Lydia Nzomo, OGW

-


29.

Mr. John Kabui Mwai

-


30.

Mrs. Nancy Karimi, MBS

-


31.

Mr. Moses Nthurima

-


xi

32.

Mr. Musau Ndunda

-


33.

Mrs. Rebecca Tonkei

-


34.

Mr. Nathan W. Baraza

-


35.

Prof. Harry Kaane

-


36.

Mrs. Judith Okungu

-

Joint Secretary-------------------------------------

37.

Mr. Isaac Kamande

-

Joint Secretary-------------------------------------

38.

Mr. Kimathi M‘Nkanata

-

Joint Secretary-------------------------------------

xii

Acknowledgement

The Task Force appreciates the support and cooperation of the Minister, Permanent Secretary
and Oversight Committee of the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education provided
working facilities at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) and the staff to support and
facilitate the work of the Task Force.
We are grateful to the Ministry of Education Senior Management, Provincial Directors of
Education and District Education Officers who organized National and County Cluster
Consultative meetings. We wish to acknowledge the technical assistance provided by CIDA,
USAID and UNICEF through the contracting of lead Education Consultants. We also wish to
appreciate input from all the stakeholders who participated in person or through submission
of Memoranda.
Lastly, the Task Force acknowledges the contribution of the following for the able
representation of their Institutions:
1. Ms. Stella Ruto

-

Teachers Service Commission

2. Mr. Francis W. Njagi

-

Kenya Institute of Education

3. Mr. Maundu Matenzawa -

Kenya National Examinations Council

The Task Force especially appreciates the members of the Secretariat. Their commitment and
support immensely facilitated the work of the Task Force.
The members of the Secretariat were:
1.

Mr. Kimathi M‘Nkanata

2.

Mr. Patrick S. Khaemba, HSC

3.

Mr. Elijah K. Mungai

4.

Ms Jane Wanza Mumo

5.

Mrs. Ralia Mohammed

6.

Mr. Joel Otini

7.

Dr. Fredrick Kamunde

8.

Dr. Thaddeus Rugah

9.

Ms Virginia Kioi
xiii

10. Ms Esther Ndung‘u
11. Mr. Daniel N. Kihungi
12. Mrs. Gladys Mwanyika
13. Mr. Cosmas Kasera
14. Mr. Caleb Towett
15. Mr. John Gichamba
16. Ms Mary Owino

xiv

Abbreviations and Acronyms
AA

Associate Assessors

ABE

Adult and Basic Education

ABET

Adult Basic Education and Training

ACCA

Association of Chartered Certified Accountants

ACE

Adult and Continuing Education

AiA

Appropriation in Aid

AIDS

Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome

AL

Adult Literacy

APBE & T

Alternative Provision for Basic Education and Training

ASALs

Arid and Semi-Arid Lands

ASET

Adult Secondary Education and Training

BOGs

Board of Governors

BOM

Board of Management

BOT

Board of Trustees

CATs

Course Assessment Tests

CBO

Community Based Organization

CDE

County Director of Education

CDEs

County Directors of Education

CDF

Constituency Development Fund

CEB

County Education Board

CEMASTEA

Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology in East Africa

CEO

County Education Officer

CEO

Chief Executive Officer

CHE

Commission for Higher Education

COPC

Community Outreach Programme Certificate

COP

Community Outreach Programme

CICTIE

Centre for ICT Integration in Education

CPA (K)

Certified Public Accountant - Kenya

CPD

Continuous Professional Development

CPE

Continuous Professional Education
xv

CPS (K)

Certified Public Secretaries - Kenya

CPU

Central Planning Unit

CRC

Convention on the Rights of the Child

DACE

Director of Adult & Continuing Education

DBE

Director of Basic Education

DE

Distance Education

DEB

District Education Board

DEMIS

District Education Management Information Systems

DEOs

District Education Officers

DFOS

Director of Field & Other Services

DG

Director General

DGE

Director General of Education

DHE

Directorate of Higher Education

DHRM

Director of Human Resource Management

DIS

Directorate of Inspection Services

DPP&EACA

Director of Policy, Partnerships & East African Community Affairs

DQAS

Director of Quality Assurance & Standards

DRD

Directorate of Research and Development

DRMD

Department of Research Management and Development

DSTE

Director of Secondary & Tertiary Education

DTE

Diploma Teacher Education

EAC

East African Community

EARCs

Education Assessment Resource Centres

ECDE

Early Childhood Development Education

EdRIC

Education Reforms Implementation Committee

EFA

Education For All

EMIS

Education Management Information System

ERS

Economic Recovery Strategy

ESQAC

Education Standards and Quality Assurance Commission

FBO

Faith Based Organization

FDSE

Free Day Secondary Education
xvi

FPE

Free Primary Education

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GER

Gross Enrolment Rate

GoK

Government of Kenya

GPI

Gender Parity Index

HELB

Higher Education Loans Board

HIV

Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus

HRD

Human Resource Development

HRM

Human Resource Management

HTELB

Higher and Tertiary Education Loans Board

IB

International Baccalaureate

ICT

Information Communication Technology

IGCSE

International General Certificate of Secondary Education

ILO

International Labour Organisation

INSET

In-Service Education and Training

IT

Information Technology

IoT

Institute of Technology

JAB

Joint Admissions Board

JKF

Jomo Kenyatta Foundation

KASNEB

Kenya Accountants and Secretaries National Examinations Board

KCPE

Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

KCSE

Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education

KEAC

Kenya Education Assessment Council

KEMI

Kenya Education Management Institute

KEPSA

Kenya Private Sector Alliance

KESI

Kenya Education Staff Institute

KESSP

Kenya Education Sector Support Programme

KIHBS

Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey

KICD

Kenya Institute for Curriculum Development

KIE

Kenya Institute of Education

KIPO

Kenya Intellectual Property Organization
xvii

KISE

Kenya Institute of Special Education

KISNE

Kenya Institute of Special Needs Education

KJSEC

Kenya Junior Secondary Education Certificate

KLB

Kenya Literature Bureau

KNALS

Kenya National Adult Literacy Survey

KNATCOM

Kenya National Commission on UNESCO

KNEC

Kenya National Examinations Council

KNIS

Kenya National Innovation System

KPEC

Kenya Primary Education Certificate

KPSA

Kenya Primary Scholastic Assessment

KSSEC

Kenya Senior Secondary Examination Certificate

LATF

Local Authority Transfer Fund

LIN

Learners Identification Number

LRCs

Learning Resource Centres

MDGs

Millennium Development Goals

MDTIs

Multi-Purpose Development Training Institutes

MLIs

Middle Level Institutes

M&E

Monitoring and Evaluation

MoE

Ministry of Education

MoH

Ministry of Health

MoHEST

Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology

MVC

Most Vulnerable Children

NAC

National Assessment Centre

NACICTIE

National Centre for ICT Integration in Education

NACONEK

National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya

NAS

National Assessment System

NCEOP

National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies

NCRI

National Council for Research and Innovation

NCRST

National Council for Research, Science and Technology

NCST

National Council for Science and Technology

NEB

National Education Board
xviii

NEPAD

New Partnership for Africa‘s Development

NERs

Net Enrolment Rates

NESC

National Economic and Social Council

NESIP

National Education Sector Investment Programme

NFE

Non-Formal Education

NFECs

Non-Formal Education Centres

NFS

Non-Formal Schools

NGOs

Non Governmental Organizations

NPs

National Polytechnics

NQF

National Qualification Framework

ODL

Open and Distance Learning

OVC

Orphans and Vulnerable Children

PACSTI

Presidential Advisory Commission on Science, Technology and
Innovation

PC

Performance Contracting

PCRs

Primary Completion Rates

PDEs

Provincial Directors of Education

PECC

Peer Education and Counselling Clubs

PMF

Performance Management Framework

POSTI

Parliamentary Office for Science, Technology and Innovation

PPP

Public Private Partnerships

PS

Principal Secretary

PSC

Public Service Commission

PTA

Parents Teachers Association

PTR

Pupil Teacher Ratio

PWDs

Persons With Disabilities

QAS

Quality Assurance and Standards

SAGAs

Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies

SCECs

Sub-County Education Committees

SCEO

Sub-County Education Officer

SCs

Student Councils

SEBF

Secondary Education Bursary Fund
xix

SEPU

School Equipment Production Unit

SMCs

School Management Committees

SNE

Special Needs Education

SRT

Science Research and Technology

STDs

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

ST & I

Science Technology and Innovation

SWAP

Sector Wide Approach to Planning

TCAE

Teacher Certificate in Adult Education

TEP

Technical Education Programme

TIVET

Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training

TORs

Terms of Reference

TPR

Teacher Pupil Ratio

TSC


TTCs

Teacher Training Colleges

TTIs

Technical Training Institutes

UFGC

University Funding and Grants Council

UN

United Nations

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UPE

Universal Primary Education

WEO

Ward Education Officer

YMCA

Young Men‘s Christian Association

xx

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.1 Introduction
The Government of Kenya is committed to the provision of quality education and training to
its citizens at all levels. The ongoing Free Primary Education, Free Day Secondary
Education, and bursaries and loans provided through the Higher Education Loans Board bear
testimony to this fact. The Social Pillar in the Vision 2030 singles out education and training
as the vehicle that will drive Kenya into becoming a middle-income economy. In addition,
the Constitution, 2010 has provided for Free and Compulsory Basic Education as a human
right to every Kenyan child. The country is therefore obliged to align education and training
to the demands of the two documents. This means reviewing all aspects of the education
system to make it responsive to the new realities.

The Education Sector is responsible for the provision and co-ordination of education,
training, research, education policy formulation and implementation and quality assurance at
all levels of learning. The sector is presently managed by two Ministries, namely, the
Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. This
Task Force was officially launched on 2nd February 2011 by the Minister for Education to
review and align the education and training sector to the Constitution 2010 and Vision 2030.

In view of this, the Task Force acknowledges that to be globally competitive and
economically viable, Kenya requires an education system that is responsive to the national
goals and aspirations of Kenyans. It was against this background that the Task Force
embarked on a rigorous exercise to position education and training accordingly at the county,
national, regional and global levels.

2.0 Approach and Methodology
2.1 Task Force
In carrying out its mandate, the Task Force reviewed the education system to align it to the
Constitution, 2010, and Vision 2030, and proposed strategies to address policy, content and
governance issues. Key challenges related to access, quality, equity, relevance, wastage and
efficiency have been addressed. Information, Communication Technology (ICT) has been
strengthened hand in hand with Research, Science, Technology and Innovation to facilitate
xxi

the realisation of Vision 2030. In addition, Mentoring and Moulding have been positioned to
enhance national values as per the Constitution, 2010. Monitoring and Evaluation are further
strengthened at all levels to ensure that standards and quality are maintained. Finally, a legal
framework for the entire education sector is proposed.

To achieve its objectives efficiently, the Task Force created four technical committees to
focus on the following broad areas:
(a) Finance, investment and resource mobilization
(b) Institutional management, governance, curriculum review and human resource capacity.
(c) Standards,

Quality

Assurance,

Monitoring

and

Evaluation;

Information

and

Communication Technology; Research, Science, Technology and Innovation; National
Assessment System and National Qualification Framework.
(d) Regulatory and Legal Framework on Education.

2.2 Analysis and Review of Key Documents
The Task force undertook a detailed situational analysis of the education sector by:
(a) Reviewing the Education Act, various commission reports, other relevant policy and
legal documents;
(b) Benchmarking with good practices from countries with national and county
governments:
(c) Receiving submissions by various stakeholders;
(d) Holding county cluster stakeholder consultation forums; and
(e) Analysis of memoranda submitted to the Task Force.

2.3 Vision and Mission
The Task Force was guided by the Ministry‘s Vision, which calls for the provision of quality
education and training to all Kenyans as fundamental to the success of the Government‘s
overall

development

strategy.

It

anticipates

that

learners

who

have

embraced

entrepreneurship are able to engage in lifelong learning, learn new things quickly, solve more
complex problems and assume more responsibility.
The Vision, therefore, remains ―To have a globally competitive quality education, training
and research for Kenya’s sustainable development‖
xxii

The Mission will be, ―To promote, provide and coordinate quality, equitable and lifelong
education and training for national development‖

2.4 Findings
A number of challenges, gaps and concerns emerged, all raising this pertinent question: ―Is
the Kenyan Education System and its institutions and programmes fit for the purpose?‖
Specific issues were identified related to the following:
(a)

Relevance with regard to content and delivery;

(b)

Sufficient flexibility to adapt to the changing socio-economic needs;

(c)

Quality enough to match global competitiveness and to address challenges in the 21st
century;

(d)

Effective governance and management;

(e)

Retention and transition rates at various levels;

(f)

Teacher education, management and attrition;

(g)

Effective structure;

(h)

Standards and Quality Assurance; Monitoring and Evaluation;

(i)

Access especially to the vulnerable for example, children with disabilities, refugees and
internally displaced children, orphans, children affected and infected by HIV AND
AIDS or alcohol and drug abuse and those from marginalised communities; and

(j)

Sufficiently flexible and responsive regulatory framework to be able to deal with the
current and emerging challenges and ensure total access, equity and quality.

3.0 Structure of Education, Curriculum and Assessment
3.1 The Task Force noted that the current system of education, curriculum and assessment
does not include Early Childhood Development and Education. In addition, the quality of
education is not clearly spelt out so that the curriculum delivery can focus on development of
specific expected competences to be assessed. In view of this, the Task Force found it
necessary to recommend a more flexible and comprehensive structure for Kenya‘s Education
System and Curriculum Reform to specify the expected competences at every level of
learning. The recommended structure is 2 years of Pre-primary, 6 years of Primary (3 years
lower and 3 years upper), 6 years Secondary (3 years junior and 3 years senior), 2 years
minimum of Middle level Colleges and 3 years minimum University education. As a whole
xxiii

this structure will have two cycles; Basic Education cycle of 14 years which is free and
compulsory, and a Higher Education cycle.

3.2 The rationale for the revised structure is to:
(i) Ensure learners acquire competences and skills that will enable them to meet the human
resource aspirations of Vision 2030 by offering a choice of subject pathways at the end
of the Elementary School phase.
(ii) Ensure the attainment of 100% transition rate from primary to secondary, thereby
reducing wastage by introducing automatic progression to the junior secondary phase
based on the acquisition of core skills and competences (literacy, numeracy and
communication skills).
(iii) Focus on early identification and nurturing of talent in individual learners at the end of
the junior secondary phase. In so doing it provides flexibility and allows learners to
pursue areas of specialist interest in their learning.
(iv) Allow for specialization at the end of junior secondary.
(v) Introduce a system of Competence Assessment Tests (CATS) measuring knowledge,
skills and competences, the results of which will be cumulative and form part of a
formative assessment process, the credits from which will be accumulated in the
summative assessment at the end of each phase. This is distinct from the present situation
where students either pass or fail and exit the system.
(vi) Fit more naturally into the child‘s maturation cycle, especially for girls.

The submissions to the Task Force strongly recommended a change of structure to make it
more flexible and allow for a number of exit and entry points aligned with international best
practice.

School calendar and term dates
It is recommended that the school year be divided into three terms of three months each as
follows: Term I - September to November, Term II - January to March, Term III - May to
July. The Task Force noted that the months of July and August have minimal public holidays
allowing for ample time for management of examinations.

xxiv

3.4 Curriculum
Aligning the curriculum to address the aspirations of the Constitution, Vision 2030 and the
East African Community treaty is a priority. The content for basic education should therefore
be designed with a view of equipping the learners with relevant knowledge that emphasizes
on technology, innovation and entrepreneurship (Vision 2030), the development of their full
capacities, living and working in dignity, enhancing the quality of their lives, making
informed decisions and continuing with learning as a lifelong engagement.

3.5 The Task Force recommends a major reform of the curriculum to:
(a) Align it with the Constitution and to ensure that the aspirations of Vision 2030 are met.
(b) Structure the curriculum within a skills and competences framework that identifies the
knowledge, skills and competences all learners will acquire, and which will provide both
vertical and horizontal coherence.
(c) Develop a progressive assessment framework that identifies the knowledge, skills and
competences that will be assessed for each level (Senior Secondary, Junior Secondary,
Upper Primary and Lower Primary).
(d) The Task Force recommends revision of the curriculum and textbooks to ensure skills
and competences are emphasized as proposed.

3.6 Assessment and Evaluation
The following issues and recommendations came up regarding assessment and evaluation:
(a) That the current summative assessment at the end of every cycle does not measure
learners‘ abilities. School-based assessments need to be strengthened so that regular and
cumulative assessment in the form of Competence Assessment Tests (CATs) is put in
place.
(b) The current education system is examination based. The assessment has little regard to
moulding good citizens and for self-reliance. There is need, therefore, to introduce
competency-based assessment in line with a competency based curriculum. Revision of
curriculum and textbooks is proposed to ensure skills and competences are emphasized.
(c) Assessment is not seen as part of the teaching and learning process but as a sieve to
determine those who can move to higher education where the limited available space
dictates the teaching/learning process towards examinations as opposed to competences
applicable to life.
xxv

(d) Achievement at Kenya Primary Education Certificate (KPEC) level and Kenya Junior
Secondary Education Certificate (KJSEC) will be considered in Senior Secondary
School admission and streaming.
(e) Schools will be ranked based on holistic assessment on performance indicators built
around the following areas: academic, co-curricular activities, quality of management,
operations and maintenance of physical facilities, environmental care, learners‘ services
and community outreach programmes. The Cabinet Secretary will give a report on these
indicators during a national education day. The process should start from institutions
through the county to the national level.
Competency Assessment Tests (CATs) by teachers are to be supported with a national
framework/guidelines or test-bank by KEAC to be made available online on a regular basis.
These will make the CATs standard and de-emphasize the many private examination papers
being sold all over the country. Management and administration of examinations leave room
for malpractices.

The Task Force recommends that KNEC is renamed the Kenya Educational Assessment
Council (KEAC) and strengthened to address all matters related to management and
administration of assessments in the country.

5.0 Access, Relevance, Equity and Quality Education
Access, equity, quality and relevance are fundamental characteristics that define and drive
systems of education and training. In the design and implementation of education and training
systems, governments worldwide pay special attention to the four characteristics. Although
the Kenya Government has vigorously expanded access to quality and relevant system of
education and training which also offers equal opportunity to all, there are still many
challenges.
The Task Force recommends the following:
(a) Expand access to education at all levels.
(b) Undertake major curriculum reviews.
(c) Abolish all school levies which discriminate against poor households.
(d) Review capitation grants to be in line with inflationary trends.
(e) Establish a National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya (NACONEK).
xxvi

6.0 Standards and Quality Assurance
Whilst enrolment rates at primary and secondary levels have increased, learning
achievements are declining. The application of standards and quality assurance measures are
not comprehensive enough. Minimum quality standards are not achieved as schools are not
regularly inspected and therefore teachers and school management in general are not held
into account for the declining educational achievements in the country.

6.1 The Task Force recommends that:
Given the current state of the education sector and the central role that Standards and Quality
Assurance plays in the provision of education, the Task Force recommends:
(a) A semi-autonomous Education Standards and Quality Assurance Commission (ESQAC)
be established and reporting to the Cabinet Secretary. It will be the national custodian of
standards and quality in education and it will hold to account all service providers across
the education sector.
(b) The Commission for Higher Education (CHE) assumes responsibility for Standards and
Quality Assurance across all universities and other institutions of higher learning.

7.0 National Accreditation and Assessment System
The Task Force recommends:
(a) The National Assessment Centre be adequately funded to facilitate effective
administration of necessary studies and learning achievement tracking. In addition, an
effective mechanism for dissemination and implementation of findings be developed.
(b) The National Assessment Centre needs to be institutionalised, aligned with the new
structure of education and capacitated to manage and administer National Summative
Assessment for each cycle.
(c) A review of the KNEC Act and other related Acts to address current and future
challenges in examination administration and other issues regarding governance of
examinations including the marking exercise.
(d) Assessments that are diagnostic in nature should be enhanced to effectively evaluate
learner achievements at all levels of education.
(e) The Universities to focus on degree and postgraduate courses and avoid certificate
courses.
xxvii

7.1 National Qualification Framework (NQF)
The Task Force proposes the setting up of a National Qualification Framework for
determining and assessing the level of achievement and competences of learners who have
gone through different learning systems or different education structures. In order to achieve
this, a National Qualification Authority (NQA) should be established by law.

The system shall set standards and benchmarks to be used to assess learner achievements
comparatively. These benchmarks are then used to compare the achievements of a learner or
the grade the learner is to be placed within the education systems and in the world of work.

8.0 Financing, Investment and Resource Mobilization
The Task Force recommends that:
(a) Government continues to reduce the cost of education to households through the
provision of teachers, teaching and learning materials and grants to schools to cover
operational and maintenance expenses under the Free Primary education (FPE) and Free
Day Secondary Education (FDSE) policy.
(b) Capitation grants be allocated to learners in ECDE, primary, secondary, special needs
education, adult education and not-for-profit non-formal schools that meet set criteria.
(c) Bring TIVET into mainstream education so that the students can benefit from
mainstream financing and enhanced skills development.
(d) Diversify and institutionalise university education funding sources to include
government (grants, education bond and loans), private sector, development partners,
scholarships, bursaries, financial institutions, income generating activities and
philanthropy.
(e) Encourage local, regional and international public private partnerships in financing
education.
(f) Invest in teacher professional development.

Institutional Management and Governance of Education and Training
The Task Force identified challenges at three levels, namely: national, county and
institutional management. The Task Force thus recommends:

xxviii

(a) Improved

coordination,

accountability

and

increased

community/stakeholder

participation in planning, implementation, management and governance of education at
all levels.
(b) The Education Sector be headed by the Cabinet Secretary who will be supported by the
Principal Secretary (PS) who is the Accounting Officer.
(c) There be a Director General of Education who will be the chief technical advisor (or
head of technical functions) to the Ministry and answerable to the PS.
(d) There be the following directorates within which all the functions of the Ministry shall be
distributed, namely:
(i)

Policy and Planning

(ii)

Partnerships and Private Educational Institutions

(iii) Research and Development
(iv) Higher Education and Teacher Education
(v)

Basic Education, Adult and Continuing Education

(vi) TIVET
(vii) Field and Co-curricular Services
(viii) Administration, Finance and Support Services.

Alongside the eight directorates, there will be Support functions or auxiliary service
departments reporting directly to the PS. These will be Central Planning, Legal, Human
Resource, Administration, Finance, Internal Audit and Accounts; all headed by officers at the
rank of deputy directors and operating as small, independent units. Functions of these
divisions or departments will be derived from the office of the Principal Secretary. A
Technical Education Reform Secretariat will fast track reforms arising from the Task Force
recommendations.

The broad functions of the Ministry will include regulation, coordination, policy, planning,
partnerships and curriculum oversight. The mandate of the proposed National Education
Board (NEB) will be to advise the Cabinet Secretary on all matters concerning education in
the country.

9.1 County Level
xxix

(a) County Education Boards (CEB) are established.
(b) Functions and membership of County Education Board (CEB) be defined.
(c) The post of County Directors of Education (CDEs) should be established.

10.0 Human Capacity Development in Education and Training
With regard to human capacity development the Task Force observed that the Ministry is
currently heavily understaffed in terms of the technical cadre staff as it operates at less than
half of the establishment. This shortfall is compounded by the increasing administrative
structures (districts) in the recent past.

(a) That a clear human resource policy be developed to adequately address staff matters
related to terms and conditions of service including recruitment, capacity building,
promotion, deployment and redeployment in all cadres. This will enhance staff retention
and boost the morale and motivation of staff. Senior staff at National and County levels
should be competitively sourced.
(b) TIVET institutions be strengthened in terms of infrastructure with clear guidelines on
their staff development.

11.0 Mentorship and Moulding to nurture national values
11.1 The Task Force noted that despite the importance of mentorship and moulding in the
education sector, obvious gaps remain apparent. In particular, it is not clear where the
responsibility lies among education stakeholders and those assigned have not put in place an
effective programme. There is no clear policy or guidelines on mentorship by the government
save for what takes place under guidance and counselling, which is not comprehensive
enough.

(a) Proper positioning of mentoring and moulding at all levels with a clear policy and
legislation be in place.
(b) Partnership and collaboration with the relevant stakeholders including parents and local
communities be encouraged.
(c) National values be mainstreamed in the curriculum.
xxx

(d) Institutional managers and teachers be provided with necessary resources to deal with
emerging issues such as emerging health issues, substance abuse, violence and national
values and cohesion.

12.0 Research, Education and Training
12.1 The Task Force observes that research is ‗mystified‘ and remains a preserve of few
Ministries and/or academic institutions - like universities where it is mainly at postgraduate
level. Funding for research programmes remains very low. It is not a priority and therefore
remains lowly resourced in terms of finances, material and human resources. Social research
is yet to be recognised as a planning and management tool in education and other sectors of
development.

(a) Research be cascaded to lower levels including ECDE levels, to encourage critical,
independent and investigative thinking among young learners.
(b) Research be institutionalised by teaching basic research skills among teachers in TTCs
and other tertiary institutions including the universities; and formation of strong research
clubs/groups.
(c) Research be introduced as a discipline (curriculum) and as a management tool at all
levels, both national and county.
(d) Development of a clear policy and legal framework that guides the development of
research be undertaken.
(e) More resources - Financial, human and infrastructure be allocated for research - at least
not less than 1% of the country‘s GDP in line with international standards.

12.2 Science, Technology and Innovation
Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) are key and critical in the achievement of
Kenya‘s Vision 2030. The Task Force identified challenges that need to be addressed to
facilitate activities that are suitable for the delivery of desired levels of growth and
technological advancement. Science, Technology and Innovation should be harnessed to
stimulate industrial initiatives for increased and sustained economic growth.

xxxi

(a) Adequate and well trained staff in ST&I be put in place.
(b) Curriculum is regularly reviewed to meet skills demands that are constantly changing.
(c) Technical capacities be strengthened.
(d) Intensification of innovation in priority areas be undertaken.
(e) Enhancing of Science, Technology and Innovation awareness be undertaken.

13.0 Information and Communication (ICT) in Education
13.1 The Task Force noted that only about 2% of schools in the country have the necessary
ICT infrastructure.

(a) ICT institutional framework be strengthened to allow efficient integration of ICT in the
entire education sector with enhanced ICT capacity at all levels.
(b) A National Centre for ICT Integration in Education (NACICTIE) be established as a
SAGA and be devolve to county levels.
(c) Connectivity to enhance communication among the MoE headquarters, counties and
individual institutions be enhanced.
(d) The Government provides technical backup in ICT initiatives in government learning
educational institutions.

14.0 Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Education
Open and Distance Learning is merely mentioned in the current Sessional Paper No.1 of
2005 and lacks policy framework for implementation. There is minimum use of Open and
Distance Learning approaches in Primary and Secondary schools in Kenya - even in areas
where physical and socio-economic barriers hinder access - especially among the difficult to
reach communities.

(a) In addition to the already existing initiatives in open and distance education, the
Government should facilitate the establishment of a national university dedicated to
Open and Distance Learning (ODL).
(b) A regulatory and Legal Framework for open and distance learning be developed.
xxxii

(c) The government explores the possibility of adopting distance and open learning
approaches including home schools at all levels of Kenya education and include NFE
and SNE.
(d) The capacity of teachers and educators be built to enable them acquire skills in ODL and
e-learning.
(e) Relevant materials in e-learning and ODL be developed.

15.0 Teacher Education and Management
The general consensus is that Teacher Education in Kenya has not kept pace with
developments that have occurred throughout most developed countries. A policy framework
for teacher education is lacking, while at the same time teacher education and the teaching
profession are not well defined as few teachers have a clearly defined career development
plan.

(a) Teaching and teacher education be professionalized.
(b) The government grants public universities full academic and professional responsibility
for the TTCs.
(c) The government makes Continuing Professional Development (CPD) of teachers and
teacher educators a contractual entitlement.
(d) The government outsources some of CPD and INSET provision to the public, relevant
SAGAs, TSC and the private university sector on a competitive basis.
(e) The government raises entry requirements and screen applicants for pre-service training
to enable only those seeking career in teaching to join teacher training colleges.

16.0 Public Private Partnerships
Public private partnership in education is a mutual collaboration between the government
and the private sector that could help reduce public spending, increase access, equality,
equity in the provision of education. In this case, the private sector is instrumental in
supplementing government efforts in providing services in the education sector.

xxxiii

(a) The government facilitates the creation of a revolving fund which would be accessed by
members at a lower interest rate for both short term and long term interest in education
projects.
(b) The government develops a Public Private Partnership in education policy and
entrenches it in law.p Private investors in education.
(c) The government provides adequate incentives to private investors in education so that
they are able to effectively contribute to improving access, quality, equity and relevance.
(d) The government establishes a directorate for partnerships and private educational
institutions.

17.0 Regulatory Framework
Since independence in 1963, the Government of Kenya has committed itself to providing an
education system that guarantees the right of every learner to quality and relevant education.
In an effort to provide quality education, the Government has laid down regulatory
mechanisms mainly within the Education Act Cap. 211 and other legal instruments, although
these have generally proved inadequate.

(a) There should be a single Ministry of Education.
(b) There should be an inter-ministerial committee to coordinate all the ministries and nonline departments that have a stake in the regulation of educational matters in their various
capacities.
(c) The proposed eight directorates of education be entrenched in law.
(d) Entrench students‘ councils and PTAs in law.

18.0 General Recommendations
The Task Force recommends that a committee of education experts be set up to guide the
implementation of education reforms contained in this report.

xxxiv

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 CONTEXT AND MANDATE OF THE TASK FORCE

1.1 Introduction
All major policy and strategic developments in the Education Sector have since independence
been developed through the work of successive Commissions, Committees, Working Parties
and Task Forces. Major policy interventions were the introduction of Free Primary Education
in January 2003 and Free Day Secondary Education in 2008. Thereafter, there was a national
education conference whose recommendations led to the development of Sessional Paper No.
1 of 2005, which forms the current education policy. The Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on
Education and Training has led to major reforms in the education sector. 1 These reforms have
enabled Kenya to make significant progress towards attaining the Education for All (EFA)
and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). To date, the main focus has been on improving
levels of access, retention, equity, quality, relevance, and the overall efficiency of the
education sector. Vision 2030, launched in 2008 and the new Constitution, 2010 made it
necessary to re-align the education sector.

1.2 The Task Force Mandate
The Task Force on Re-alignment of the Education Sector to the Constitution, 2010 was
mandated to review and align the education, training and research sector in accordance with
the new Constitution. It was officially launched on 2nd February 2011 by Hon. Amb. Prof.
Sam K. Ongeri, EGH, MP, Minister for Education.

1.3 Rationale
The Task Force subscribes to the view that, to be internationally competitive and
economically viable, the education system must produce a Kenyan capable of lifelong
learning and able to take the initiative to solve problems independently. The Vision 2030 is
expected to make Kenya become internationally competitive and economically viable. The
Republic, therefore, requires an education system that will produce citizens who are able to
engage in lifelong learning, learn new things quickly, perform more non-routine tasks,
capable of more complex problem-solving, take more decisions, understand more about what

1

Kamunge (2008 and 1988), Gachukia (2003 and 2007), Koech (1999), MacKay (1985), Gachathi (1976),
Ominde (1964), Education Act Cap. 211 (1968), TSC Act Cap. 212 (1966)

1

they are working on, require less supervision, assume more responsibility, and as vital tools
to these ends, have better reading, quantitative, reasoning and expository skills. Further, the
education and training sector must respond to the demands of the Constitution 2010.

1.4 Terms of Reference of the Task Force
The specific terms of reference (ToRs) of the Task Force as set out in the Gazette Notice No.
1063, of 28th January 2011 were to:
(a) Analyse the implications of the new Constitution on education, training and research for
national development.
(b) Review the education system in Kenya in relation to:
(i)

Relevance and responsiveness of the curriculum to Vision 2030;

(ii)

Access, equity, quality and transitional issues;

(iii) Structure of education system from Kindergarten to University, including tertiary
educational institutions, institutions of research, special needs education, adult
education, village polytechnics, home craft centres and child care facilities;
(iv) Investment in education, both public and private;
(v)

Institutional management or governance;

(vi) Human capacity in education at all levels;
(vii) The place of information communication technology and other technologies;
(viii) Niche markets with reference to national, regional, and international dynamics; and
(ix) Moulding and mentorship values.
(c) Undertake a situational analysis of the education sector by:
(i)

Reviewing relevant documents including commissions reports, policy papers and
legal documents; and

(ii) Reviewing best practices from countries which have national and county
governments.
(d) Undertake a needs assessment to establish gaps in relation to:
(i) Curriculum delivery process including relevance and responsiveness of the
curriculum; and
(ii)

The status of implementation of the targeted education sector interventions.

(e) Present periodic reports as and when required.
(f) Propose an appropriate educational management framework at the national, county, and
institutional levels.
(g) Review policy and legal frameworks.
2

(h) The Task Force was empowered to:
(i)

hold consultative clustered county meetings or workshops with stakeholders;

(ii)

hold a national level consultative conference of stakeholders;

(iii) co-opt local and international experts in particular areas as may be necessary;
(iv) commission studies or researches to institutions or individuals with requisite
expertise as required to undertake its tasks;
(v)

co-ordinate and consult with relevant ministries, departments and agencies in
order to access such information, documentations and studies as are relevant to
enable the Task Force execute its mandate; and

(vi) nominate an acting-chairperson from amongst the members in the absence of the
Chairperson.
(i) The Task Force was to submit to the Minister periodic drafts of the proposed legal and
policy frameworks for review, discussion and feedback on the following priority areas:
(i)

Financing of education at all levels and modalities of resource mobilisation to
ensure provision of free and compulsory Basic Education;

(ii) Regulatory frameworks for both Public and Private investors in the country;
(iii) Framework on the relationship between National and County governments and
structures in the management and implementation of education programmes;
(iv) A national strategy for institutional and human resource capacity development in
the education sector;
(v)

A national strategy for research, monitoring and evaluation, education
management information system, information and communication technology and
to redefine their role in the education sector; and

(vi) A national education qualification framework.
(j) The Final Report would contain:
(i)

A comprehensive Task Force report

(ii)

A proposed Sessional Paper

(iii) A draft Education Bill
(iv) A Cabinet Memorandum and Policy Brief.

1.5 Working Committees
To guide the review and analysis, the Task Force created the following working committees:
(a) Finance, investment and resource mobilisation.
(b) Regulatory and legal framework on education.
3

(c) Institutional management, governance, mentoring and moulding, curriculum review and
human resource capacity.
(d) Quality assurance, standards, ICT in education, Research and Development, monitoring
and evaluation.
A steering committee was formed to coordinate the work of those committees.

1.6 Interpretation of the Terms of Reference
In interpreting the ToR in the context of the provisions of the Constitution, 2010 and Vision
2030, the Task Force raised, deliberated and agreed on the following key and related
questions:
Is the Kenyan Education System, its institutions and programmes, fit for purpose?
(a)

Relevant as it should be, both with regards to structure, content and delivery?

(b)

Sufficiently flexible to adapt to the changing needs of society?

(c)

Without discrimination, physically and economically accessible to everyone, especially
the vulnerable and marginalised, persons with disabilities, refugees and internally
displaced persons, orphans, persons affected and infected by HIV AND AIDS and
alcohol and drug abuse?

(d)

Governed by a sufficiently flexible and responsive regulatory framework 2, and able to
deal with the current and emerging challenges and ensure total access, equity and
quality.

1.7 Methodology
The Task Force undertook its work through the following four stages:

1.7.1 Stage One: Analysis and Review of Key Documents
The Task Force undertook a detailed situational analysis of the education sector by:
(a) Reviewing relevant documents such as commission reports, policy papers, and legal
documents.
(b) Reviewing good practices from countries which operate National and County
Governments.
(c) Undertaking a needs assessment to establish gaps in relation to:

2

Kenya Education Act (1968)

4

(i) Curriculum delivery process; relevance and responsiveness of the curriculum (ensure
issues of spirituality, integrity, compliance to Vision 2030, citizen values, mentorship
and governance are addressed); access, equity, quality and transitional issues;
(ii) The status of implementation of the targeted education sector interventions; and
(iii) Educational infrastructure and the School Mapping Report.

1.7.2 Stage Two: Consultations
Stakeholder consultations took various forms3, and included:
(i) Conducting inclusive consultative clustered county meetings, workshops and focus
group discussions with key stakeholders;
(ii)

Meetings with specialist interest groups;

(iii) Analysis of memoranda submitted to it.

1.7.3 Stage Three: Formulation
Presenting periodic draft reports for review, discussion and feedback based on the following
priority areas:
(a) Financing of education at all levels and modalities of resource mobilization to ensure
provision of free and compulsory Basic Education;
(b) Regulatory frameworks for both Public and Private investors in the country;
(c) Developing a framework on the relationship between National and County governments
as well as other necessary structures in the management and implementation of education
programmes (including management of education at municipality level);
(d) Developing a national strategy for institutional and human resource capacity
development in the education sector;
(e) Developing a national strategy for research, quality assurance, monitoring and
evaluation, EMIS, Information and Communication Technology, to redefine their role in
the education sector; and
(f) Developing a national education qualification framework.

1.7.4 Stage Four: Finalisation of the report. Towards finalisation of the report—the
Task Force
 Engaged the Hon. Minister, the Permanent Secretary and the Oversight Committee.
3

See Appendix X for a list of persons and institutions consulted.

5

1.7.5 Stage Five: Production of the Final Outputs
This involved producing the final outputs:
(a) Comprehensive Task Force report
(b) Proposed Sessional Paper
(c) Draft Education Bill
(d) Cabinet Memorandum and Policy Brief.

1.8 The New Constitution, 2010 and its implication on the Education Sector
1.8.1 Relevant Sections of the Constitution
The new Constitution has many implications for Kenyan people‘s education, for their rights
to education and for their education services. In particular:
(i) Article 10(1) of the Constitution states that the national values and principles of
governance are binding on all State organs, State officers, public officers and all persons
whenever any of them (a) applies or interprets the Constitution; (b) enacts, applies or
interprets any law; or (c) makes or implements public policy decisions.
(ii) Article 10(2) of the Constitution sets out the national values and principles of
governance. These include inter alia, the sharing and devolution of power, the rule of
law, and the participation of the people, equity, inclusiveness, equality, human rights,
non-discrimination and the protection of the marginalised, good governance, integrity,
transparency and accountability, and sustainable development.
(iii) Article 11(2) (b) and (c) of the Constitution recognizes the role of science and
indigenous technologies in the development of the nation, and the promotion of the
intellectual property rights of the people of Kenya.
(iv) Article 12 Chapter 13 and its articles on the Public Service provides for the values and
principles of public service.
(v) Articles 20, 35, 42 and 43 of the Constitution state clearly that every person has the right
to education. If the State claims that it does not have the resources to implement the
right, a court, tribunal, or other authority shall be guided by the principle that it is the
responsibility of the State to show that the resources are not available to meet that
constitutional right. The State will give priority to factoring in access to vulnerable
groups or individuals (women, older members of society, persons with disabilities,
children, youth, members of minority or marginalised communities, and members of
particular ethnic, religious or cultural communities). Every citizen has the right of access
6

to information held by the State and information held by another person and required for
the exercise or protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The State shall publish
and publicise any important information affecting the nation.
(vi) Articles 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 and 59 of the Constitution have provisions on children‘s right
to free and compulsory Basic Education, including quality services, and to access
educational institutions and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into
society, to the extent compatible with the interests of the person. This includes the use of
sign language, braille or other appropriate means of communication, and access to
materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the person‘s disability. There
are also provisions on access for youth to relevant education and training; access to
employment; participation and representation of minorities and marginalised groups in
governance and other spheres of life, special opportunities in educational and economic
fields, and special opportunities for access to employment. The rights of minorities and
marginalized groups to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure are
also enshrined, as it is incumbent upon government to develop a culture of human rights,
promote gender equality and equity and facilitate gender mainstreaming in national
development.
(vii) Articles 62, 63 and 66 refer to public land, which will be vested in and held by both the
national/and county governments in trust for the people resident in the country, and shall
be administered on their behalf by the National Land Commission; unregistered
community land to be held in trust by county governments on behalf of the communities
for which it is held; enactment by Parliament of appropriate legislation ensuring that
investments in property benefit local communities and their economies. The articles are
relevant since educational infrastructure is constructed on public or community land.
(viii) Articles 174, 175, 176, 189 and Schedule 4 of the Constitution have provisions on
the devolution of services to county governments, ensuring equity, access, quality and
special attention to minorities and marginalised groups.
(ix) Articles 201(a), (d), and (e); 226 and 227 on Public Finance relating to transparency,
accountability, and appropriate governance of public monies.
(x) Article 237 on the Teachers Service Commission accords special status to the TSC.
(xi) Article 7 on official language and national language.
(xii) Fourth Schedule, Part 1 and Part 2. National Government—Paragraphs 5, 12, 15, 16
and 17. County Governments—Paragraphs 4 (f) (h), and 9.

7

1.8.2 Key Issues Addressed
There are three main sets of issues relating to Education in the Constitution.

1.8.3 The Bill of Rights
Chapter 4 embodies the Bill of Rights and affirms the right of all Kenyans to education.
Article 21 recognises the fundamental duty of the State and every State organ to observe,
respect, protect, promote and fulfil the rights and fundamental freedoms outlined in the Bill
of Rights.

The right to education includes both duties and obligations which are to be realised
immediately and those which are subject to progressive realisation. The obligation to ensure
free and compulsory primary education and the prohibition of discrimination in education
are, for instance, immediate obligations. These are also qualified as ‗minimum core
obligations‘ which apply regardless of available resources. On the other hand, most of the
obligations relating to the right to education are to be realised progressively according to the
maximum available resources of a State.

Whilst the detailed implications of this rights approach to free and compulsory education and
related services will need to be determined, it is clear that the people will increasingly
demand their rights through a more empowered civil society. The provisions of Article 46 (1
a, b) are important as they grant consumers the right to goods and services of reasonable
quality and to information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.
Education as a service, therefore, must meet minimum quality standards, which suggest there
will be an increase in pressure for improved services, with comparison of indicators and
results between counties.

1.8.4 Devolution to the Counties
The Constitution places major emphasis on devolution and decentralisation of previously
concentrated powers at the national level to forty-seven counties each with a defined structure
of government, elected governors, and county assembly and wards. Again, there are many
issues still to be resolved, as, for example, the relationship between the central government,
the counties and the urban local governments. However, it is likely that the initial change
process will be fast, as the new county structures are required to be in place in 2012.

8

Some of the key issues the Task Force addressed are:
(a) Education a national responsibility
(b) Decentralization
(c) Resource allocation
(d) Management
(e) Infrastructure

These issues are explained hereunder:
(a)

Education a National Responsibility

The Constitution envisages that education will continue to be primarily a national
responsibility. There are important implications for National level resource distribution, and
the unbundling of decision-making. Major issue relate to:
(i) Education service delivery;
(ii) The respective roles of the national and county governments, and between counties and
educational institutions;
(iii) Financing arrangements.

(b)

Decentralization

Decentralisation to the schools level in the education sector is relatively well established. The
national Government has the responsibility for setting policy, allocating the national budget
for education, supervising and regulating the education system. In order to avoid overcentralization of decision-making and implementation, there is particular need to determine:
(i) The specific education functions that could be devolved from the National to the County
governments. One of the implications is the distribution of the existing administrative staff
away from the national Ministry to devolved levels. There is the opportunity to strengthen
the County governments to assist the National line Ministry to better supervise, legislate,
regulate, monitor and evaluate the education system. The devolved functions would require
revising Performance Contracting and appropriate accountability measures; and
(ii) Whether each County will have its own education departments/units. Responsibility for
managing and implementing education service delivery could also be effectively
devolved. The role of the current provincial, district, division and zonal level education
authorities, including Boards of Governors (BOGs), School Management Committees
(Primary) SMCs, Parents-Teachers Association (PTA), will be reviewed and redefined.
9

These sub-authorities could be mapped to county education service delivery authorities
to implement the national policies, and to promote quality and relevant education
through county level mechanisms. County level authorities could provide the day-to-day
operational support through devolved functions. Finally, County governments could be
empowered appropriately to ensure that social accountability is promoted and
maintained.

(c)

Resource Allocation

Much will depend on decisions regarding key human resource issues, including recruitment
procedures by counties, staff salaries and allowances, and the qualification framework. It is
likely that some specialist staff will continue to be recruited and employed centrally. It is
unlikely that the counties will receive a significant amount of funding for education beyond
the 15% of total revenue and access to an ―equalization fund‖. The implications of this will
need to be examined and other forms of central support considered. There are many issues to
be resolved regarding (i) the criteria for allocating the CDF if this continues to exist (under
guidance from the Commission for Revenue Allocation), (ii) policies towards user fees, and
(iii) the cost of transferred, new and proposed functions and services.

(d)

Management

There are issues related to the management of the sector, especially as the Constitution makes
the Teachers Service Commission, a former Semi-Autonomous Government Agency
(SAGA), to a Constitutional Commission. Its relationship with the MoE will have to be
clarified and established. Similarly, there are the other SAGAS with specific mandates, which
will have to be reviewed in the light of the new Constitution. They are the Kenya Institute of
Education (KIE), the Kenya Education Staff Institute (KESI) (Sector capacity building), the
Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC), The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation (JKF), the
Kenya Literature Bureau (KLB) and the Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE).

(e)

Infrastructure

There are also many issues relating to infrastructure, and especially those involving national
schools at secondary education level. While the introduction of the counties brings new
opportunities for service delivery improvements, there are potentially considerable resource
implications of the devolution of functions which will need to be considered carefully.

10

All of the above issues need to be seen within the context of pressing on with major reforms
within the education sector. Inter alia, these relate to embracing shared responsibility for
education, introducing credible governance and anti-corruption measures, education sector
policies at ECDE, TIVET and University education levels, a revised education and training
policy within the New Constitutional framework, maintaining and strengthening the current
decentralised service provision system.

1.8.5 Envisaged Ministerial Re-organization
Under the Constitution, the Cabinet will be limited to 22 members, which inevitably entails a
new structure of management. It is strongly expected that the Ministry of Education (MoE)
and the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology (MoHEST) will merge into
one obviously raising questions about the size of the new education Ministry and the roles
and responsibilities of possible new directorates. Some of the functions remaining at the
national level include: policy and planning, standards and regulations, information
technology, research. Finally, while the process of merger could bring about efficiency
improvements, there is also the possibility that newly-achieved gains in education from the
creation of a separate Ministry for that purpose in 2008 could be lost. For this reason an
agreed percentage of the Education budget should be established and ring-fenced for Basic
Education and research only reviewed every three years.

1.9 Vision 2030
Kenya Vision 2030 places great emphasis on the link between education and the labour
market, the need to create entrepreneurial skills and competences, and the need to strengthen
partnerships with the private sector. This has considerable importance for the structure and
focus of the education system and curriculum. It also has considerable relevance to teacher
education. Consequently this has been given consideration to changes to the structure of
Education, the introduction of technical talent and general academic curriculum pathways,
and the centrality of ICT to teaching and learning and its application on day-to-day life.
Vision 2030 also recognizes the need for a literate citizenry and sets targets for enhancing
adult literacy to 80% by 2012.

1.9.1 The Current Situation
(a) Macroeconomic context

11

Kenya‘s economic performance has fluctuated over time and this has had implications for the
education sector financing and the provision of education. In the 1960s and 1970s, the
economy grew at a rate estimated at 6-7% (Government of Kenya, Various Years). However,
during the last two decades, the country experienced declining trends in macroeconomic
performance until 2003 when the country began to experience a gradual increase in economic
growth. Real GDP growth rate rose from a low of 5.1% in 2004 to 7.1% in 2007 before the
drastic decline to 1.7% in 2008. The latter was attributed to post-election violence in early
2008 following the disputed elections in 2007. According to the Kenya Integrated Household
Budget Survey (KIHBS) (2005/6), 45.9% of the population is poor, with a gini coefficient of
0.45 (Government of Kenya, 2007). During the same period, it was estimated that 49.1%
rural population and 33.7% urban population were poor.
The working-age population (persons aged 15-64 years) was estimated at 15.9 million
persons in 1998-99 and 19.8 million by 2005/6. However, the labour force participation rate
(the ratio of total labour force to the working-age population) was relatively stable; 73.6%
and 73% in the respective years.
The relatively low overall unemployment rate of 12.7% masks high levels of youth
unemployment. For example, the unemployment rate among youths aged 15-24 was nearly
25% in 2005-06. A review of the literature on unemployment in Kenya highlighted various
factors to blame for unemployment, but critical amongst them are the skills mismatch and
information problems in the labour market.

(b) Education Sector
Since independence in 1963 the education sector in Kenya has experienced rapid expansion.
The number of public and private primary schools increased from 6,058 in 1963 to 27,487 in
2010, while secondary schools increased from 151 to 7308 over the same period. Enrolment
in primary education has grown from 892,000 pupils in 1963 to about 9.4 million pupils in
2010, whilst enrolment in secondary education has grown from around 30,000 students in
1963 to 1.7 million students in 2010. The increase has been accelerated by growth of
population and the introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE) and Free Day Secondary
Education (FDSE) in 2003 and 2008 respectively. At the TIVET level, enrolments grew to
75,547 in 2010 up from 62,439 in 2003.For the university sub-sector, enrolments shot up to
180,617 in 2010 up from 82,090 in 2003.

12

The main challenges facing the education sector have been issues of access, equity, quality,
relevance and efficiency in the management of educational resources. In 2003, the Ministry
of Education embarked on reforms geared towards attaining the education related Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and Education For All (EFA). The Sessional Paper that
followed the recommendations of the 2003 National Conference on Education and Training
recognized the need to develop a policy framework. Sessional Paper Number 1 of 2005 was
developed to guide the development of the education sector. It outlined sector targets, which
included the attainment of Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 2005 and Education For
All (EFA) by 2015.

The following specific targets were set:
(i) A primary school Net Enrolment Rate (NER) of 100% by 2015;
(ii) A completion rate of 100% by 2010
(iii) Achievement of a transition rate of 70% from primary to secondary school level by 2008;
(iv) A 50% NER in Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) by 2010;
(v) Gender parity at primary and secondary by 2015;
(vi) Development of a national training strategy for TIVET by 2005, and ensuring that
TIVET institutions are appropriately funded and equipped by 2008;
(vii) Achievement of a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2010;
(viii) Expansion of public universities to have a capacity of at least 5,000 students each by
2015;
(ix) An increase in the proportion of all students studying science-related courses to 50%,
with at least one third of these being women, by the year 2010.

These targets were to be achieved through enhancement of access, equity and quality in
primary and secondary education through capacity building for 45,000 education managers
by 2005, and the construction/renovation of physical facilities/equipment in public learning
institutions in disadvantaged areas, particularly in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) and
urban slums by 2008.

(c) The Base-line - Macro Statistics

13

Successive reviews of the Education Sector have shown increased investment in the sector
and a substantial growth in both numbers of institutions of learning and enrolments.

(i) The ECDE Sub-sector (Age 4-5)
In the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005, the Government was to integrate ECDE into Basic
Education by 2010 but this policy has not been fully implemented. However, the MoE plans
to have children aged 4-5 years who are in pre-schools included in the FPE programme.
Interventions for children aged 3 years and below are classified as childcare services.
Table 1.1: Enrolment at ECDE level
Baseline
ECDE
Enrolment
1,643,175
ECDE GER
GER Boys
59.6%
GER Girls
56.2%
GER Total
57.9%
Adult Education
Enrolment
= 126,324

Target (2010)
2,162,095

Actual (2010)
2,193,071

Achievement/Gap
+30,976

ECDE GER 60%

GER Boys 616%
GER Girls 58.7%
GER Total 60.2%

+0.2

226,324

265,000

+38,676

(ii) The Primary Sub-sector (Years 1-8)
The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at primary level increased from 91.2% (92.7% and 89.7%
for boys and girls respectively) in 1999 to 109.8% (109.8% and 109.9% for boys and girls
respectively) in 2010.The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) increased from 68.8% 68.8% for boys
and 68.8% girls respectively) in 1999 to 91.6% (94.1% and 89.0% for boys and girls
respectively) in 2007 to 92.5% (94.6% and 90.5% for boys and girls respectively) in 2008
and further to 92.9% (93.6% and 92.1% for boys and girls respectively) in 2009. However, in
2010 the NER dipped slightly to 91.4% (90.6% and 92.3% for boys and girls respectively).
Despite this impressive performance, there still exists gender and regional disparities
especially at the secondary and tertiary levels as shown Figure 1.1 below.

14

Figure 1.1: Primary School Level Enrolment Trends, 2004 - 2010

The Government policy within the context of EFA and MDGs is to enhance gender equity.
However, this remains elusive at all levels of education and training. Nevertheless, gender
parity in enrolments has been improving steadily. The disparity is relatively small with a
gender parity index of 0.94 in 2007 and 2008 registering an improvement of an index of 0.98
in 2009.

The pupil/teacher ratio at primary school level increased from 1:39 in 2003 to 1:45 in 2009.
However, there are gross disparities within regions, the worst affected being ASALs districts
and areas affected by insecurity. The teacher shortage in primary schools is about 40,000 and
about 20,000 at secondary level.

The textbook/pupil ratio for lower primary has improved from one textbook for more than 10
pupils before 2003 to 1:3 by 2007, reaching 1:2 in 2008 and 2009. For upper primary, TPR
has improved from 1:2 in 2007 to almost 1:1 in 2008 and 2009 for the majority of schools.
However, these have weakened sharply since 2009, and small schools do not benefit from
economies of scale, and have ratios far higher than this (Value for Money Audit Report
(2009).
15

The GOK budgetary allocation for the sector is insufficient and this does impact negatively
on the provision of resources such as textbooks, PTRs and Retention Rates are also affected.
Completion Rates stood at 76.8% (79.2% boys and 74.4% girls) in 2010, although these
already show a decline from the previous year, 83.2% (88.3% and 78.2% for boys and girls
respectively).

Transition rate from primary to secondary increased marginally from 59.6% (56.5% for male
and 63.2% for female) in 2007 to 64.1 % (61.3% for male and 67.3% for female) in 2008,
further increasing to 66.9% (64.1 % for male and 69.1% for female) in 2009 and to 72% in
2010.

16

Figure 1.2: Primary completion rate (PCR) and primary to secondary transition rate,
2004-2010

Percentage

Pupil
Pupil completion completion completion Primary to
Pupil
Pupil completion
Primary to
Pupil completion completion 2007, 81.0
rate,
Pupil completion
Pupil
rate,
Primary 2009, 83.2 secondary
rate, 2008, 79.8 to secondary
rate, 2004,rate, 2005, 77.6to 2006, 76.8 to
78.4 Primary
Primary
Primary to
transition rate,
rate, 2010, 76.8
Primary to
rate,
secondary
transition rate, 72.5
secondary
2010,
secondary secondary secondary
transition rate,
transition rate,
transition rate, transition rate,
2009, 66.9
transition rate,
2008, 64.1
2007, 59.9
2004, 56.0 2005, 57.3 2006, 59.6

Pupil completion rate

Primary to secondary transition rate

(iii) The Secondary Sub-sector (Forms 1 to 4)
The number of secondary schools has increased from a total of 6,566 secondary schools in
2008 to 7,308 in 2009 against 26,666 primary schools over the same period. Enrolment grew
from 1.18 million students in 2007 (639,393 boys and 540,874 girls) to 1,328,964 (735,680
boys and 593,284 girls) in 2008 and further to 1,500,015 (804,119 boys and 695,896 girls) in
2009.

The GER for secondary increased from 27.3 % (28.8% for boys and 25.7% for girls) in 1999
to 47.8% (50.9% for boys and 46.3% for girls) in 2010. The NER recorded an increase from
28.9% (29.8% for male and 27.9% for female) in 2008 to 35.8% (36.5% for boys and 35.1%
for girls) in 2010, having progressively improved from 13.7 % (13.5% for male and 13.9%
for female) in 1999. The gender disparity index as at 2009 stood at 0.96%.

17

Figure 1.3: Secondary Schools Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) and Net Enrolment Rate

Percentage

(NER), 2004-2010

GER, 2010, 47.8
GER, 2009, 45.3
GER, 2008, 42.5
GER, 2007, 38.0
NER, 2009, 35.8
GER, 2006, 32.4
NER, 2010, 32.0
NER, 2008, 28.9
GER, 2004, GER, 2005, 28.8
28.0
NER, 2007, 24.2
NER, 2006, 22.5
NER, 2004, NER, 2005, 20.5
19.4

GER

NER

(iv) TIVET
At the TIVET level, enrolments have grown from 71,167 (36,541 male and 34,626 female) in
2006 to 75,547 (38,160 male and 37,386 female) in 2010. With the expansion of primary and
secondary sub-sectors, TIVET remains the next sub-sector for expansion through
infrastructure and equipment, including ICT.

(v) University Sub-sector (Bachelors degree, 4 - 7 years)
The growth in undergraduate student enrolment has also been witnessed in the university sub
sector. Enrolment has grown from 112,229 (68,345 male and 43,884) in 2006 to 180,617
(110,721 male and 69,896 male). Issues of focus will be management, financing, expansion
to accommodate the increasing demand and refocusing the curriculum to the demands of
Vision 2030.

(vi) Adult and Continuing Education
The provision of Adult and Continuing Education throughout Kenya has suffered from
inadequate funding, whilst the overall vision requires structural and curriculum reform to fit it
to the aspirations of Vision 2030. Of particular concern is raising the levels of literacy. The
18

Kenya National Adult Literacy Survey (KNALS, 2007), revealed that only 61.5% of the adult
population has attained minimum literacy level, leaving 38.5% (7.8 million) adults illiterate.
It also revealed that only 29.6% of the Kenyan adult population has attained desired literacy
competency. About 29.9% of the youth aged 15 to 19 years and 49% of adults aged 45 to 49
years are illiterate. The survey further revealed high regional and gender disparities in literacy
achievements, with Nairobi recording the highest (87.1%) and North Eastern Province
recording the lowest (8%). The Medium Term Plan (MTP) for Kenya‘s Vision 2030
recognizes the need to have literate citizens and sets a target of increasing the adult literacy
rate to 80% by 2012.

(d) Private Sector provision of Education
A feature of the past ten years has been the increasing levels of private provision of education
across all levels. In 2008, 924,192 primary school children representing 10.8% of total
enrolled were being educated in the private sector, while 171,097 secondary school children
representing 12.31% of total enrolled were being educated in the private sector.

Enrolment in private secondary schools rose from 83,733 students to 171,097 in 2008, whilst
the growth in the number of Private Secondary Schools is far greater than that of Public
Secondary Schools in any province. For example, in Nairobi, the number of Private and
Public secondary schools is almost the same (47:48) (EMIS 2009). However, growth in
numbers of Private Secondary Schools has been restricted by the shortage of land.
Incentives to encourage Private Sector investment in education have been acknowledged as a
way forward for some time (Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005) and the Task Force has
considered issues related to Land, Taxation and reducing ‗red tape‘.

(e) Current Challenges
Although there has been marked progress towards realising Universal Primary Education
(UPE), and increasing access to education across the sector, retention of pupils, especially at
the

primary

level,

remains

a

considerable

challenge.

In

spite

of

continuing

to receive the highest percentage of budgetary allocation over the last decade, especially since
the launch of FPE and FDSE, quality remains a major issue across the entire spectrum of the
education and training sector.

19

These challenges are:
(i)

high numbers of children out of school mainly due to a range of user charges being
levied;

(ii)

high levels of unaccounted teacher absenteeism;

(iii)

scarcity of financial resources;

(iv)

high cost of education;

(v)

alcohol and substance abuse;

(vi)

inhibitive cultural practices;

(vii)

child labour;

(viii) high levels of poverty;
(ix)

lack of a clear policy in recruitment of education managers;

(x)

lack of clear roles of the sponsors;

(xi)

scourge of HIV and AIDS;

(xii)

high pupil/teacher ratios,

(xiii) weaknesses in the management, deployment and development of teachers,
(xiv) a shortage of experienced teachers;
(xv)

overcrowded classrooms that compound the poor quality education in public schools;

(xvi) teacher training programmes that are in need of radical reform;
(xvii) unsatisfactory financial management practices across the sector;
(xviii) a shortage of vacancies in secondary schools;
(xix) inadequacies in the provision of educational infrastructure, especially in Arid and
Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs);
(xx)

weak governance, weak management and unaccountable implementation of the
education sector overall;

(xxi) funding of Higher Education remains problematic.

1.10

Organization of the Report

The rest of the report is organized as follows:
Chapter 2:

Vision, Mission and Goals of Education and Training

Chapter 3:

Structure and Curriculum of Education System

Chapter 4:

Access, Equity, Quality and Relevance

Chapter 5:

Standards and Quality Assurance (QAS)

20

Chapter 6:

The National Assessment System (NAS) and the National Qualification
Framework (NQF) in Kenya

Chapter 7:

Financing, Investment and Resource Mobilisation

Chapter 8:

Institutional Management and Governance of Education and Training

Chapter 9:

Human Capacity Development and Training

Chapter 10:

Mentoring and Moulding to Nurture National Values

Chapter 11:

Research and Development

Chapter 12:

Science, Technology and Innovation

Chapter 13:

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education

Chapter 14:

Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Education

Chapter 15:

Teacher Education and Management

Chapter 16:

Public - Private Partnership and Sponsorship in Education and Training

Chapter 17:

Regulatory and Legal Framework

Chapter 18:

General Recommendations

21

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 VISION, MISSION AND GOALS OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

2.1 Introduction
An appropriate education system of a country is founded on a philosophy, vision and mission
and must target goals pursued through clearly stated objectives. This Chapter spells out the
philosophy, vision, mission, goals and objectives of the Kenyan Education system.
2.2 Philosophy of Education
The Ministry of Education is guided by the National Philosophy, which places education at
the centre-stage of the country‘s human and economic development strategies. It focuses on
the acquisition of knowledge and skills as well as provision of lifelong learning. Emphasis is
placed on the provision of a holistic, quality education and training that promotes the
cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains of learners, instilling values such as patriotism,
equality of all human beings, peace, security, honesty, humility, mutual respect, tolerance,
co-operation and democracy, through education.
2.3 Vision
The Vision of education service provision is to have a globally competitive quality
education, training and research for Kenya’s sustainable development. To achieve this,
the Ministry has endorsed Vision 2030 and shall focus education and training towards
achieving the goals of the Vision.
2.4 Mission
The Mission of the Ministry of Education is to provide, promote, co-ordinate quality
education, training and research for empowerment of individuals to become caring,
competent and responsible citizens who value education as a life-long process.
2.5 Mandate
The mandate of the Ministry of Education is to provide services that target achieving:
(a) Economic development; by ensuring that all learners acquire the requisite knowledge,
skills and competences to make them productive citizens.
(b) Social development; by ensuring that all learners are aware of fundamental human rights
and obligations, and national values and aspirations, and have the capacity to play a full
part in the nation‘s social and cultural development at a local and national level.
22

(c) Political development; by ensuring that all learners have the capacity to play a role in the
political life of Kenya at local, national and international level, whilst upholding the rule
of law and respect for others. In addition, education to play a role in expanding
democratic space and fostering political participation values.
2.6 Guiding Principles
Towards the realization of Vision 2030, the education system will be guided by the following
principles:
(a) Reaffirming and enhancing patriotism, national unity, mutual social responsibility and
the ethical and moral foundation of our society.
(b) Providing an education for all that has open door and alternative systems that ensure
opportunities for continuous learning.
(c) Placing emphasis on quality, access, equity, relevance and transitional issues.
(d) Placing emphasis on new developments in science, technology and innovation.
(e) Providing education that focuses on entrepreneurship, agricultural and industrial
development.
(f) Providing education that identifies and nurtures learners‘ talents and gifts.

2.7 National Goals of Education and Training
After independence, the Government of Kenya appointed a committee of eminent Kenyans
under the Chairmanship of Prof. Ominde (1964) to collect views from the people of Kenya on
what they wished the country to strive for.
2.7.1 The Ministry of Education shall retain the eight National Goals of Education and
Training articulated by Ominde and subsequent reports. These are to:
(a) Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
(b) Promote the socio-economic, technological and industrial skills for the country‘s
development.
(c) Promote individual development and self-fulfilment.
(d) Promote sound moral and religious values.
(e) Promote social equality and responsibility.
(f) Promote respect for and development of Kenya‘s rich and varied cultures.
(g) Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations.
(h) Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.

23

2.7.2 Additionally, to be internationally competitive and economically viable, the Republic of
Kenya requires an education system that will produce citizens who are able to engage in
lifelong learning, learn new things quickly, perform more non-routine tasks, capable of more
complex problem-solving, take more decisions, understand more about what they are
working on, require less supervision, assume more responsibility, and as vital tools to these
ends, have better reading, quantitative, reasoning and expository skills.

2.7.3 It is appropriate that the following eight goals of education are discussed:
(a) National Unity
The goal of education is to foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity. To
achieve this goal the Ministry of Education and County Education Boards shall ensure access
to education for all its citizens.

National and County Education Boards shall enforce the use of the two official languages
Kiswahili and English both in and out of school. The language of the catchment area (Mother
Tongue) shall be used for child care, ECDE and in the education of Lower Primary children
(0-8 years). It is important that whenever possible learners are not confined in their local
areas for the purpose of national integration.
(b) Socio-economic, Technology and Industry
The link between education and the world of work, the economy and national development is
indivisible. The MoE shall strengthen that link through a review of the national curriculum to
ensure that all learners are exposed to developments in science and technology, and to
opportunities to apply that knowledge practically. The development of TIVET shall receive
special attention together with skills training to increase small scale industries especially in
the Jua Kali sector and agriculture. Opportunities for learners to specialise in technology
education shall be developed when at age sixteen; learners will have an opportunity to select
to follow the technology pathway for the senior secondary phase. The use of ICT shall be
accelerated and integrated into the education system.
(c) Individual Development and Self-fulfilment
Access to a quality and relevant education is guaranteed in the 2010 Constitution. To
facilitate individual development and self-fulfilment, a revised structure which will enable
24

learners to follow alternative knowledge pathways shall be introduced. Learners shall be
equipped with practical skills to make them employable or to become self-employed and to
ensure Kenya‘s economic competitiveness.
(d) Moral and Religious Values
Education and training shall inculcate moral and spiritual values, as well as, the valuing of
cultural differences within the unity of Kenya. It shall instil the importance of integrity,
honesty, respect for others and hard work. Further, it shall develop inter-personal skills and
use the curriculum to instil these values.
(e) Social Equity and Responsibility
Education is closely linked to culture. An educated person is not only one who has sufficient
knowledge and skills, but one who knows how to interact with others courteously and
harmoniously. Education and training shall therefore embrace equity issues and equal
opportunity for all. It shall be the duty of education and training to ensure that there is equal
service delivery of good quality education to nomadic, orphans and vulnerable groups
especially girls throughout Kenya.
(f) Respect For and Development of Kenya’s Rich and Varied Cultures
Kenya‘s diversity in culture and ethnic heritage is best demonstrated by her wealth of 42
indigenous tribes. It is through education and training that integration of Kenya‘s tribes can
be enriched. Education has to encourage non-formal curricula activities such as music, dance,
games, and debating among our schools across counties. In this way, schools will be
transformed into channels of cultural integration. The MoE shall ensure that local cultural
traditions and the celebration thereof, form part of the life of every school.
(g) International Consciousness and Positive Attitudes towards other Nations
Information Communication Technology (ICT) has globalized education and made it easier
for people to learn from one another. The MoE shall support links with schools
internationally to extend the education of Kenyan children. Further, the MoE shall promote elearning and thereby raise the level of international awareness of our children.

25

(h) Positive Attitudes towards Good Health and Environmental Protection
Education and training shall enlighten learners to the benefits of good health by including in
the curriculum knowledge of how to prevent and combat Malaria, HIV AND AIDS and other
diseases. The MoE shall endorse and support programmes designed to raise the awareness of
young people to HIV AND AIDS, STDs and drug abuse. Further, the MoE shall institute
Environmental Education in all schools, and through the proposed Community Service
Programmes, channel this knowledge to the wider Kenyan community.

2.8 Performance Targets
2.8.1 The Ministry of Education shall:
(a) Ensure access, equity and quality across all levels of Basic Education and training by
2020.
(b) Eliminate gender and regional disparities in Basic Education and training by 2017.
(c) Improve the quality of education and training so that Kenya‘s measurable learning
outcomes in literacy, numeracy, scientific and communication skills are in the upper
quartile on recognised international standardized tests by 2017.
(d) Equip schools to ensure that all primary and secondary schools meet minimum quality
standards of teaching and learning by 2017.
(e) In partnership with TSC, revise teachers‘ conditions of service, institute performance
contracts for all teachers by 2012, and enforce regulations that require teachers to be on
duty to cover the syllabus.
(f) Strengthen school inspection to ensure quality education service delivery at the
classroom and school level immediately.
(g) Develop guidelines for the establishment, registration and operation of ECDE centres
including specifications on physical facilities, equipment, materials, and qualifications of
personnel required to operate them by 2015.
(h) Require all Primary Schools to have a functioning ECDE section, with admission not
subjected to entry interviews or examinations by 2015.
(i) Create the conditions necessary to ensure that the teaching of science, technology and
ICT takes place in all schools by 2022.
(j) Initiate the implementation of the new structure of education (2-6-6-3) by the year 2013.
(k) Review of the teacher training curriculum by September 2013.
(l) Review of Basic Education Curriculum by December 2012.
26

(m) In partnership with TSC, orient teachers on the new curriculum by 2013.
(n) Strengthen the school management through capacity building of BOM by December
2012.

27

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 STRUCTURE AND CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION SYSTEM

3.1 Structure
3.1.1 Introduction
The structure of an education system comprises the levels characterizing that system, and the
length of time a learner is expected to spend or the content of the curriculum expected to be
covered at each level, in fulfilment of clearly articulated objectives (Koech, 1999).
Curriculum content dictates duration of a cycle. This cycle can be arranged into annual, term,
quarter or semester duration.
A structure is basic to success of any education system for the following reasons:
(a)

It determines entry into various levels of the education system

(b)

It determines the time available for curriculum coverage

(c)

It determines the curriculum content and delivery modalities

(d)

It is through a structure that the system is fitted into the natural cycle of life

(e)

Structure dictates transferability/mobility of citizens, nationally and internationally.

3.1.2 Current Structure of Education in Kenya
The current structure of education in Kenya consists of eight years of primary, four years of
secondary and a minimum of four years of university education. This structure excludes early
childhood development education and does not specify standardized duration of middle level
training. The situation is summarized in the table below:

28

Table 3.1: The Current Education Structure
Level

No. of Years

Age

ECDE

Not formally integrated

-

Primary

8 years

6 – 13+

Secondary

4 years

14 – 17+

Tertiary/TIVET

Not formally integrated

Flexible and Variable

Adult Basic Education and 6 years
Training (ABET)/NFE

18 +

University

18- 21+

4 years

The 8-4-4 structure was adopted by the government based on a recommendation made by the
MacKay report of 1983. Previously, the country had a 7-4-2-3 structure of education.
3.1.3 Limitations of the Current Structure
Submissions by members of the public to the Task Force highlighted numerous weaknesses
in the current structure, some of which are outlined below:
(a) The failure to incorporate the pre-school cycle as part and parcel of the education
structure.
(b) Lack of open-door opportunities for learners to pursue further education towards lifelong learning.
(c) Unhealthy competition and over emphasis on examinations based certification at the end
of each cycle.
(d) Limited training and vocational opportunities for learners wishing to acquire vocational,
industrial and technological skills.
(e) Lack of harmony with the educational structures of the other East African countries.
(f) Limited focus to the world of work.
(g) Lack of the secondary equivalent for Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET).
These and other shortcomings notwithstanding, there is a widespread belief that the current
structure is too rigid in that it lacks subject pathway and flexibility. In addition, it keeps
children in the primary phase for too long, limits subject area and vocational orientation
choice.

29

3.1.4 Structure of Education in Selected Countries
A study of structures of education from Uganda, Ghana, South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore,
South Korea, England and Israel revealed that learning experiences between primary one and
end of secondary cycle lasts between 12 and 13 years. It also revealed that the content for
primary level focuses on literacy, numeracy and communication skills and that the duration
of the primary cycle is between five and seven years. It was further observed that admission
to successive levels of education is strictly linked with the age of the learner.
The following table shows the structure of education systems from selected countries:

30

Table 3.2: Comparative Education Systems: International Comparative Analysis of
Structures

Country

Years

Pre-

Primar

Junior

Senior

TIVE

Universit

Pri

y

Secondar

Secondar

T

y

y

y

mar
y
(i)

South

7

4

2

-

3

-

6-13

14-17

18-19

-

20-22

Duration

-

6

3

3

-

3

-

5-11

12-14

15-17

-

18-20

Duration

1

6

3

3

-

3

5-6

6-12

12-15

16-18

-

19-21

2

6

3

2

2

3

3-4

5-11

12-14

15-16

17-18

19-20

3

6

2

3

2

3

3-6

6-12

13-14

15-17

18-19

20-22

3

6

3

3

-

4

3-6

6-12

13-15

16-18

-

19-22

Duration

-

6

3

3

-

3

Age

(iii)

-

Age

Ghana

Duration
Age

(ii)

Uganda

-

5-11

11-16

16-18

-

-

Duration

2

6

3

3

-

3

Duration

-

8

-

4

-

4

Age

-

6-14

-

15-19

-

20-23

Africa
Age
(iv)

Malaysia

Duration
Age

(v)

Singapore

Duration
Age

(vi)

South

Duration

Korea
Age
(vii)

(viii)

England

Israel

Age
(ix)

Kenya

31

3.1.5 The Rationale for a New Structure of Education and Training
Arising out of the provisions of the Constitution for the right of all citizens to Basic
Education, the objectives of Vision 2030 and submissions from Kenyans to the Task Force on
their desire for a change of the current education structure, the Task Force is of the view that
a new structure of education that has the support of the people is called for. Such a
structure should reflect the aspirations, objectives and values of the Kenyan people.
Furthermore, the new structure of Education and Training should lessen the rigidity in the
transition from one level to the other, and expands curriculum choice.

In its consideration of various proposals for a new structure of education and training in
Kenya, the Task Force considered at length a new Vision for education in Kenya. It
compared structures practised in Britain, Ghana, South Africa, Malaysia, Uganda and
Tanzania, and concluded that a structure that lessens the tension and rigidity in the transition
from one level to the next would be the best for Kenya. The structure will ensure that teachers
in primary and secondary school levels concentrate on teaching rather than coaching for
terminal examinations.

A comparison of education systems of some of the top ten countries (Global Competitive
Report, 2010/2011) indicates that their systems contain Pre-Primary, Primary, Junior
Secondary, Senior Secondary, Tertiary and University levels. An example of this is
Singapore, which is ranked number one in its quality of its education system has a structure
of 2 years Pre-primary, 6 years Primary, 4 years Junior secondary, 2 Senior Secondary and 34 years University.

The Kenyan people are well aware that the achievement of Vision 2030 depends heavily on
science, technology and innovation. However, the current structure leaves little room for
development of technical education, innovativeness and identification of individual talents. In
addition, learners exiting current system at the end of either primary or secondary school
levels are not well prepared to join the world of work. They also lack focus on the type of
trade they may wish to join at either middle or tertiary level.

The Task Force re-affirmed the right of all Kenyans to Basic Education (Articles 53(b) and
54(b) of the Constitution, 2010). This calls for a system of education that will guarantee this
right. It therefore implies that the structure should allow all learners to transit from one level
32

to the other until they are 18 years of age. In addition, a suitable structure should be flexible
and provides limitless opportunities for lifelong learning for all.

The Task Force‘s proposal for a new structure of education is, therefore, an all-inclusive
system that is flexible and well coordinated as to provide limitless opportunities for lifelong
learning and the achievement of basic education for all.

The specific reasons that persuaded the Task Force to recommend review of the education
structure are:
(a) To provide a system that is in line with the learners‘ growth and maturity cycle as
provided in theories of learning.
(b) To provide for an education system that is less burdening for the learners.
(c) To provide a system that allows for specialization at the end of the junior secondary
school.
(d) To ensure learners acquire competences and skills that will enable them to meet the
human resource aspirations of Vision 2030 by offering a choice of subject pathways.
(e) To provide for a system that allows ease of re-entry of learners that had dropped out of
the education system later on as adult learners.
(f) To ensure reduction of wastage by introducing automatic progression from primary to
secondary phase.
(g) To provide an opportunity for the learners to acquire core skills and competences
throughout the entire Basic Education cycle.
(h) To provide an opportunity for early identification and nurturing of talents in individual
learners.
(i) To allow for flexibility and choice by learners to pursue areas of special interest in their
learning.
(j) To provide a system of Competency Assessment Tests (CATs) that will contribute to the
overall performance of learners.
(k) To align the Kenyan structure with international best practices.

33

(l) There is a perception that the 8-4-4 system is heavily examinations oriented and that
a lot of importance is attached to the examination results. This calls for re-branding
of the system.
(m) To provide a system that is not examinations oriented.
(n) All the county stakeholders meetings conducted by the Task force proposed a change
of the structure
3.1.6 The Recommended Structure
Following the analysis of presentations and papers from the general public, the Task Force
concluded that numerical titles such as 8-4-4 fail to indicate what the education system
represents. The new system should, therefore, focus on child development, skills and
competences to be learnt, and the ultimate outcome at each level from Early Childhood Care
and Development to University level. The competences and skills will enable the learners to
meet the human resource aspirations of Vision 2030 by offering a choice of subjects and
career pathways.
The Task Force recognizes the right of all Kenyans to Basic Education [(Articles 43 (1) (f),
53 (1) (b) and 54(1) (b) of the Constitution, 2010)]. This calls for a system of education that
will guarantee this inalienable right. Therefore, the structure should allow all learners to
transit from one level to the next until they are 18 years of age.

The Task Force proposes a new structure of education that is all-inclusive, flexible and
coordinated, as well as signalling to stakeholders what each phase means. It aims to provide
opportunities for lifelong learning and the achievement of Basic Education for all.
The Task Force recommends a structure of:
(i) Child care,
(ii) 2 years of Pre-primary,
(iii) 6 years of Primary (3 years lower and 3 years upper),
(iv) 6 years Secondary (3 years junior and 3 years senior),
(v) 2 years of Middle level institutions, and
(vi) A minimum 3 years University education.

As a whole this structure will have two cycles:
34

A: Basic Education cycle, and
B: Higher Education cycle.
Basic Education, 14years; Higher Education with middle level education and training, 2
years; and University Education, 3 years minimum) as shown in Figure 3.1.
3.1.7 Elaboration of the Structure
The Basic Education Cycle
Basic Education refers to education provided from Pre-primary to end of the Senior
Secondary education. This is the minimum level of formal instruction that every eligible
Kenyan needs in order to be adequately equipped, with a firm foundation of knowledge for
further learning and practical skills necessary for economic development.

The content for Basic Education should, therefore, be designed with a view of equipping the
learners with relevant knowledge that lays emphasis on technology, innovativeness and
entrepreneurship (Vision 2030), the development of their full capacities, living and working
in dignity, enhancing the quality of their lives, making informed decisions and continuing
with learning as a lifelong engagement. This cycle is discussed in full below.

(a) Child Care
The Task Force observed that child care is such an important stage in a child‘s growth and
development, hence the need to fully support the child. It is thus recommended that the first
phase (child care, ages 0 to 3 years), be under full responsibility of parents and local
communities.

(b) Pre-Primary
The Task Force noted that ECDE has been in operation for a long time, operating under
various titles like baby class, nursery and pre-school unit. This level of education has over the
years been offered by the communities, local authorities and private organizations.
Pre-primary provides an opportunity for the development of the learner‘s brain, which is most
rapid during the first five years of life. In addition, this stage provides emotional, cognitive,
social, physical, moral values, spiritual and aesthetic development of the learner. Therefore,
the curriculum will consist of communication skills, manipulation skills, awareness of the
immediate environment and play.
35

Investing in pre-primary education prepares children for further learning and growth.
Moreover, a proper approach at this level can help the education system reduce costs in the
long run. The main focus at this level should be to:
(a) Promote cognitive skills, and exposure to general knowledge in various fields.
(b) Instil life and social skills, national values and encouraging interpersonal relationships at
an early age.
(c) Encourage an independent personality, the capacity of treating others with respect and
tolerance, and accepting similarities as well as differences.
(d) Encourage linguistic and symbolic literacy, becoming acquainted with technology and
means of communication, instilling sensitivity to aesthetics and recognition of the arts
and various means of artistic expression.
(e) Instil skills that will turn children into lifelong learners.

This level will focus on five key elements i.e. child protection, early learning, play and
stimulation, child health and child nutrition. The language of instruction will be the language
of the catchment area.

The Task Force recommends that the policy of mainstreaming ECDE (ages 4-5 years) into
the primary school system should be implemented. As earlier stated, the first phase (childcare
i.e. ages 0 to 3 years) should be under the full responsibility of parents and local
communities.

(c) Lower Primary
This phase will target learners in the age bracket of 6 to 8 years. This is a Foundation Stage in
the learning process and the curriculum shall contain learning experiences that provide the
basics for communication, numeracy and life skills through play. It will also form a
foundation for moral and attitudinal development of the learners.

(d) Upper Primary
This phase will target learners in the age bracket of 9 to 11 years. The focus during this stage
is to provide opportunities for further development of knowledge gained in lower primary.
The content remains broad and general in nature, with a focus on developing core cognitive
building blocks. The learner will develop an increasing appreciation and awareness of the
36

environment at regional, national and international levels. Knowledge and skills to be
acquired include: literacy, numeracy, life skills, scientific knowledge, exploration and
technology-based skills. It will also provide an opportunity for development of positive moral
values and attitudes.

(e) Junior Secondary
The phase will be a transition between primary and senior secondary schools for those in the
age bracket of 12 to 14 years. It is meant to build on and develop further the learning
experiences obtained at primary school level. This phase will offer an opportunity for learners
to identify areas of interest and growth. Upon completion, learners should be able to join any
of the four streams, namely, general education, talent, technical and vocational. This will be
dictated by their preferences and career path, with the advice of both parents and teachers.
Besides academics, emphasis will be on technology and the identification of talents,
development of life skills, moral and attitudinal skills.
(f) Senior Secondary
This level will be for learners in the age bracket of 15 to 17 years. It will focus on specialized
areas or fields of study, in addition to elements of the core curricula as a continuation from
junior secondary. Senior secondary schools will be specialized institutions that will provide
opportunities for learners to specialise and focus on further education and the world of work.
The senior secondary cycle will have four distinct specialization streams, namely; General
Education, Technical, Talent and Vocational. This will be expounded further at the university
level.
All senior secondary schools will have the same core curriculum that will include
development of moral and attitudinal skills, language skills, and communication skills,
scientific and technological skills. However, general education streams will major in regular
academic subjects leading to relevant degree courses. On the other hand, Technical streams
will major in technical subjects leading to technological degree courses, while Vocational
streams will major in trade courses leading to the world of work or further education
including degree programmes. In addition to offering regular academic subjects, Talent
streams will major in various talents leading to world of work and higher education.

37

(g) Adult and Continuing Education (ACE)
ACE targets adults who never went to school or those who dropped out of school for various
reasons. For many years, this was never part of the mainstream education. Adult and
Continuing Education programme is equivalent to Basic Formal Education. In this respect
ACE is offered at two levels, namely, Primary and Secondary levels‘ equivalent. The
programme will be flexible and accelerated. Upon completion of the secondary equivalent,
the adult learner may access Middle Level Institutions or University Education.

(h) Higher Education
This phase refers to all formal and non-formal education and training offered after the Basic
Education cycle and comprises middle level institutions and university levels of education
and training. Under this category are found:
(i) All Teacher Training Colleges
(ii) All Technical and Vocational Institutions
(iii) All Sectoral Colleges within Government Ministries
(iv) All Institutions offering Pre-University Academic Programmes
(v) All Private and Public Chartered Universities
(vi) All Non-Governmental Institutions offering commercial and other skill-development
courses beyond Basic Education provided approved by the Commission of Higher
Education.

(i) Middle Level Institutions (MLIs)
The programmes offered by MLIs will be transitory or terminal leading to the world of work.
MLIs will comprise colleges offering both certificate and diploma courses. MLIs will include
all TIVETs and other middle level training institutions. Students who complete diploma and
higher diploma courses and attain the required learning thresholds will go for further training
if they so wish. The Commission for Higher Education (CHE) will set up the regulations for
admission to universities and MLIs. Matters regarding certificates and diplomas will be
regulated by guidelines given from time to time.

(j) Universities
These are institutions offering degree programmes at undergraduate and postgraduate levels
as follows:
(i) Undergraduate degrees (to take minimum 3 years).
38

(ii) Postgraduate Diplomas.
(iii) Masters degrees.
(iv) Doctoral degrees.

In order to ensure achievement of Vision 2030, particular Universities that shall offer
technological courses should be earmarked. This will cater and provide a pathway for
learners who have completed Technical Senior Secondary and Vocational Schools as well as
those who may wish to pursue degree courses from institutes of technology. Universities will,
therefore, be required to review their curricula to accommodate the four pathways.
Universities will exclusively concentrate on degree programmes and postgraduate diplomas.

3.1.8 Transition Process
(a) Primary to Junior Secondary
Primary 6 pupils will be guided to make choices of the junior schools they wish to join
within their counties. The selection lists will be forwarded to the County Directors of
Education to be used for placing learners in junior schools following the KPEC results.

(b) Junior Secondary to Senior Secondary
Students will be guided to make choices of the senior schools they wish to join
depending on their choice specialization streams. The selection lists will be forwarded
through the County Directors of Education to the MoE National Office. The MoE
directorate in charge will place students to senior schools.

(c) Senior Secondary to University and Middle Level Institutions
Students will make choices of the degree programmes they wish to pursue if they attain
the university entry requirements. Admission to Universities will be conducted by the
universities‘ Joint Admissions Board (JAB). Those wishing to pursue higher education
and MLIs will make individual applications depending on their preferences.

39

Figure 3.1: Recommended Structure of Education and Training
Basic Education

Child Care ECDE

Primary

Jnr. Sec.

Higher Education

Senior Secondary

Child care (3 years)

Pre-Primary (2 years)

Lower Primary (3 years)

Upper Primary (3 years)

Junior Secondary (3 years)

Technical (3 years)

0-3

4-5

6-8

9-11

12-14

Talent (3 years)

Middle level
Institutions
(1-2 yrs)

General Education
3 years

Univers
ity (UG)

(3
Years)

Vocational (3 years)

15-17

Age (yrs)
Adult Education/NFE

40

18-19

18-20

Post
Gradua
te

(b) Structure of Adult Education
I
ABET-Primary II
III

Basic Education Cycle

ABET -Secondary

3.1.9 Core Curriculum Competences
The following Table lists the core competences recommended by the Task Force that all
learners should acquire. It indicates the competences and the form of assessment to be
used.

Phase
Core Competences
Pre-Primary  Communication skills
Years 1 and 2  Manipulation skills
 Social skills
 Environmental awareness
Lower
 Foundation of
Primary (p1 Communication skills
– P3)
 Numeracy
 Writing
 Foundation of Technological
and Innovation Skills
 Foundation of Moral and
Ethical Values
 Foundation of Talent
Identification
 Observation skills
Upper
 Enhancing Communication
Primary
Skills
(P4 – P6)
 Enhancing Technological and
Innovation Skills
 Enhancing Moral and Ethical
Values
 Enhancing Talent
Identification
41

Form of Assessment
Observation and pupil profiling in
core social development areas.

Observation and pupil profiling in
core social development areas.
Standardised literacy and
numeracy tests

 Observation and pupil profiling in
core skills and social development
areas.
 Written and oral language testing
 Written numeracy testing.
 Continuous and written course
assessment testing.

 Enquiry skills –
 ICT
Junior
Secondary
(J1 – J3)

Senior
Secondary
(S1 – S3)

Standardised assessment in all
subjects

 Advanced Communication
skills
 Advanced Technology and
Innovation
 Moral and Ethical Values
 Talent Enhancement
 Environmental and Social
Skills
 Enquiry skills
 ICT
1. General Specialization
Stream
 Citizenship
 Entrepreneurship
 ICT
 Languages
 Humanities
 Pure Sciences
 Applied Sciences

core skill areas and social
development.

2. Technical
Specialization Stream
 Citizenship
 ICT
 Technical Disciplines that
will lead to pursuance of
Technological Degrees at the
University or Advanced
Diplomas at middle level
Colleges.
3. Vocational
Specialization Stream
 Citizenship
42

 Written and oral language testing.
 Written course assessment testing
Standardised assessment in all
subjects
core learning areas and social
development.
 Written course assessment in each
subject at the end of each term.
Standardized assessment in all
subjects

 ICT
 Vocational and Trade
Disciplines that will lead to the
world of work or Diploma trade
courses at middle level Colleges.
4.

Talent Specialization
Stream
 Citizenship
 ICT
 Disciplines in Performing
Arts, Creative Arts and Sports,
which will lead to pursuance of
degrees/diplomas at higher
education institutions or the
world of work.
 Learners may pursue other
electives as found in General
Specialization Stream.

3.1.11 Categorization of Schools
Currently, Secondary schools are categorized as National, Provincial and District schools.
This has created unhealthy competition for the few places available in the existing national
secondary schools, with the resultant adverse effects on primary schools and teaching,
where teaching is done primarily to guarantee passing of examinations. A suitable
classification will be one that gives equal chances to all, promotes non-discrimination and
national cohesion in line with the new Constitution. The Task Force therefore recommends
that:
(a) Schools shall be classified into two broad categories, namely: Public and Private
schools.
(b) All schools‘ infrastructure should be targeted for upgrading and standardization.
(c) The existing day and boarding secondary schools be converted into junior and senior
secondary schools. Junior secondary schools can be established within existing
primary schools as an interim measure.
(d) The Government policy on establishment of day schools should be enhanced.
43

(e) More senior secondary schools are established while expanding the existing secondary
schools to ensure 100% transition.
(f) All senior secondary schools should have adequate infrastructure to ensure that they
admit learners from across the country.
(g) Selection to senior secondary schools shall consider the school‘s local catchment
area, (i.e. constituency, county and national), national cohesion, learner ability and
individual/personal subject choice.
(h) The government to ensure that each county has a sufficient number of schools to
absorb all learners up to senior secondary school.
(i) The government to enhance the development of model schools as pilot schools for
excellence (i.e. smart schools) in each constituency.
(j) The national and county governments should develop and implement an effective
transport policy for pupils and students.
(k) Encourage the development of more day schools.

3.1.12 Proposed changes in the school calendar
(a) The Current Situation
An important issue that the Task Force considered is the school term dates. The current
term dates run thus:
(i)

April (4 weeks)

Term II:

May to July (13 weeks)

Vacation:

August (4 weeks)

Term III:

September to November (13 weeks)

Vacation:

(iii)

January to April (13 weeks)

Vacation:
(ii)

Term I:

December (5 weeks)

(b) Issues and Challenges
From the submissions to the Task Force and presentations during the county meetings, the
following issues were raised with regard to term dates:
a)

The FPE and FDSE have been hampered by delayed remittance of funds to schools
granted that Government‘s financial year starts in July. Funds are available from
September.
44

b) Most university calendars start in September. Hence, students wishing to join
university have to wait from December when they complete KCSE examinations to
September the following year. This translates to a ‗loss‘ of eight months.
c)

Conducting national examinations in November has been quite a challenge in rural
areas as this is the period when the annual short rains are experienced across the
country. KNEC normally spends substantial resources in ensuring examinations reach
all centres, the adverse weather conditions notwithstanding.

(c) Recommendations
It is recommended that the school year be divided into three terms of thirteen weeks each
as follows:
(i) Term I (Learning)

-

September to November (13 weeks)

Term I (Community Outreach)

-

First week of December (1 week)

First Vacation

-

Three weeks in December (3 weeks)

(ii) Term II (Learning)

-

January to March (13 weeks)

Term II (Community Outreach)

-

First week of April (1 week)

Second Vacation

-

Three weeks in April (3 weeks)

-

May to July (13 weeks)

-

Five weeks in August (5 weeks)

(iii)Term III (Learning)
Third Vacation
(d) Justification of School Term Dates

(i) To align the school calendar to the Government‘s financial year;
(ii) August has no public holidays and hence there is ample time for processing national
examinations;
(iii) To align term dates to University calendars (local and international).

3.1.13 Community Outreach Programme (COP)
Education, social cohesiveness and economic management are interwoven. Relevant
education should seek to create a linkage that would appear natural to all. The Task Force
recommends the establishment of a Community Outreach Programme (COP) that will
45

create activities to facilitate this linkage. The main objectives of the COP will be to
promote national unity, the culture of community service and introduction to the world of
work.
a)

COP will be for all levels of education and should be organized and managed at all
levels of education including tertiary colleges. MoE will set benchmarks and general
guidelines to guide planning and management of community service programmes by
learning institutions.

b) The benchmarks/guidelines will be used by CEBs to develop more specific guidelines
to govern the running of Community Outreach Programme activities.
c)

COP activities and locations will be identified based on interests, talents and career
goals of learners.

d) COPs will be organized at least one week per term for the three terms in the Basic
Education cycle and three weeks per an academic year for Higher Education.
e)

COPs will be organized and managed by institutional managers and teachers. In this
regard, MoE should sensitize all stakeholders on their nature and implementation .

f)

Each participating student on completion of primary, junior secondary, senior
secondary school and college education will be given a Community Outreach
Programme Certificate (COPC) and earn credit to be included in NQF.

3.1.14 Recommended Implementation Plan
In order to provide adequate time for proper implementation of the new structure, it is
proposed that the first entry should be for Standard 5 and below in September, 2013 for
primary schools; 2015 for Junior Secondary schools and 2018 for Senior Secondary
schools. This will mean that the first entry into middle level institutions and universities
will occur in 2021. This will allow time for necessary changes to the curriculum to be
developed, infrastructure to be in place, teachers trained and ensure curriculum support
materials are available.
Implementation Explanatory Notes
Period

Activity

46

(i)

December: 2012

-

Revised Curriculum ready (by January 2013)

(ii)

January – March 2013

-

Training of Teachers

(iii)

Transition table below

year

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

class
F1

F2

F3

F1

F2

6

8
(KCPE)
7

F4
(KCSE)
F3

8(KCPE)

F1

F2

F4
(KCSE)
F3

5

6

7

F1

F2

4

5

J2

3

4

6
(KPEC)
5

8
KCPE)
J1

J1

2

3

4

6
(KPEC)
5

J3
(KJSEC)
J2

1

2

3

4

8
7

6
(KPEC)
5

J1

F4
(KCSE)
F3

F4
(KCSE)
S2

S1
J3
(KJSEC)
J2

6
(KPEC)

J1

S1
J3
(KJSEC)
J2

S3
(KSSEC)
S2
S1

S3
(KSSEC)
S2

J3
(KJSEC)

S1

Transition Explanatory Notes
2014:

There will be KCPE for the second last cohort of 8-4-4 system and there will
also be the KPEC for the first cohort of the 2-6-6-3 system.

2015:

There will be KCPE for the last cohort of 8-4-4 and KPEC for the 2nd cohort of
2-6-6-3. (The 1st admission in Junior Secondary).

2016:

There will be the last cohort of 8-4-4 joining F1.

2017:

The Pioneer Class of 2-6-6-3 is examined at J3.

2018:

The 1st cohort of 2-6-6-3 joins Senior Secondary (S1).

2019:

The last cohort of 8-4-4 sits for KCSE

2020:

The Pioneer Class of 2-6-6-3 to sit KSSEC.

2021:

The Pioneer Class of 2-6-6-3 joins the University and other Middle level
Institutions.

* These notes need to be entrenched in the Education Act.

47

Justification for the Implementation Plan
a)

The pioneer class of Standard 5 will spend two years using the revised curriculum
for upper primary (2013 and 2014). This amount of time is adequate to embed the
new structure.

b)

The two-year window will allow time for construction of new classrooms for the
Junior Secondary phase.

c)

The ‗pioneer‘ class of Standard 5 in 2013 will take another 5 years to reach the
Senior Secondary phase. This time will be adequate to equip schools with learning
materials and other equipment for the four streams of Senior Secondary, Technical,
General Education, Talent and Vocational.

d)

The gradual implementation of the plan which will commence in 2013 for the
Primary, 2015 for the Junior Secondary and 2018 for the Senior Secondary. This will
be entrenched in the Education Act.

3.2 Curriculum and its Relevance to Vision 2030
Curriculum is the sum total of the learning opportunities presented to a learner by the
environment, especially planned, organized and constructed for that purpose (Education
Act, Cap. 211). Curriculum is defined as a plan for providing learning opportunities and
experiences to our learners to achieve educational goals and specific objectives for the
Kenyan society. There is no better general statement of purpose of education in Kenya
than that of National Goals of Education. First, enlarge learners‘ knowledge, experiences
and imaginative understanding and thus their awareness of moral values and capacity for
enjoyment. Secondly, enable him/her enter the world after Basic Education as an active
participant in society and responsible contributor to it, capable of achieving as much
independence as possible.

Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 recognizes the importance of curriculum in the promotion
of quality education and training and has specified policies and strategies to ensure the
development of quality curriculum. The mandate to carry out research and develop
affordable and relevant curriculum and curriculum support materials for quality education
and training for all levels of education except university lies with the Kenya Institute of
48

Education (Education act Cap. 211 of 1968 and Kenya Institute of Education Order 2010
under the State Corporations Act Cap. 446).
The National Goals of Education reflect the aspirations of the people of Kenya as stated in
the Constitution of Kenya (2010) and the Kenya Vision (2030). These goals provide a
framework for developing a national curriculum where the key learning areas focus on
learners, content, opportunities, experiences and evaluation.
Through education, Kenya seeks to build a just and cohesive society, with equitable social
development and a clean and secure environment. Education is, therefore, a critical means
of realizing the desired growth and development goals in a country. The following will be
achieved through education:
(a)

Poverty reduction

(b)

Increased individual earnings

(c)

Enhanced democracy and good governance

(d)

Strengthening of skills and abilities

(e)

Improved nutrition and health promotion for economic growth

(f)

Enhanced productivity.

3.2.1 Recent Curriculum Reviews
The current primary and secondary school curricula were reviewed in 2002; and in order to
address the changes in the Teacher Education, The Primary Teacher Education and the
Diploma Teacher Education curricula were reviewed in 2004 and 2007, respectively.
Since then, new developments that need to be appreciated have emerged. These include:
(a)

Kenya Vision 2030 was launched in 2008

(b)

The Constitution of Kenya (2010) was promulgated in 2010

(c)

The East African protocol is ongoing

Issues appertaining to these recent developments are not addressed in the current
curriculum.

3.2.2 Summative Evaluation for Primary and Secondary School Curricula, 2009

49

The summative evaluation of primary and secondary school curricula (Republic of Kenya,
2009) identified the following gaps as regards the relevance of the current curricula:
(a) The content addresses nationalism, patriotism and national unity but the social context
impedes the inculcation of these values;
(b) Implementation of the primary education content relegates practical skills necessary
for economic development as espoused in Vision 2030 to non-examinable subjects. As
a result, the acquisition of requisite practical technological and entrepreneurial skills is
not addressed;
(c) Achievement of the goal of producing morally upright and patriotic Kenyans,
achieving social cohesion has been hampered by the fact that carrier subjects like
History and Government, and Religious Studies at the secondary level are optional;
and
(d) The needs of learners with special needs are addressed. However, inadequate
resources at the implementation stage raise concerns.

Additionally, the manner in which the current curriculum is delivered does not facilitate
the full realization of the national goals of education. Monitoring reports (2004, 2006, and
2007) indicate that at secondary school level, only 50% of the learners are taught Physical
Education while at primary school level, the subject is hardly taught yet it is compulsory.
Creative Arts is another compulsory subject at primary school level which is hardly taught.
This is an integrated subject which comprises music, drawing and craft and is designed to
nurture learners‘ talents. Music and Fine Art are taught in very few secondary schools
especially National Schools, and hence the majority of secondary school students have no
opportunity to develop their talents along these lines.

3.2.3 Submissions to the Task Force
According to submissions from members of the public to the Task Force and presentations
during the County visits, the following issues were raised in relation to the current
curriculum:
(a) It is overloaded in that there is too much content to be covered, forcing learners to
spend all their time on books and limits time to play and spend holidays at home.

50

(b) There is no emphasis on technical subjects in that the few technical subjects offered
are optional and that they are offered in few schools.
(c) The curriculum is objective oriented and geared towards passing examinations. This
approach hampers learning as learners are often drilled to pass examinations.
(d) There is too much focus to joining university and thus any post-secondary education is
looked down upon. This has impacted negatively on middle level training which in
essence produces the bulk of the human resource required to drive the country towards
Vision 2030.
(e) It provides limited opportunity for individual talent development.
(f) It is not responsive to current needs of the society as spelt out in the Vision 2030 and
the Constitution.
(g) It lays no emphasis on ICT, Technology and Science.
(h) Linkage with the world of work is weak.

In addition, the current curriculum does not address the following:
(i) Technology, innovativeness and entrepreneurship, which are the prime drivers of
Vision 2030.
(j) Primary school teacher‘s education training is at certificate level, yet global trends
indicate that the lowest level of teacher education is at diploma.
(k) local communities‘ needs and priorities.
What this means is that the current primary, secondary and teacher education curricula do
not address the dictates of Vision 2030, the Constitution and regional integration.
Furthermore, a relevant curriculum should instil positive values, mould character, moral
and spiritual formation of the learners.

Aligning the curriculum to address the aspirations of Vision 2030, the Constitution and the
East African Community treaty is a priority. The content for Basic Education should
therefore be designed with the view of equipping the learners with relevant knowledge that
emphasizes on technology, innovation and entrepreneurship (Vision 2030). In addition, the
learners should have an opportunity to develop their full capacities in order to live and
work in dignity, enhance the quality of their lives, make informed decisions and continue
with learning as a lifelong engagement.
51

3.2.4 Recommendations
1. The Task Force recommends a major reform of the curriculum to:
(a)

Align it with the Constitution, 2010 and to address the dictates of Vision 2030.

(b)

Structure the curriculum within a skills and competences framework that
identifies the knowledge, skills and competences that all learners will acquire, and
which will provide both vertical and horizontal coherence.

(c)

Develop a progressive assessment framework which identifies the knowledge,
skills and competences that will be assessed for each level of Basic Education
(Lower Primary, Upper Primary, Junior Secondary, and Senior Secondary).

(d)

Address local needs and include the study of local knowledge and culture. A
review of all textbooks to ensure they are aligned with the Constitution, especially
with regards to equal opportunities, gender and civil rights and the content
addresses the skills and competences framework.

2. The Task Force also recommends the teaching of the following core subjects at all
learning levels;
(a) Citizenship (it should encompass History of Kenya and the Constitution)
(b) ICT
(c) Entrepreneurship
(d) Environmental Studies
(e) Languages for global competitiveness.

NB: See guidelines on further curriculum content for basic education in Appendix I.
3.3 TIVET
TIVET (Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training) is the Kenyan
version of the internationally known TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and
Training). It is a comprehensive term referring to pragmatically important components of a
national training system that entails ―those aspects of educational process involving, in
addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, and the
acquisition of knowledge, practical skills, and attitudes relating to occupations in various
sectors of economic and social life.‖ (UNESCO, 2001)

52

TIVET provides and promotes lifelong education and training for self-reliance. The
training programmes are expected to provide opportunities for individuals to learn the
practical, social and personal skills that will enable them to function at workplaces and as
members of society. The programmes are also to provide for progress within their
occupational area and serve as avenues to further education and training.
TIVET programmes are to be designed in line with the government‘s goal of
industrialization by the year 2020 and Kenya Vision 2030, which will enhance the
transformation of Kenya into a newly-industrialized, middle income country providing a
high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure environment. Curriculum is a
crucial component of any training process as it is what ultimately shapes the outcomes of
training programmes. It is thus important that curriculum processes are fairly harmonized
across the public and private sectors.

3.3.1 Current Situation
Currently, there exists divergence in TIVET curricula in various Technical and Vocational
Training Institutions in Kenya. Fragmented curriculum development, training, assessment
and certification of TIVET have made it difficult for prospective employers to determine
the comparative value of qualifications from centralized and decentralized systems. In
addition, the TIVET programme has other challenges such as:
(i) Inflexible and outdated TEP curricula
(ii) Mismatch between skills learnt and skills demanded by modern industries
(iii) Inadequate mechanisms for quality assurance
(iv) Inadequate physical facilities for training, coupled with lack of sufficient modern
equipment
(v) Inadequate and expensive training materials and textbooks
(vi) Low participation of the industry and private sector in curriculum design and
development, training and assessment of skills.

This framework shall therefore provide the platform for harmonization and rationalization
of TIVET curricula, examinations, testing and certification. There is need to review and
develop the curriculum that addresses the emerging needs of our society in order to enable
the learners to acquire and develop the desired knowledge, skills, values and attitudes for
53

life in the emerging knowledge society. In addition, it will enable the government attain
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), industrialization by the year 2020 and the
Kenya Vision 2030, in which TIVET has been identified as critical in realizing its
economic, social and political pillars.

In order to achieve this objective, the TIVET Curriculum Framework should be shared and
owned by all stakeholders to enhance implementation. Further to this, the Task Force
recommends the following:
(a) Provide vertical and lateral curriculum overlaps to facilitate credit points transfer
between successive training levels and from one programme to another.
(b) Introduce adequate, relevant contents and curriculum delivery modes to cater for new
and emerging job performance trends as well as modern planning and quality
management best practices.
(c) Integrate ICT driven industrial processes and technologies in the trade contents on
national production systems.
(d) Adopt a broadly scoped, units driven, competences based modular curriculum design
model to achieve multi-skill training programmes, flexible attendance, self-paced
learning and alternative routes of progression via the course modules formulation.
(e) Adopt an appropriate mechanism for syllabus development that makes testing flexible
and responsive to the current trends in the skilled labour market.
(f) Increase the general academic component of the curriculum to cater for the life skills
and knowledge of citizens.
(g) Develop programmes on pedagogy and andragogy to satisfy demand for TIVET
trainers.
(h) Design a flexible technical teacher education curriculum that allows skilled persons
with valuable experience as trainers or part-time instructors to be considered for credit
transfer when they enrol for teacher training or pedagogy.
(i) Training programmes be designed on the basis of five broad areas, namely:


Science, engineering and technology



Applied sciences



Business management



Hospitality management



Entrepreneurship and innovation.

54

3.4 University
Currently, universities develop and implement their own curricula in the disciplines they
offer. The Commission for Higher Education (CHE) oversees the curricula and
programmes offered at private universities.

(i) Universities should develop their curricula and programmes based on the curricula
offered at the Basic Education cycle.
(ii) CHE should undertake to quality assure the programmes offered at all Universities in
the country.
(iii) Fast track the passage of proposed TIVET Bills to oversee the national skills and
competences training programmes
(iv) Encourage high academic achievers with talents to pursue TIVET courses to promote
high standards in the institutions.
(v) Establish mechanisms for linkages and credit transfers to attract students of high
calibre in TIVET courses, facilitate horizontal and vertical mobility to sustain high
standards and quality in skills and competences in various programmes.

55

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 ACCESS, EQUITY, QUALITY AND RELEVANCE

4.1 Background Information
Introduction
(a) Access, equity, quality and relevance are fundamental characteristics that define and
drive systems of education and training. In the design and implementation of
education and training systems, governments worldwide pay special attention to the
four characteristics. Over the years, the Kenya Government has vigorously expanded
access to quality and relevant system of education and training, which also offers
equal opportunity to all, thereby ensuring equity.
(b) Access to education and training means adequacy of opportunities available to persons
that wish to enter the system.
Measures of access include:


Gross Enrolment Ratios (GERs)



Net Enrolment Ratios (NERs)



Transition Rates from one cycle to the next



Dropout Rates (DRs) within each cycle – negative



Retention Rates



Completion Rates



Children out of school or training institutions (but should be in)



The number of education and training institutions



Regional and gender parity.

Other indicative measures include adequacy or otherwise of infrastructure, learning
materials and teachers. Even if the enrolment ratios are high, large class sizes show
inadequacy of infrastructure and hence limitation in expanding access. Similarly, high
pupil to textbook ratios affects quality and limits expansion of access.

Additionally, high Pupil to Teacher Ratios (PTR) affect both quality and opportunity to
absorb more pupils for training, as are also the inadequacy of training equipment,
laboratories and workshops and trainers with particular skills.

56

(c) Equity means offering equal opportunities for education and training to all,
irrespective of gender, ethnicity, religion, political affiliation or social status. Special
attention is focussed on disadvantaged persons such as persons with special needs and
those from marginalised communities and minorities.

Equity refers to fairness in participation in or using a service or allocation of resources. In
education and training, equity focuses on:
(i) Gender – girls vis-à-vis boys or females vis-à-vis males
(ii) Regional differences
(iii) ASAL/Slum areas vis-à-vis other areas
(iv) Socio-economic classes, mainly the poor vis-à-vis the rich
(v) Special Needs – such as disadvantages caused by disabilities.

In education and training, equity is the most elusive characteristic at all levels and in some
cases, affirmative action is needed to realise it.
(d) Quality is an indicator of the extent to which educational goals and objectives are
achieved through implementation activities. Such objectives are normally stated in the
curriculum documents. Assessment of quality is complicated as the tendency is to peg
it to examinations performance.
(e) Relevance refers to being ‗fit for purpose‘, and depends mainly on the curriculum
content, learning materials and other support resources. An education and training
system is relevant if it seeks to meet the development needs of the nation as
anticipated by the national goals. The adoption of the development blueprint Vision
2030, and Constitution, 2010, has raised issues of relevance for the Kenyan education
and training system. Proper needs assessment must be conducted, followed by
curriculum review and revisions of learning materials. Teachers have to be trained and
retrained in new skills areas to implement the new curricula.

4.2 Situational Analysis
4.2.1 Access and Equity
Since the attainment of independence in 1963, the Government of Kenya has massively
expanded access to education several-fold. Basic indicators of access show that primary
and secondary schools have increased from 6,058 and 151 in 1963 to 27,489 and 7,308 in

57

2010, respectively. Equally, primary and secondary enrolments have increased from
891,553 and 30,121 in 1963 to 9.4 million and 1.8 million in 2010, respectively.

The data on GERs & NERs are given in Chapter One. To emphasize the rapid expansion,
the data on institutions of learning are shown in Table 4.1 for the period 2006 to 2010.

Table 4.1: The number of education and training institutions for the period 2006 to
2010
Type

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Public

22,796

23,100

23,783

23,823

23,980

Private

10,325

14,163

14,171

14,424

14,543

Sub-total

33,121

37,263

37,954

38,247

38,523

Public

17,946

18,063

18,130

18,543

19,059

Private

8,983

8,041

8,076

8,124

8,430

Sub-total

26,929

26,104

26,206

26,667

27,489

Public

3,646

4,245

4,454

5,019

5,296

Private

2,013

2,240

2,112

1,952

2,015

Sub-total

5,659

6,485

6,566

6,971

7,311

Public

47

45

44

43

44

Private

16

24

88

136

194

Total

63

69

132

179

238

Public

7

7

7

7

7

Private

17

21

21

24

25

Total

24

28

28

31

32

Pre-primary
Schools

Primary schools

Secondary schools

TTC (All levels)

University

From the above Table, it is noted that the growth in the number of institutions:
(a) Has been steady at school level.
58

(b) Has declined for public Teacher Training Colleges, but recorded rapid increases for
private Teacher Training Colleges. (It should be observed, however, that the
mushrooming of these private TTCs poses a threat to the quality of training.)

(c) Has remained constant for public universities but recorded modest increases for
private universities.

A critical challenge is how to enforce quality and standards for the private teacher training
colleges of which there are 105 for pre-primary teachers and 89 for primary teacher
training. The public universities have expanded by annexing middle level colleges and
converting them into university campuses.

Another basic indicator of expansion is the level and percentage of expenditure in
education. The expenditure data are given in Chapter Sixteen of the report and shows that
in the last five years, expenditure has increased from Ksh. 92.6 to 160.33 billion.

With regard to equity, the regional and gender dimensions are the most dominant for
enrolments. Gender parity index or ratio, is a measure of the enrolment of girls vis-à-vis
boys at the various levels of education. Also to consider are the regional GERs and NERs.
Table 4.2 (a) below summarises the enrolments for girls vis-à-vis boys over selected years,
for the primary level, while Table 4.2 (b) gives similar data for the secondary level.
Table 4.2 (a): Primary Enrolments by gender for selected years: 2001 – 2010 for
selected years
Year

2001

2004

2007

2010

(i) Boys

3,002,500

3,815,500

4,222,800

4,759,900

(ii) Girls

2,939,100

3,579,300

4,031,000

4,629,300

Total

5,941,600

7,394,800

8,253,800

9,389,200

Parity Index (ii) ÷ (i)

0.98

0.94

0.95

0.97

59

Table 4.2 (b): Secondary students Enrolments by gender from 2001 to 2010 for
selected years
Year

2001

2004

2007

2010

(i) Boys

403,390

489,006

638,690

914,971

(ii) Girls

359,855

483,128

541,577

786,530

Total

763,245

972,134

1,180,267

1,701,501

0.99

0.85

0.86

Parity Index (ii)  0.89
(i)

4.3 Issues and Challenges
4.3.1 ECDE Level
(a) Quality assurance services at the ECDE level have not been offered since the level
was not part of mainstream education.
(b) Three curricula are offered at the level, which is a preparatory phase for entry into
primary.
(c) Relevance of education and training at the level is not established because the level
was outside the education mainstream.

4.3.2 Primary
Notwithstanding the introduction of Free Primary Education in 2003, there are still some
issues and challenges relating to access, equity, quality and relevance.

(a) Access
There is no total access as not all children who should be in school are in school because
of:
(i) Inadequate level of capitation, leading to levies that parents cannot afford.
(ii) Delayed remittances of the grant, forcing school management to impose levies to
purchase urgently needed learning materials at the beginning of each year.
(iii) Certain cultural practices like early marriages and tending to livestock, forcing girls
and boys out of school.
(iv) Inadequate infrastructural facilities, especially lack of classrooms to accommodate all
children.

60

(b) Equity
i)

While gender parity index generally averages close to one, there is variation in equity
when considering ASAL regions and urban slums vis-à-vis the rest of the country.

ii) There is also lack of equity in the distribution of various resources, especially
teachers, who resist posting to ASAL (hardship) areas.
Nomadic communities are victims of severe poverty, which militates against universal
access
to education. Thus there is no equity in accessing quality, relevant education and training.

(c)
i)

Quality
There is severe shortage of teachers or understaffing which, combined with inadequate
learning materials, lead to poor quality.

ii) There is lack or inadequate quality assurance services due to a combination of factors,
amongst them:


Shortage of quality assurance and standards officers.

 Shortage of resources such as vehicles and budgetary allocations for carrying out
the work.


Inadequate relevant training on quality assurance.

iii) One of the effects of the introduction Free Primary Education (FPE) in 2003 was an
upsurge in pupil enrolments, from 6,131,000 to 7,117,300, an increase of nearly one
million. The upsurge was at its peak in Standard One, which registered an increase of
over 330,000 pupils (more than one third of the overall increase). The negative effect
of that was the drop in the quality of education due to understaffing, inadequacy of
learning materials and crowded classrooms. As these factors persist, the quality of
primary education continues to suffer with the consequence that many well to do
parents have transferred their children to private schools.

(d) Relevance
The present curricula and learning materials are not relevant to the demands created by the
2010 Constitution and goals of Vision 2030 since no reviews have been undertaken since
2006.

61

4.3.3 Secondary Education
The issues and challenges at secondary level are essentially similar to those at primary
level with the following additions:
(a) There is gender disparity in the enrolments at this level, demonstrating inequitable
access.
(b) Due to cultural and historical biases, the resources for science education are not
equitably distributed to girls‘ schools vis-à-vis the boys‘ schools.
(c) Due to variations in supporting infrastructure, access to ICT services is inequitable.
(d) There are variations in quality of education and training services because of differing
quality of management in schools.
(e) Inadequate number of secondary schools to ensure high transition rates from primary
level and hence, limited access.
(f) Extreme poverty in slum urban areas and ASAL regions, militating against equity.
(g) Gender disparity against the girl-child with poor households preferring to support boys
if resources are limited.
(h) High cost of secondary education, especially boarding, militating against access and
equity, despite the FDSE grant, which is grossly inadequate.
(i) Disparity in resource allocations especially teachers, to different categories of schools,
which is against equity.
(j) The HIV AND AIDS scourge, which has left many orphans and militated against
access and equity.

4.3.4 Tertiary Level
(a) Low level of investment and funding at tertiary level has led to limited access to
persons in need of training at the level.
(b) Tertiary education and training institutions are not available in many regions and tend
to be concentrated in large urban centres. While some institutions have boarding
facilities, in general, there is difficulty in accessing the institutions.
(c) There is a general gender disparity in enrolments in tertiary institutions due to a
combination of factors, amongst them poor performance of girls in Mathematics and
Science at secondary level.
(d) Students in ASAL regions have low access to tertiary institutions.

62

(e) There is a general shortage of trainers and obsolete equipment and technology, leading
to poor quality of education and training at the level.

4.3.5 Teacher Training/Education
(a) There has been a general shortage of public teacher training colleges, leading to a
proliferation of private colleges. While private colleges have improved access, there is
low level of equity due to the costs involved.
(b) With several private institutions, quality assurance services cannot be effectively
offered and hence quality is not guaranteed.
(c) Current teacher training curriculum has not been reviewed to incorporate emerging
issues and hence not adequately relevant.
(d) The format of training allocates limited time to teaching practice, leading to poor
quality products, poor competency for the job.
(e) Research, innovation and technology curriculum has not been incorporated in the
Teacher Training.

4.3.6 Adult and Continuing Education
(a) There has been no systematic and planned investment in adult education centres and
hence low access.
(b) Even where communities and individuals open the centres, many adults are reluctant
to join the classes mainly because of other preoccupations, negative attitude and lack
of understanding of the value of adult education. Thus a low number of adults access
education and training.
(c) Due to the uncoordinated approach, not every region is properly targeted, leading to
low equity.
(d) There is no quality assurance at this level coupled with few trained and employed
teachers, leading to poor quality service delivery.
(e) Adults with disabilities rarely attend adult classes because of genuine challenges and
stigmatization.

4.3.7 University and Higher Education
(a) Whereas the qualification for entry to university was set at C+, the limited university
vacancies causes many qualified students to stay away from university, or join self-

63

sponsored programmes, private universities or middle level colleges. Thus, there is
low access to education and training at this level.
(b) As a result of low access and costly alternatives, there is no equity for education and
training at this level, as learners from rich households are favoured.
(c) Statistics available show gender disparity in university enrolments, more so in
engineering and technology programmes. Table 4.3 provides this scenario for the
period 2006 – 2010.

Table 4.3: University enrolments by gender, 2006 to 2010 (All programmes)
2006

2009

2010

56,517

60,504

62,753

89,611

89,257

Female

34,820

36,603

37,896

52,945

53,873

Total

91,337

97,107

100,649

142,556

143,130

Male

68,345

70,775

73,543

110,328

111,050

Female

43,884

47,464

49,304

68,407

69,928

Total

Private

2008

Male
Public

2007

112,229

118,239

122,847

178,735

180,978

203,566

215,346

223,486

321,281

334,108

Grand Total


Data for engineering and science-based programmes would show even greater gender
disparity.



Quality assurance in universities is conducted internally without benchmarking with
other universities. Enforcement of standards depends on strengths of individuals
involved and therefore quality varies and cannot be guaranteed.



Many universities conduct curriculum development without the involvement of
employers and hence, the relevance of education and training they offer do not meet
the needs of the labour market.

4.4 Recommendations
4.4.1 Expand access to ECDE by:
(a) Attaching the pre-primary component to each primary school
(b) Providing capitation grant to ECDE level
(c) In partnership with TSC, employ and deploy ECDE teachers.
64

4.4.2 Expand access to primary school by:
(a) Reviewing FPE grants upwards
(b) Investing more in infrastructure
(c) In partnership with TSC, employ and deploy more teachers
(d) Providing additional learning materials
(e) Abolishing all levies.

4.4.3 Expand access to secondary school by:
(a) Making the minimum size of a school to be three streams
(b) Opening junior secondary wings in idle primary school facilities
(c) Promoting private sector investments in secondary schools
(d) Building additional schools where there are established demands for places
(e) Abolishing all levies in schools
(f) Enforcing fees guidelines
(g) Reviewing FDSE grant upwards.

4.4.4 Enhance quality at all levels by:
(a) Training head teachers in skills of quality assurance, financial and human resource
management.
(b) Training, deploying and supporting quality assurance officers to do their work
effectively.
(c) Providing adequate learning materials.
(d) Carrying out continuous regular course assessments and use them to guide learners
towards better performance.

4.4.5 Promote equity by:
(a) Designing special affirmative action programmes for girls, ASAL regions and slum
areas.
(b) Abolishing all school levies which discriminate against poor households.

4.4.6 Make education and training relevant by:

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(a) Undertaking major curricula reviews informed by research and needs assessment, to
establish the challenges posed by the 2010 Constitution and skills needed for
achieving Kenya Vision 2030 goals.
(b) Reviewing and revising core learning materials to conform to the new curricula.
(c) In-servicing teachers to implement the new curricula.
(d) Redesigning teacher education curriculum and training programmes to prepare
teachers for implementing the new curricula.

4.5 Special Focus on Marginalised Areas and Disadvantaged Communities
4.5.1 Introduction
There are two categories of disadvantaged communities in Kenya. These are people living
in urban areas under abject poverty (in slums and informal settlements); and those living in
harsh arid and semi arid regions characterized by periodic droughts and famines. The latter
group is predominantly nomadic, as they have to move around in search of pasture and
water for their animals.

4.5.2 Situational Analysis
(a) The predominantly nomadic communities are found in the North Eastern, parts of
upper Eastern, North Rift and parts of the Coast of Kenya. As a result of the
challenges facing the education sector in these regions, the following measures are
taken to address the issue of access to education:
(i) Low cost boarding schools to provide access to learners as communities migrate
in search for pasture.
(ii) Special bursaries for ASAL regions.
(iii) Special bursaries for girls from North Eastern Province under the UNICEF/GoK
sponsorships.
(iv) School feeding programmes.
(v) Mobile schools.
(vi) Grants in mitigation against hunger.
(b) In urban slums and informal settlements, there are efforts to provide non-formal
institutions at both primary and secondary levels. This is in addition to public primary
schools. These institutions do not have regular programmes because, more often than
not, the learners are involved in a form of income generating activity to support
siblings, old or ailing parents. The teachers are mainly volunteers and are untrained. In
66

a study commissioned by UNICEF on NFE institutions in Nairobi in 2005, it was
established that the distribution of the NFE in Nairobi reflected the socio-economic
situations in the various divisions that make Nairobi, with Kasarani having 126 centres
while, Westlands had 36 centres.
(c) Despite these efforts, there are still members of these communities who have not been
reached yet. In 2007, for example, North Eastern Province‘s gross enrolment rate
stood at 30.5% and was the lowest nationally. Western Province led with a high of
135.6%.

4.5.3 Issues and Challenges faced by pastoralist/nomadic communities
(a) Nomadic communities operate under very harsh climatic conditions, and have a
myriad of competing needs yet very limited resources at their disposal.
(b) The difficulty of reaching children in nomadic communities with special needs who
were previously not attended to.
(c) Lack of appropriate school infrastructure hampers access to Basic Education in these
areas due to their geographical location and harsh ecological conditions.
(d) The mobility of nomadic communities, the hardships associated with ASALs makes
recruitment, deployment and retention of teachers difficult.
(e) Lack of a clear institutional framework to oversee the development, implementation,
Monitoring and Evaluation of Nomadic Education.
(f) Lack of proper co-ordination of the various agencies involved in the provision of
education in the nomadic areas.
(g) Duplication of efforts and unnecessary overlaps in the provision of education services.
(h) Lack of adequate information relating to nomadic education including data on the
population of school going age children out of school.
(i) Poor infrastructure in vast ASAL regions making accessibility difficult.
(j) Religious obligations which require children to attend Madrassa/Duksi.
(k) High levels of poverty among the pastoralists and cases of insecurity occasioned by
banditry and inter -clan conflicts that affect education negatively.
(l) The national curriculum does not meet the needs of nomadic children.
(m) Stigmatization of those with special needs, cultural and other practices such as FGM
and early marriages.
(n) Few teachers have a nomadic background, which makes recruitment, deployment and
retention of teachers difficult.
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(o) Boarding schools are culturally unresponsive to nomadic pastoralist children, creating
the fear of alienation of children from their communities‘ way of life. Majority of
these schools have inadequate water and sanitation facilities, lack bedding facilities,
and the harsh environmental conditions make children susceptible to communicable
skin and respiratory illnesses.

(a) Operationalize the Nomadic Education Policy framework to address the challenges in
the provision of education in ASALs and fast track the establishment of National
Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya (NACONEK).
(b) Integration of Madrassa/Duksi, which is a non-formal education system into the
formal education system in predominantly Muslim regions to improve access and
retention. The Madrassa institutions fit well into the nomadic lifestyle and enrich the
spiritual and moral virtues, which are highly valued by Muslim nomadic communities.
(c) Introduce Open Distance Learning (ODL) using local radio stations and mobile
telephony to boost the transmission to increase radio coverage and reception.
(d) Give incentives such as ―conditional cash transfers‖ to encourage enrolment and
retention of children in nomadic/pastoral areas.
(e) Expand and adequately finance feeder, mobile and low cost boarding primary schools.
These schools should be provided with qualified, experienced and motivated teachers.
In addition, full time boarding facilities that are not affected by the school academic
calendar should be introduced.
(f) Develop a coherent education implementation plan to address the needs of ASAL
areas.
(g) Establish rescue centres to cater for the vulnerable girl-child in ASALs.
(h) Rehabilitate one designated TTC to provide in-service training to teachers who are
prone to nomadism.
(i) Provide regular sensitization of community members on out-of-school children.
(j) Provide scholarships for school leavers who make teaching a career of choice in order
to have more local teachers.
(k) Establish pre-schools in ASAL areas, allocate capitation and development grants in
line with all Basic Education sub-sector funding.

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(l) Adopt a holistic approach to pastoralist education by ensuring provision of proper
water and sanitation in schools, immunization and regular de-worming of all school
going children, supplementary feeding and registration of births at school level.
(m) Provide better remuneration and conditions and terms of service for teachers working
in hardship regions for motivation, including the guarantee of teaching posts outside
these areas after completing a four-year contract. In addition, the resource/teaching
centres should be equipped with relevant instructional materials.
(n) Enhance and encourage Private Sector involvement in the development of university
education and training to ensure that universities produce graduates with proven
qualifications as required by industries. Expand university education in tandem with
population growth and the demand for university education and research to ensure
standards and quality are sustained.
(o) County Education Board to mobilise children and expand access, enhance equity and
ensure relevance of education.

4.6 Non-Formal Education
Non-Formal Education (NFE) is any organized system of learning activities outside the
framework of formal education system (National Action Plan on Education For All,
2003-2015). NFE was introduced in Kenya to address the education needs of children
and some adults who are unable to attend formal schools due to various social and
economic reasons. NFE is accessed at Non-Formal Schools (NFSs) and Non-Formal
Education Centres (NFECs).

NFSs and NFECs operate mainly with the support of governmental, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and communities. NFSs target primary school age children using
the 8.4.4 curriculum whereas NFECs target school age children and youth, below 18
years and use various curricula including the MOE NFE curriculum.

These institutions have been registered as self-help businesses by various government
bodies including the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Services. They are also
registered through church organizations and CBOs. The newly launched Alternative
Provision of Basic Education and Training (APBE&T) policy has given MOE the
mandate to register these institutions.

69

Large numbers of children in urban informal settlements are still un-enrolled due to a
plethora of factors, key of which is poverty. On this account, Nairobi‘s Gross and Net
Enrolment Rates is the second lowest in the country (GER – 61.8% compared to an
overall of 109.8% as at 2008 [Education Facts and Figures – October 2009).

4.6.1 Current Status
Non-Formal Education Centres are primarily in urban slums and other poverty stricken
areas especially in Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu. They are also found in ASAL areas in
parts of Coast, Eastern and North Eastern Provinces. There are some centres in rural areas.
The Government is involved in addressing the issues of access to education in these areas
by doing the following:
(a) Provision of instructional materials through funding for NFE institutions of urban
slums in different municipalities, namely, Nairobi, Thika, Mombasa, Kisumu, Kitale
and Eldoret.
(b) Provision of FPE tuition grants to some validated NFE schools.
(c) GOK/ADB infrastructure support for NFE schools.
(d) Capacity building of some SMC members. Over 900 members have so far been
trained on management of instructional support funds.
Despite these initiatives, there still remains many school age going children amongst the
urban poor who have limited access to education and low retention and completion rates
compared to other regions.

4.6.2 Issues and Challenges to NFE
(a) The MOE capacity to coordinate and support NFE service providers has been
inadequate due to financial constraints and inadequate NFE database with linkages to
the National EMIS.
(a) Weak management of NFE institutions for proper transparency and accountability due
to poor registration of NFE centres.
(b) Inadequate quality assurance services and resources in terms of infrastructure support
resulting to poor quality NFE programmes.
(c) Inadequate land, water, sanitation facilities, teaching and learning resources.
(d) The subsector is highly dynamic as the school can change status from being ineligible
for government grants to being eligible and vice versa. Enrolments levels are also
likely to fluctuate substantially over time. There is also the complexity of naming of
70

NFS determined by various reasons such as religion, locality and community
aspirations. These factors make obtaining grants difficult.
(e) Support: Programmes run by MOE in poor urban slums, such as the school feeding
programme or support grants for the Most Vulnerable Children (MVC) and
HIV/AIDS programmes are confined to formal schools and are yet to be expanded to
NFE institutions.
(f) Household poverty, HIV/AIDS, and geographical challenges coupled with continuing
high cost of education.
(g) Variability of curriculum offered across NFE. Some of these centres offer 8-4-4
curriculum while others offer NFE curriculum
(h) Negative attitude by the general public towards NFE as it is mostly viewed as
providing inferior education compared to the formal education system.
(i) Shortage of qualified and competent teachers who understand the diverse backgrounds
and needs of learners and who are able to transmit academic skills that can prepare
learners for further education and training. Most of the teachers also lack training on
pedagogical skills.

(a) Operationalize the Alternative Provision of Basic Education and Training (APBE&T)
Policy.
(b) The government, NGOs and other donors supporting NFE should prioritize and
harmonize teacher training for NFE Centres to enhance subject content mastery and
pedagogical skills.
(c) All providers of Non-Formal Education to work closely so as to be able to address
issues of accommodation, infrastructure, staffing, HIV AND AIDS, water, sanitation,
health and nutrition.
(d) Harmonize all players in the NFE sub-sector with a view to formalizing their
existence.
(e) Develop an examination framework for NFE curriculum to ensure accreditation and
linkages with formal curriculum.
(f) Prioritise the introduction of capitation/development grants to all Non-Formal
Education Centres/Schools to ensure availability of funds for tuition and relevant
instructional materials as a short-term measure.

71

(g) Make it easier for schools to register with the MOE by reviewing requirements for the
NFE schools, such as land ownership.
(h) Operate a flexible curriculum for NFE schools that entails the core subjects plus life
skills and entrepreneurship.
(i) Expand the physical facilities of the available public schools to operate a double shift
system to accommodate more students as public schools have adequate land to permit
expansion. This could include erecting storey buildings to accommodate more
classrooms and to save on prime land.
(j) Develop learning resource materials to support NFE curriculum implementation.
(k) The government should fast track the formalization of NFE and eventually phase out
the NFE centres.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 STANDARDS AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

5.1 Introduction
Developing standards in education and maintaining the desired quality remains a major
challenge across education systems throughout the world. Quality in Education is the
degree to which education can be said to be of high standard, satisfies basic learning needs,
and enriches the lives of learners and their overall experience of living (UNESCO, 2000).
During the World Education Forum held in Dakar in 2000, participants committed
themselves to improving the quality of all aspects of education. The delegates concluded
that quality is at the heart of education and is one of the key goals in achievement of EFA.
This conclusion was based on evidence that expanded enrolment must be accompanied by
enhancement of quality education if children are to be attracted to school, stay there and
achieve meaningful learning outcomes.

The role and character of Standards and Quality Assurance (SQA) varies from country to
country4. The purpose of Standard and Quality Assurance should be to identify strengths
and weaknesses at schools and wider institutional level so that schools may maintain
effective school management systems, improve the quality of education provided and raise
the educational standards achieved by pupils. In spite of the pivotal role SQA can play in
improving the quality, management, provision and output, the Task Force found out that
this role was weak and ineffective and subjected to severe resource constraints. To
maintain standards effectively requires regular institutional visits by trained and wellresourced specialists. It was also found out that only a relatively small share of education
resources is allocated to support this function. The challenge in Kenya remains that of
addressing the need for an effective and adequately financed sustainable SQA and support
service to teachers and all learning institutions. This is inevitable to facilitate the education
system to realize the Vision 2030 and The Constitution, 2010, along with other educational
objectives as spelt out in Sessional Paper No 1, 2005 and subsequent policy framework.

The government recognizes that the education and training is fundamental to the
achievement of the goals of Vision 2030. Education equips citizens with knowledge and

73

skills that enable them to make informed choices about their social and economic growth.
To achieve these, standards, relevance and quality will have to be addressed more
vigorously than ever before. Quality education, viewed from a lifelong perspective of
learners, focuses on what has been acquired through education programmes, in terms of
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values of learners as they participate in socio-economic
contexts.

Currently, the Ministry of Education has a Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards
mandated to undertake issues of quality and standards through independent assessment/
inspection. The Directorate‘s functions include establishing, maintaining, improving
quality and standards in all educational and training institutions whether public or private
other than Universities. Others functions are undertaking institutional reviews, organizing
and conducting subject mastery and pedagogical skills, upgrading for teachers and tutors,
conducting teacher proficiency, assessment of new institutions for registration, maintaining
and disseminating lists of approved learning and teaching materials, supervising and coordinating the implementation of curriculum in all educational and training institutions and
coordination of co-curricular activities at all levels. The purpose of Quality Assurance and
Standards assessment is to provide an independent evaluation of an institution‘s strengths
and weaknesses in order to support institutional management and other stakeholders in
reforming the institution.

5.1.2 Issues and Challenges
(a) The Directorate reports take long to be acted upon because of heavy bureaucratic
structures.
(b) The Directorate faces financial and infrastructural constraints. For instance, it is not
provided with adequate transport to enable its officers to reach as many institutions as
they would wish to.
(c) Quality Assurance officers are often directly recruited from serving teachers who may
lack the necessary skills, knowledge and competence to deliver on standards and
quality assurance.
(d) Officers recruited in the Directorate most often get deployed to other departments of
the education sector such as Education Officers, further aggravating staff shortage.
(e) There is no specific scheme of service for the officers to give them incentives to work.
74

(f) Standards and quality assurance services are irregular and rarely reach the target
institutions.

5.1.3 Major findings and issues from cluster hearings and literature review
(a) SQAs officers do not visit all institutions as required since they are few and lack
transport.
(b) SQA officers have been cited to lack the required skills and competences to add value
to the standards and quality of education in the institutions.
(c) It was observed at the cluster submissions that interaction between the officers and
school managers was often not cordial.
(d) School managers do not have the necessary skills and competences to monitor
standards and quality of curriculum delivery.
(e) School managers are not integrated in the standards and quality assurance service
delivery.
(f) Standards and quality assurances delivery services are poor in the counties and subcounties, as the once effective TAC system has collapsed.
(g) Delivery of education services in Kenya indicates that many children are learning very
little and that learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy are poor (Uwezo Kenya,
2011).
(h) Whilst enrolment rates at primary and secondary levels have increased, learning
achievement is not commensurate.
(i) Concerns were raised on how effectively ECDE would be managed as an integrated
level of Basic Education as well as constitutionally under the county governments.
(j) Submissions were made to the effect that the absence of school inspection services has
resulted in falling standards countrywide.
(k) Standards and Quality Assurance services have not been felt in foreign curricula
schools.

(a) SQA officers should be aptly trained to equip them with relevant skills and
competences.
(b) There should be a specific scheme of service for the quality assurance personnel.
(c) Proper recruitment mechanisms should be put in place to avoid enrolling less qualified
officers in this very important education service.
75

(d) SQA services should be provided with adequate funding and the necessary
infrastructure, such as vehicles, to facilitate research etc.
(e) SQA officers should receive appropriate and regular training, retraining and inservicing to ensure they possess relevant skills and competences.
(f) Managers of institutions should be integrated into the standards and quality assurance
delivery services and receive regular training and in-servicing to enable them to
effectively monitor standards and quality of curriculum delivery.
(g) Mechanisms should be established to ensure that standards and quality Services in
ECDE are co-ordinated on policy at national level and effectively devolved to
counties for implementation.
(h) More benchmarking opportunities be provided in developing countries to enhance the
capacity of SQA officers.
(i) SQA service programme should apply to all institutions including foreign curricula
ones.

5.2 Standards and Quality Assurance at Various Levels
5.2.1 Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) Level
Early Childhood Development and Education interventions are significant to the social and
economic development of a country as they provide children aged between 4 and 5 with a
strong start in life. Children who access ECDE services will be more likely to enrol in
primary schools at the right age and less likely to drop out of school or repeat grades.
There is also a high probability that these children will have improved school performance
and cognitive abilities than those who do not attend ECDE. The Task Force noted that
quality and standards directorate has not adequately monitored standards and quality of
ECDE institutions.

5.2.2 Major findings and issues from cluster hearings, submissions and literature
review
(a) The ECDE level of education is yet to be embraced as an important level of
education before a child joins Class 1.
(a) Standards and quality are low due to poor delivery of curriculum.
(b) Infrastructure and teaching/learning equipment are poor in most ECDE schools.
(c) Most infrastructure is unplanned and unsuitable for teaching and learning at ECDE
level.
76

(d) Standards and quality directorate has not focused on ECDE level for monitoring
teaching/ learning delivery.
(e) ECDE level has tended to concentrate mainly on cognitive learning rather than on the
child‘s talents, self-actualization, socialization and environmental appreciation.

The Education Standards and Quality Assurance services should monitor ECDE delivery
to ensure national standards and quality in delivery of the curriculum, infrastructure and
equipment. SQA services to be devolved to the counties to take care of ECDE.

5.3 Primary School Level
The following challenges were noted at the primary school level:
(a) Overcrowding in schools/classrooms hence - high pupil/teacher ratio.
(b) Inadequate infrastructure and equipment.
(c) Low capacity in numbers and skills levels.
(d) Inequitable regional distribution of teachers.
(e) Lack of empowerment of managers to monitor standards and quality in their schools.

review
i)

Free Primary Education has resulted in increased number of children and subsequent
over-stretched and overcrowded facilities and high pupil/teacher ratio.

ii) Poor quality of infrastructure - in terms of classrooms, sanitation and furniture in rural
areas and more so in ASAL areas.
iii) Most schools are not visited for standards and quality assurance monitoring due to
inadequate staff in DQAS.
iv) Most teachers prefer to work in urban areas.
v) The two-year teacher training programme is inadequate for teacher trainees to acquire
mastery in subject content, skills of pedagogy in the many subjects they are expected
to teach resulting to poor preparation for quality teaching.
vi) Head teachers and management committees lack the necessary skills to monitor
standards and quality of teaching in their schools.

77

vii) Emphasis on cognitive abilities for the sake of passing examinations has resulted in
rote learning.
viii) Most schools do not have well equipped libraries.

(a) With increased number of schools and pupil enrolment:
(i) Steps should be taken to employ more teachers to improve pupil/teacher ratio and
subsequently improve teacher contact for improved standards of teaching and
learning.
(ii) Steps should be taken to improve and strengthen the standards and quality
assurance services to schools by increasing the number of officers and to equip
managers with skills and competences to monitor standards and quality of
curriculum delivery in their schools.
(b) Standards and Quality Assurance officers should ensure that:
(i) Standards required, infrastructure and equipment are available in schools.
(ii) Teacher absenteeism is curbed.
(iii) Teacher imbalance in schools and regions is addressed quickly to ensure equal
standards and quality of education in the country.
(c) The current age limit of 6–13 years in primary schools should be enforced to avoid a
generation gap that can create problems of managing the children.
(d) Adequate funding and resources should be availed to enable standards and quality
assurance officers to reach as many schools as possible in the country.
(e) Develop and strengthen school based and Sub-county level standards and quality
assurance capacities.
(f) Establish a programme for teacher development through regular retraining and in
servicing to improve teacher competence in curriculum delivery.
(g) A system for periodically monitoring teaching and learning competences at various
grades using established attainment standards should be established.
(h) Quality assurance officers‘ powers should be strengthened to include taking action on
their reports from different schools.

5.4 Secondary School Level
The following were noted at the secondary school level:
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(a)

Overcrowding in schools/classrooms – high pupil/teacher ratio.

(b)

Inadequate infrastructure and equipment.

(c)

Inadequate standards and quality assurance officers to access all schools.

(d)

Inadequate teaching staff and inequitable region/school distribution of teachers.

(e)

Lack of empowerment of managers to monitor standards and quality in their
schools.

(f)

Inadequate or lack of infrastructure such as libraries and laboratories for effective
delivery of the curriculum in science and languages.

(g)

Theoretical (chalk and board) teaching even in science subjects emphasizing
mainly on cognitive skills.

review
(a) Free Day Secondary School Education has resulted in increased enrolment in schools
and subsequent overstretched, overcrowded facilities and high pupil/teacher ratio.
(b) Most schools are not visited for standards and quality assurance monitoring due to
inadequate staffing in the Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards.
(c) Managers lack the necessary skills and competence to monitor standards and quality
of teaching in their schools.
(d) Most schools lack adequate infrastructure and resources.

(a) Adequate funding and resources should be availed to enable standards and quality
assurance officers to reach as many schools as possible in the country.
(b) Develop and strengthen school-based and zonal level standards and quality assurance
capacities.
(c) Establish a programme for teacher development through regular retraining and inservicing to improve teacher competence in curriculum delivery.
(d) A system for periodically monitoring teaching and learning competences at various
grades using established attainment standards should be put in place.
(e) Capacities of standards and quality assurance officers should be strengthened,
including taking action on their reports from different schools.

79

5.5 TIVET Level
The following were noted at the TIVET level:
(a) There exists an inflexible TIVET curriculum, which is not responsive enough to the
changing needs of standards and quality of the labour market.
(b) There is a mismatch between the skills learned in training institutions and skills
demands of the industry.
(c) Inadequately trained teachers.
(d) Weak mechanisms to monitor standards and quality assurance in training institutions.
(e) Inadequate, old and outdated equipment and physical facilities for training.
(f) High cost of training equipment, materials, and textbooks, most of which are sourced
from overseas.
(g) Inadequate participation of the private sector in curriculum design, development
process, monitoring of standards and quality of training.

5.5.2 Major findings and issues from cluster hearings submissions and literature
review
(a) There is a general perception that TIVET training programmes, especially those
practical in nature are for low performing learners.
(b) Facilities and equipment that once existed in secondary schools to teach industrial
education have been left to go to waste and disuse.
(c) There has been a systematic taking over of established middle level technical and
polytechnic institutions by Universities, thus reducing their original core purpose of
training middle level certificates and diploma graduates.
(d) Admissions to TIVET institutions is not based on academic, skills, qualifications and
talents but on the applicants‘ needs.
(e) Lack of clear linkages and credit transfers to facilitate horizontal and vertical mobility.
(f) Un-coordinated standards and quality assurance programmes in TIVET institutions.
(g) Inadequate funding to enable TIVET institutions train for the market.

The TIVET sector as viewed in the context of Vision 2030 in terms of producing human
resource to enable the country rise to a higher level of industrial development, is a critical
area to be revitalized. The Task Force thus recommended the following:
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(a) The need to review and harmonize the many subjects curricula in TIVET to establish
acceptable national standards and quality.
(b) Encourage the industry/private sectors that are consumers of TIVET graduates to
participate in curricula design, development process, and monitoring standards and
quality of training through industrial attachments and internships of students.
(c) SQA officers should be trained, retrained and in-serviced in the requisite skills and
competences to enable them to deliver standards and quality services to TIVET
institutions.
(d) Ensure regular review and upgrading of equipment and infrastructure in the training
institutions offering technical education to respond to the changing standards and
quality of training.
(e) Actively revive TIVET programmes in secondary schools through the provision of
facilities for industrial arts to offer technical education to promote and attract early
interest in TIVET courses to ensure high standards and quality graduates in order to
prepare them for various TIVET courses.
(f) Technical teachers should be trained, retrained and in-serviced to ensure that schools
and technical institutions perform to the required training standards and quality
delivery of curricula as will be acceptable to the industry.
(g) Establish an effective mechanism to devolve the standards and quality services from
the national level to the counties for close monitoring of TIVET programmes in the
institutions.

5.6 Teacher Education Level
The following were noted at Teacher Education level:
(a) Only about 44% of pre-primary teachers are trained.
(b) Pre-primary teachers have largely been trained privately or through government
holiday teaching programmes.
(c) A large percentage of pre-primary teacher training curriculum at the pre-primary
training level is yet to be harmonized e.g. there is the Kenya Institute of Education,
Montessori curricula, headmistress curricula etc.
(d) Majority of trainers at all levels of teacher training education lack the necessary skills
and competences to train teachers.
(e) Teacher training education suffers from low funding especially at the Primary level.
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(f) There is lack of adequate and appropriate tuition, equipment and materials particularly
in Learning Resource Centres (LRCs).
(g) Dilapidated physical facilities at the training institutions.
(h) Inadequate ICT infrastructure, equipment and materials to incorporate ICT
programmes in the training of teachers.
(i) Teacher Training Colleges suffer from inadequate, old and poorly maintained
transport facilities, which affect teaching practices.
(j) The pre-service teacher training curriculum is yet to fully capture modern trends in
education e.g. ICT and other emerging and contemporary issues.
(k) Entry level of ECDE teacher trainees is not standard.
(l) Over-emphasis on content rather than pedagogical skills.

review
(a) Most of teacher trainees do not have teaching as a first career choice at all levels of
teacher training.
(b) Training colleges and universities admit students with low grades as opposed to other
disciplines.
(c) Schools and communities have not been well sensitized to support trainees on
teaching practice.
(d) Submissions were received that diploma teachers are often more effective than
university degree teachers.
(e) Principals and Boards of Management are ill equipped to perform standards and
quality assurance duties.

(a) There should be a harmonized national training curriculum for the pre-primary
teachers to establish national standards and quality to be monitored by the ESQAC.
(b) Adequate and appropriate teaching/learning materials and infrastructure should be
provided in all teacher training colleges.
(c) Trainers of trainees should receive the necessary pedagogy and skills to teach in
teacher training colleges and universities
(d) Adequate funding should be made available to all training colleges at all levels.
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(e) Adequate transport, learning/teaching materials should be made available to teacher
trainees on practice.
(f) Communities and schools should be sensitized to support trainees on teaching practice
as part of the training programmes.
(g) Principals, tutors and Boards of Management should be equipped with the necessary
knowledge and skills to undertake standards and quality assurance duties for effective,
quality teacher training.
(h) Teacher training colleges should not be dumping places for failed teachers from
secondary schools as this negatively affects standards and quality of teachers
produced.
(i) Explore possibilities of ensuring that all trainees for teacher training are vetted to
establish their interest and commitment to teaching as a career.
(j) Adequate competent staff should be deployed at the county level to ensure effective
monitoring of standards and quality teacher training at the colleges and at the
University level, the senates to establish mechanisms to do the same.

5.7 University Level
The following were noted:
(a) Each university is established by an independent Act of Parliament. Issues of
standards and quality are not harmonized across the board.
(b) The Commission of Higher Education (CHE) is mandated to regulate higher education
hence standards and quality in universities. However, CHE pays more attention to
standards and quality in private universities.
(c) There is lack of clear mechanisms for consultation and collaboration to harmonize
issues of standards and quality.
(d) There is lack of a harmonized programme to train lecturers in pedagogy, a situation
that does not guarantee well coordinated standards and quality in university education.
(e) The increased demand for university education has resulted in overcrowding in lecture
rooms – affecting lecturer/student ration, standards and quality.
(f) The high number of students has put pressure on existing infrastructure and
instructional equipment.
(g) Low funding has affected development of additional infrastructure and equipment to
match the increased demand.
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review
(a) There is a mismatch between what universities teach and the demands of industries in
both standards and skills.
(b) Public and private universities have become much commercialized thus compromising
standards and quality.
(c) The parallel degree programmes in most public universities, while opening more
places for students who qualify, have overstretched the capability for the available
lecturers to effectively and competently deliver on the teaching/learning programmes.
(d) There is a lot of part-time teaching in universities due to shortage of university
lecturers and tutors in the country, thus compromising standards and quality of
education.
(e) Views were expressed that there was a general drop of standards and quality in
degrees offered in both public and private universities.

(a) Restructure and mandate the Commission of Higher Education to be the national
standards and quality agency for all universities (Public and Private) education and
training.
(b) Enhance standards and quality mechanisms in university education and training
through CHE.
(c) Lecturers and tutors should receive training and skills to ensure standard and quality
delivery of curricula.
(d) Design an enhanced programme to produce more lecturers and tutors to meet the
demand if universities are to produce highly rating and quality graduates.
(e) Internship and attachment should be integrated into the training system to enhance
standards, quality and relevance to meet market and industry needs.
(f) Introduce a programme to equip lecturers in higher institutions of learning with strong
communication skills to facilitate delivery of curriculum content.

5.8 Adult Basic Education Level
The following were noted:
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(a) Low participation rates.
(b) Inadequate funding and other relevant resources.
(c) Inappropriate teaching methods that have not added value to the standards and quality
of delivery in the sector.
(d) Regional and gender disparities in participation rates.
(e) Low standards and quality of programmes delivery.
(f) The teachers engaged are either unqualified or lack the necessary andragogy for such
learners.
(g) Negative image hence stigmatization of such learners.
(h) Unclear transition and linkages for self-progression of the learners.
(i) Lack of standards and quality assurance mechanisms of the sector.
(j) Inadequate teaching and learning materials to support the teaching and learning
processes.
(k) Uncoordinated large number of service providers such as government departments,
communities, non-governmental organizations, faith-based organizations etc. resulting
in low standards and quality of service delivery.
(l) Uncoordinated curricula offered by various providers.

review
(a) Adult male learners were embarrassed by participating in the same classes with female
learners.
(b) Most men do not attach much value to Adult Basic Education.
(c) Learners do not see the value the sector adds in the absence of linkages for their
personal growth and progression.
(d) Claims that there was lack of a national assessment and certification framework has
demotivated the learners as they see no future in their efforts to learn.
(e) Issues were raised that there was dependence on unqualified teachers, who were
largely poor performers in their respective fields of study.
(f) Reports that learning was taking place in borrowed classrooms, and whose availability
depended on the goodwill of facility providers e.g. primary schools.

85

(a) Standards and quality assurance services should be integrated to an overall national
system under the ESQAC.
(b) An assessment and national qualification framework to provide opportunities for
linkages with the formal education and training systems to create re-entry at all levels
to help in monitoring standards and quality should be established.
(c) To ensure standards and quality of delivery, qualified teachers should be employed,
with an established scheme of service to motivate and retain staff.
(d) More funding and resources should be made available to improve on standards and
quality.
(e) Adult Basic Education should be implemented through devolved Adult Education
Boards in County Education Offices for effective delivery and monitoring of standards
and quality.
(f) The centres for delivery of Adult Basic Education should be well identified, for
regular use, and hours of attendance agreed upon.
(g) A relevant, more suitable curriculum should be developed for the adult learners to
comprise of numeracy, basic literacy, communication skills and to integrate
acquisition of skills with day-to-day lives of the people to improve on their
performances in their daily economic activities.

5.8.4 Strengthening Standards and Quality Assurance Services in Educational
Institutions
Based on the legal principle nemo judex in sua causa (no one can be a judge in his own
cause) and given the state of the education sector; high teacher absenteeism, high pupil
dropout, declining capacity of students entering universities, the unemployability of many
school graduates and the lack of entrepreneurial skills of many school leavers, the Task
Force recommends that the proposed semi autonomous Education Standards and Quality
Assurance Commission (ESQAC) be established. It will function as the national custodian
of standards and quality in education. It will guide all service providers across the
education sector in order to:
(a) Ensure the effectiveness of policy implementation, strategic planning, resource
mobilisation and the management of resources by ministries and institutions
concerned with education, and their management bodies.

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(b) Ensure efficient service delivery at ECDE, basic and tertiary institutions.
(c) Liaise with KNEC and KIE in matters of curriculum assessment and development.
(d) Coordinate co-curricular activities for the development of a holistic Kenyan at
National and County levels.
(e) Ensure that quality education and learning outcomes are being provided to the
Nation and that quality institutional leadership is being provided.
(f) Provide effective sector planning especially with regards to access, relevance, equity
and quality of services provided to the learners.

5.9 Context of Quality Assurance
The Task Force was guided in its thinking about Quality Assurance and Standards by the
UNESCO EFA Quality Assurance Framework. It includes the following dimensions:
(a) Learner Characteristics: Quality education includes learners who are healthy, ready
to learn and are supported in learning by their families and communities. Differences
in learner characteristics provide ways in which education providers can intervene to
improve quality.
(b) Context: This dimension considers education to exist within a society. A quality
context is one that provides an environment that is healthy, safe, and gender sensitive.
The same environment should also provide adequate resources and facilities for
learning. Tied to this, is a content that is reflected in the relevant curricula and
materials.
(c) Enabling inputs, which comprise resources that are required to provide quality
education. These inputs include human (teachers and educational administrators),
physical (materials, classrooms). This dimension includes participatory governance
and management, and engagement with local communities and cultures.
(d) Teaching and learning dimension considers what takes place in the classroom.
These are processes that have a focus on classroom activities involving trained
teachers using learner-centred methodologies. This includes time spent in learning,
methods of assessment, styles of teaching, language of instruction and how classrooms
are organized.

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(e) Learning outcomes, which encompass knowledge, skills, and attitudes. These
outcomes also have linked to the national goals of education. Specifically, learning
outcomes are expressed in terms of test grades, emotive and attitudinal outcomes.
These five dimensions are captured in the following framework:

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Figure 5.1: Framework for understanding Educational Quality

Enabling Inputs

Learner
Characteristics
- Aptitude
- Perseverance
- School readiness
- Prior knowledge
- Barriers to

Teaching and Learning
- Learning time
- teaching methods
- Assessment, feedback,
incentives
- Class size
- Teaching and Learning
Materials
- Physical infrastructure and
facilities
- Human resources, teachers,
principals, inspectors, supervisors,
administrators

Outcomes
- Literacy and life skills
- Creative and emotional
skills
- Values
- Social benefits

Context
- Economic

and labour
conditions in
the
community
- Educational
knowledge
and support
infrastructur
e

- Public
resources
available for
education
Competitiveness
of the teaching
profession on
the labour
market
- National
governance and
management
strategies

- Philosophical
standpoint of
teacher and
learner
- peer effects
- Parental
support
- Time
available for
schooling and
work

- National
standards
- Public
expectation
s
Globalizatio
n

Source: UNESCO GMR 2005

5.10 Monitoring and Evaluation
The Task Force observed that the Government of Kenya through the Ministry of Education
(MoE) is committed to the provision of quality Education for All.

As stated in the policy framework of the Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005, the overall goal is
to achieve Education For All (EFA) guided by the national philosophy of education.
Education philosophy emphasizes the provision of holistic quality education and training
which involve the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains. It further espouses the

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values of patriotism, equality, peace, security, honesty, humility, love, respect, tolerance
and democracy.

The philosophy of education is expounded in the Vision whose pursuit is the provision of
quality, lifelong education and training for sustainable development at individual,
institutional and societal levels. The Ministry will achieve this by working in collaboration
with

all

the

stakeholders,

community based

organizations,

Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs), faith-based organizations, development partners and the private
sector.

To assess the progress of the activities identified for the achievement of the national goals,
it is critical that continuous monitoring of the specific outputs be undertaken.
Consequently, the Government will put in place a Monitoring and Evaluation strategy
under ESQAC.


(a) Decision-making is uncoordinated at all levels and hampered by inadequate data.
(b) There is not enough sense of urgency on follow-ups.
(c) The administrative system is piecemeal and reactive, not holistic and proactive.
(d) Budgeting is low, dispersed and ad hoc, not long-term and adequate.
(e) Deployment of high-level human resources is haphazard and unscientific.

(a) The predominance of the project-based approach has meant that monitoring activities
have not been harmonized resulting in duplication of efforts and ultimately inefficient
use of resources.
(b) There is inadequate funding for monitoring and evaluation. Funding for M&E remains
a major challenge within the government due to non-availability of budget lines for
M&E. Hence the funds are not readily available for M&E activities as required.
(c) Schools and districts are not well sensitized on the importance of providing reliable
and credible data. Some school managers exaggerate the enrolment figures in order to
get more government/donor funding.

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(d) There has been a weak data collection, storage management system and especially
lack of accurate baseline upon which to measure changes in the quality of education
services provided.
(e) There are limited personnel with technical competences and skills in M&E and data
management analysis to arrive at the required or expected results.
(f) Limited implementation of projects at the district level due to inadequate financial and
human resources.
(g) Different monitoring requirements for various projects have undermined coordination.
(h) Since government ministries and districts have not fully embraced M&E, they lack the
necessary culture/attitude required to facilitate M&E activities. Some view them as
fault finding missions rather than management tools for implementation of projects.

(a) Monitoring and Evaluation should be so coordinated and structured so as to serve the
needs of the MoE and other stakeholders.
(b) Monitoring and Evaluation be devolved from national to county and then to
institutional levels.
(c) The school-based M&E activities should be enhanced so that management decisions
are taken at that level for greater impact on the quality of education services provided.
(d) There is need to train personnel in the necessary competences and skills in all
devolved areas to ensure that Monitoring and Evaluation achieve the required
standards in implementation of programmes.
(e) Adequate funding should be made available for inclusive and comprehensive
monitoring and evaluation service delivery.
(f) Coordinate the process to strengthen monitoring and evaluation with field visits to
verify and supplement desk approach.
(g) Strengthen the comprehensive baselines before implementing projects by enhancing
and linking ICT, Education Management Information Systems (EMIS) to Monitoring
and Evaluation to ensure that the required data are fully captured in designing of the
necessary software.

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CHAPTER SIX
6.0 THE NATIONAL ASSESSMENT SYSTEM AND THE NATIONAL
QUALIFICATION FRAMEWORK IN KENYA
6.1 Introduction
Assessment of curriculum implementation is a critical component in provision of
education service. Assessment provides information on achievement of the set objectives
in an education system. Such information is used by policy makers in designing and
improving on the current and future education programmes. Furthermore, assessment is
used by individual learners to map the way forward either across levels or within the
levels. Assessment is therefore part and parcel of curriculum delivery and should be
carried out competently and with a high degree of reliability. Emphasis on assessment in
education is important for a number of reasons as outlined below:
(a) Enhancing a culture of assessment for the support of the teaching and learning
process. That is to support continuous improvement to align with leaning goals and
the school vision based on understanding that tests are not a goal in themselves but
rather, a tool in the service of learning.
(b) Provide for meaningful integration between internal and external assessments, and
between formative and summative assessments.
(c) Reduction of pressure of high stakes examinations and resultant vices
The Task Force analyzed various presentations from groups, individuals and county cluster
meetings and the following issues emerged:
(a) That the current summative assessment at the end of learning cycles does not
adequately measure learners‘ abilities.
(b) Teachers are not adequately trained in test development and evaluation procedures.
(c) Due to the importance that is attached to examinations, there are malpractices reported
in the management of examinations because the candidates, parents and teachers want
to compete unfairly.
(d) The current curriculum is perceived to be examination oriented with little regard to
moulding good citizens and for self-reliance.

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(e) Assessment is no longer seen as part of teaching and learning process but as a sieve to
determine those who can move to higher levels of education.
(f) The current system of summative assessment at the end of primary and secondary
levels dictates the teaching/learning process towards examinations as opposed to
learning.
(g) The ranking of schools based on examination performance has brought about a lot of
negative effects. For example, head teachers of schools that are ranked low often get
demoralised and others even resort to suicide. Likewise. pupils who score low grades
regard themselves as failures in life and some commit suicide.

The following are proposed:
(a) Revise learning materials to ensure skills and competences are emphasised.
(b) Develop and introduce a policy on competency assessment.
(c) In-service teachers on role of assessments and evaluation in learning and teaching
process.
(d) MOE should introduce a Learners Identification Number (LIN) at entry point, which
will be used to track the learner throughout the education system.
(e) KEAC to introduce special assessment which will be done by candidates who fail to
sit the normal examinations at the prescribed time due to reasons of sickness,
pregnancy, child birth or any other major hindrance. These assessments should be
done three (3) months after the normal assessments.
(f) Provide for a mechanism for supplementary exams.
(g) Abolish the ranking of schools and students when releasing examination results.
KEAC to release results to schools and individual candidate to assess them and find
out how they performed.
(h) Achievement at Kenya Primary Education Certificate (KPEC) and Kenya Junior
Secondary Education Certificate (KJSEC) will be considered in Senior Secondary
School admission and streaming.
(i) Schools will be ranked based on a holistic assessment of performance indicators built
around the following areas: academic, co-curricular activities, quality of management,

93

operations and maintenance of physical facilities, environmental care, learners‘
services and community outreach programmes. The Cabinet Secretary will give a
report on these during a national education day. The process should start from
institutions through the county to the national level.
(j) KNEC be renamed the Kenya Education Assessment Council (KEAC) to reflect the
specific focus of its work, which is shifting towards assessment.

It is further recommended that assessment in the new education structure be carried out at
two levels: National and School levels. KEAC will conduct the National Assessment at
Primary 6 as well as end of Junior and Senior Secondary levels, while individual
institutions will be responsible for school-based assessment. CEB will conduct Primary 3
numeracy and literacy assessments.
KEAC will also conduct the summative examinations at the end of Basic Education cycle
and for all Tertiary institutions other than university. The assessment at each level will be
as follows:
(a) Pre-Primary
The institution shall assess the learners on basic outcomes acquired against the set
objectives in the curriculum.

(b) Lower Primary
There shall be a standardized county-based assessment process for Lower Primary aimed
at diagnosing individual learners‘ talents and abilities. However, this will only be used to
help the teachers and parents to attend to learners‘ individual differences. There shall also
be school-based assessment. This assessment will not deter a learner from progressing to
the next level. KEAC will provide a database from which these assessments will be
developed.
(c) Upper Primary
There shall be a national upper primary assessment test at the end of Primary 6 leading to
the Kenya Primary Education Certificate (KPEC) aimed at identifying individual learner‘s
talents and abilities. Besides, there shall be a continuous school-based assessment to

94

measure learner‘s progress. This exam will not deter a learner from progressing to the next
level of Junior Secondary school.
(d) Junior Secondary
There shall be a National Assessment at the end of Junior Secondary education leading to
the Kenya Junior Secondary Education Certificate (KJSEC). This assessment will help in
identifying learners‘ abilities for placement in the four specialisation streams in the Senior
Secondary schools. Learners will be prepared with certain amount of subject bias towards
science, humanities, social sciences, technical and vocational subjects, to enable them
specialize in Senior Secondary education. This assessment in essence will help learners to
identify their career paths.
(e) Senior Secondary
There shall be a National Assessment at the end of Senior Secondary education leading to
the Kenya Senior Secondary Education Certificate (KSSEC). The National Assessment at
this level will be used for placement at Universities, middle level colleges and progress
into the world of work.
(f) The Higher Education Cycle
The Higher Education cycle shall consist of TIVET, other middle level training institutions
and Universities. In the middle level institutions, assessment will be by KEAC and various
professional bodies. Performance based on Course Assessment Tests (CATs) should be
integrated into the terminal assessments, which should be competency based.
It is recommended that a modular approach to teaching be used at these levels, to provide
for flexible student exit and re-entry to avoid wastage. This should allow students to
transfer credits from one institution to another with minimal costs. Student assessment will
consist of Course Assessment Test (CAT) and institutional assessment in liaison with
professional examination bodies. Tertiary institutions will provide training for certificates
and diplomas, whereas Universities will offer degree and post-graduate programmes.
Figure 6.1: Assessments of Learning Achievement across the System
Level

Assessment Name

Administering Body

ECDE

ECDE progress

School based
95

Certification and
Purpose
- None

Lower
Primary

Lower primary
progress

County Education
Board

Upper
Primary

Kenya Primary
Education Certificate
(KPEC)

Kenya Education
Assessment Council

Junior
Secondary

Kenya Junior
Secondary Education
Certificate (KJSEC)

Kenya Education
Assessment Council

Senior
Secondary

Kenya
Senior Kenya Education
Secondary Education Assessment Council
Certificate (KSSEC)
Various professional
bodies
Middle Level Certificate
and Kenya Education
College
Diploma
Assessment Council

University

University
examinations

Universities

-Assess the learners on
basic competences
-None
-Diagnosing individual
learners‘ talents and
abilities
-KPEC
-Identifying individual
learner‘s talents and
abilities
-KJSEC
-Identifying learners‘
abilities for placement in
the four specialisation
streams in the senior
secondary and entry into
career paths.
-KSSEC
-Helping
learners
to
identify and enter their
career paths.
-Certificate
Diploma
-Placement to higher
learning and world of
work.
-Degrees
-Placement to higher
learning and world of
work.

6.1.3 Use of Course Assessment Tests (CATs)
(a) A system will be developed to collect accumulated CAT scores for each learner. It is
proposed that the accumulated CATs will account for a percentage of the eventual
score at National Assessment. The other percentage will be contributed by summative
assessment for the award of the final grade.
(b) There is need to monitor learners‘ performance and achievements regularly at all
levels.
(c) The Course Assessment Tests (CATs):
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(i)

Will be made meaningful through provision of standardized items by Kenya
Education Assessment Council (KEAC).

(ii)

The items will be made available online for teachers to formulate the tests.

(iii) They will be used to orient teaching and learning towards skill and competency
acquisition and learning achievement as opposed to attaining grades based on
memorization.
(iv) They will focus on learning outcomes.
(v)

They will be used to identify a range of individual learner‘s abilities and talents.

6.2 National Assessment System (NAS)
NAS is an integral system of determining quality assurance in Education. It involves the
monitoring of learning achievements of students to assess the quality of education. It is
also a systematic evaluation of pupils‘ and students‘ learning achievement across Kenya.
The results derived at will be used by policy makers and practitioners to inform the
education quality reform process. With data that is comparable across various regions of
Kenya and over time, policy makers and stakeholders can identify gaps and bring about
improvements in the curriculum, teaching and classroom support practices, as well as in
the development of learning resources.

National Assessment System is currently set up as follows:
(i) End of Primary School cycle: Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE).
(ii) End of Secondary School cycle: Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE).
(iii) Middle level training institutions: Certificates, diplomas and higher diplomas offered
by KNEC and other examining bodies.

6.2.1 NAS in the work environment
Examinations and assessment are increasingly becoming important outside the mainstream
educational training and research institutions. Examples of assessment in the world of
work include Performance Contracting (PC), Staff Performance Appraisal (SPA), Results
Based Management (RBM), and aspects of Outcome-Based Education and Training
(OBET).

97

Assessments in the world of work help secure outcomes or results especially for
employers. The employee is also able to receive feedback on his/her performance and
improve himself/herself by either seeking further training or developing other key skills
they may possess. A major weakness is that the assessments are largely administrative.
They have been sufficiently regulated by national ETR policy or law. The main threat is
that such assessments may become routine and merely a question of proper paperwork,
thus compromising the dynamism and flexibility of the world of work.

6.2.4 Recommended reforms
Assessments for workers should be better integrated into all job types and descriptions to
ensure that employees are assessed and their concerns relating to work are identified and
dealt with. It is also a basis for improving work environments and relationships.

It is important to note that there are various international curricula that are available in
Kenya. Some of these are the British, American, German, Italian, French and Swedish
education curricula. Students pursuing these curricula also sit internationally recognised
examinations and assessment tests relating to the curricula they follow. For instance, in the
British system, secondary school students sit IGCSE examinations. There is need to equate
and harmonise all national and foreign qualifications that are available at basic and higher
education levels.

6.3 National Qualification Framework (NQF)
To succeed in a globally competitive world, Kenya must ensure that it has a national
education and training system that provides quality learning. The system has to be
responsive to the ever-changing influences of the external environment and should
promote the development of a nation that is committed to life skills and lifelong learning.
The NQF is a strategy in response to ensure anyone who has gone through the Kenyan
education system is globally competitive. Furthermore, it is the set of principles and
guidelines by which records of learner achievement are registered to enable national
recognition of acquired skills, knowledge, attitudes and values. It provides a way to
compare qualifications across systems and ensure that they are quality assured and
recognised locally and internationally. Therefore, NQF should provide a framework within

98

which the Kenyan qualifications are gauged internationally. Kenyan learners at all levels
should compete and engage with their peers internationally.

Formally recognized qualifications are arranged in a clearly defined structure. In this
context, qualifications are understood as sets of certified or documented skills – with no
preference given to the respective learning path. The framework makes a hierarchical
distinction between qualifications in the relevant path and categorises them by levels.

6.3.1 Objectives of NQF
The objectives of NQF are:
(a) to improve national education and training so as to determine the quality of education
required for all learners;
(b) to make national qualifications systems easier to understand;
(c) to improving permeability of education and training by clarifying and strengthening
the horizontal and vertical links within existing systems;
(d) to support lifelong learning by making learning pathways visible and by aiding access,
participation and progression;
(e) to aid recognition of a broader range of learning outcomes (including those acquired
through non-formal and informal learning);
(f) to strengthen the link and improve the communication between education and training
and the labour market;
(g) to open up national qualification systems to qualifications awarded outside formal
education and training (for example, awarded by sectors);
(h) to provide a reference point for quality assurance.

6.3.2

National Qualification Systems in Kenya

The consensus in all of Kenya‘s recent education policies and reports is that education in
Kenya faces major challenges in terms of quality. Though access has been improved
through the introduction of free primary education (FPE) and the cost-sharing in secondary
school education, the quality of education has deteriorated. This is because teachers are not
adequately trained to deal with the high numbers of students and are not motivated by
good pay. In addition, schools have limited teaching facilities and practical skills and
research are not adequately catered for.

99

The Education Act Cap. 211 lacks the mechanisms for establishing national standards for
qualifications and competences to be the basis for accreditation of education and training
institutions and programmes. Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 provides for the establishment
of an NQF system but does not create mechanisms for its implementation.

The Report of the Task Force to Harmonise Education, Training and Research (Kamunge
II report) has adequately dealt with developing a National Qualification Framework and
provided for the creation of a Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards, which will
be mandated to develop and oversee the implementation of an NQF. The purpose of the
NQF system will be to:
(a) set the standards and benchmarks for qualifications and competences;
(b) define the levels of qualifications and competences;
(c) provide for the recognition of attainment or competences including knowledge skills
and values;
(d) be the basis for accreditation of programmes and institutions;
(e) facilitate linkages and credit transfers to enable entry, re-entry and exit from the
institutions of education and training;
(f) establish systems and processes for continuous review and improvement of standards
and quality assurance.
The draft Education and Training Bill in the Kamunge II report also provides for
internship opportunities for students and systems for quality education through various
distant and e-learning systems.

Although Kenya Vision 2030 does not provide for an NQF system, it provides that
education provided should be relevant, internationally recognised and of international
standards and quality.

6.4 NQF at ECDE
ECDE generally takes about 3 years and pre-primary about 2 years. But there are no
national mandatory qualifications at the end of the process.


100

Some institutions issue certificates of attendance, participation, or completion. The
certificates do not necessarily reflect specific attainment or achievement.

6.4.3 Recommendation
ECDE qualifications should be part of the NQF.

6.5 NQF at Primary Level
The KCPE is the qualification in Kenya. It is awarded by KNEC for public examinations
taken in public and some private institutions.

There are divergences in primary level qualifications depending on the curriculum and
examination or assessment body.

The primary level qualification should reflect a harmonised standard of achievement or
attainment irrespective of the curriculum or the examining or assessment body.

6.6 NQF at Secondary Level
The KCSE is the main qualification at secondary school level. Other qualifications, based
on foreign examinations syndicates, include GCSE, IB etc.
The level of achievement or attainment varies from one examining body or qualification to
another. This has made entry, exit, and re-entry into tertiary and university systems
complex especially because of equation, credit accumulation and transfer.

6.7 NQF at Tertiary Level
The tertiary level has numerous qualifications in the same professions, disciplines and
occupations. Examples are various certificates, diplomas and international baccalaureates.


101

There are KNEC as well as foreign qualifications. Universities also offer certificates and
diplomas at tertiary level.

There is need to harmonise criteria on what constitutes a certificate, diploma or IB.

6.8 NQF at University Level
Public and private universities offer a wide variety of qualifications ranging from
certificates, diplomas, postgraduate certificates, postgraduate diplomas, higher diplomas
and degrees .The degrees range from bachelors, masters, doctorates, and higher doctorates.

Qualifications are also quite diverse within the same discipline or level. For instance, some
universities award Bsc and BTech degrees in ICT.

6.9 NQF in the Work Environment
There are numerous qualifications in the world of work. Most of them are certificates or
awards issued for certain achievements or attainment. They include certificates of
attendance, participation and completion.

Increasingly, professional bodies require continuous professional education (CPE) or
development (CPD). These are now the basis of licensing or accreditation to continue
practising in a profession. The Kenyan society generally recognises most of these
qualifications or systems of certification.

(a) It is necessary to provide clear criteria regarding qualifications in light of the relevant
competences to facilitate credit accumulation, mobility and career development.
(b) Establish NQF Authority to manage NQF. This body will be called National
Qualification Authority (NQA) and it will be independent in its operations. All other
bodies offering examinations (e.g. KEAC) will be accredited to it.
102

CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 FINANCING, INVESTMENT AND RESOURCE MOBILIZATION

7.1 Introduction
Article 43 (1) (f) of the Constitution (2010) makes education a right of every Kenyan and
underscores the importance of education in sustainable development. The provision holds
that every child has a right to free and compulsory Basic Education; and access to
affordable tertiary education, training and skills development. Basic education is also
provided as a basic human right in the Bill of Rights, thus implying that the citizenry will
hold the state accountable in ensuring that every school-age going (age 4-18 years) child is
in school. In pursuit of the declarations of the Jomtien Conference on Education for All
(EFA) of 1990 and subsequent Dakar Conference of 2000, the Kenya Government had
adopted the policy of Free Primary Education (FPE) and Free Day Secondary education
(FDSE). As a result of these commitments, the Government has realized rapid quantitative
expansion of schools and other educational facilities.
Despite these achievements, the Government currently faces several challenges in the
education sector. These include inadequate transition rates from primary to secondary
schools; shortage of classrooms, especially in primary schools (leading to congestion); low
cognitive achievement; an escalating teachers‘ wage bill that currently absorbs 73 per cent
of the MOE‘s Recurrent Budget. Others are inadequate teaching/learning materials;
inadequate teaching staff; high teacher/pupil ratio; inadequate capacity for both quality
assurance and standards and education officers in the field particularly as regards low
staffing levels. In addition, challenges, especially in regard to human resource utilization
include limited capacity at all levels to manage decentralized functions and other related
reforms; inefficient utilization of teachers; limited support by stakeholders in the
implementation of reforms; the effects of the HIV and AIDS scourge; unplanned
establishment of new schools especially, through the Constituency Development Fund,
that further strains the existing supply of teachers, as well as the need to upgrade teachers‘
skills especially for those trained before the current reforms began.
To address these challenges, it is critical that feasible mechanisms are identified for
sustainable financing of education and training in the country for it to realize the goals of
104

Vision 2030. This Chapter focuses on the status of current financing and investment in
education; unit costs; policy proposals for provision of free and compulsory Basic
Education for all children aged 4-18 years; and accessible, affordable and quality tertiary
education; resource mobilization for the education sector, including public and private
partnerships; and role of various stakeholders across all levels of education and training.

7.1.2 Status of Financing of Education and Training
Kenya‘s public spending on education has continued to rise over the years, particularly
since the introduction of the free primary education in 2003. The sector‘s total expenditure
increased from Kshs.92.6 billion in 2005/6 to Kshs.160 billion in 2009/10. On average, the
education sector accounted for 28 percent of the aggregate public expenditure in 2005/6
and 26 percent in 2009/10. The country‘s education expenditure as percentage of GDP
remained fairly constant ranging from 6.1% in 2005/6 to 6.2 % in 2009/10. Table 7.1
shows Education Expenditure, between 2005/6 and 2009/10 financial years:

Table 7.1: Education Expenditure, 2005/6 to 2009/10
2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10
Education as a % of GDP

6.1

6.0

6.2

6.3

6.2

28.0

26.0

23.2

25.0

26.7

32.1

32.8

31.0

31.7

32.7

10.3

7.4

6.0

7.9

7.8

93.0

92.4

91.9

91.0

93.1

7.0

7.6

8.1

9.0

6.9

5.3

4.8

5.7

4.3

3.8

Education as a % GOK total
expenditure
Education recurrent as a % GOK total
recurrent
Education development as a % of
GOK development
Education recurrent as a % of total
education expenditure
Education development as a % of total
education expenditure
Appropriations in Aid (External
financing) as a % of Education
Expenditures

Data source: Appropriations Accounts, MPER, Various; 2009/10 figures are estimates

105

As reflected in Table 7.2, primary education sub-sector received the highest percentage
allocation of public education spending; 54% in 2005/06 and 47% in 2009/10. In 2009/10
secondary education, technical and university education sub-sectors received 27%, 4.5%
and 11% of total education spending, respectively. The high allocation to primary
education is consistent with the MDGs and EFA goals of attaining 100% NER and
completion rate by 2015 and can be associated with increased access to primary education
(NER of 92% in 2009). However, unit cost spending shows a different picture.

Table 7.2: Public Education Expenditure 2005/6 to 2009/10
2005/6

2006/7

2007/8

2008/9

2009/10

General Administration and Planning %

10.80

9.19

9.75

7.26

12.36

Primary Education %

53.70

56.03

52.01

49.81

46.60

Teacher Education %

0.34

0.19

0.36

0.29

0.17

Special Education%

0.21

0.34

0.35

0.43

0.13

Early Childhood Education %

0.06

0.05

0.05

0.18

0.15

Adult and Continuing Education %

0.08

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.09

Secondary Education %

19.26

16.98

22.97

24.67

23.98

Technical Education %

2.17

2.71

3.46

4.85

4.73

University Education %

13.39

14.43

10.9

12.39

11.28

92.60

103.86

121.32

136.89

160.33

Recurrent (%)

93.04

92.43

91.88

91.05

86.46

Development

6.96

7.57

8.12

8.95

13.54

Basic Education

73.99

73.86

76.21

75.79

69.41

Item

Total Education Expenditure
(Kshs. Billion)

Source: Appropriation Accounts and MPER various issues.

106

7.1.3 Unit public spending
Table 7.3 shows estimated government (recurrent) spending per student enrolled in the
respective levels of education. Primary education public unit spending increased from
Kshs.4, 945 in 2003 to Kshs.7, 781 in 2008 at current prices. The unit public spending at
secondary education (Kshs.58, 585) was 7.5 times that of primary education in 2008 and
1.13% of GDP per capita. University and technical education public unit spending
(Kshs.55,318 and Kshs.137,707) were 7 and 18 times that of primary education,
respectively. The 2008 unit spending at secondary education level includes the annual free
day secondary school per capita allocation to public schools across the country. Technical
and university unit public spending were 1.06 and 2.64 times the GDP per capita.

Table 7.3: Unit Public Spending by Level, 2005 to 2008 (Kshs.)
Unit costs

2005

2006

2007

2008

Primary

6,251

6,862

7,457

7,781

Secondary

20,783

24,918

29,485

58,585

Technical

24,651

32,302

43,474

55,318

University

113,867

143,353

138,417

137,707

Secondary as % of primary

3.3

3.6

4.0

7.5

Technical as % of primary

3.9

4.7

5.8

7.1

University as % of primary

18.2

20.9

18.6

17.7

GDP Per capita

38,787

42,592

47,011

52,012

Primary as % of GDP per capita

0.16

0.16

0.16

0.15

Secondary as % of GDP per capita

0.54

0.59

0.63

1.13

Technical as % of GDP per capita

0.64

0.76

0.92

1.06

University as % of GDP per capita

2.94

3.37

2.94

2.64

Source: Economic survey, various Authors’ computations
107

According to data presented in Table 8.4, low income groups benefit less from tertiary
education compared to high and medium income groups, but more from primary
education. The gains for poorest welfare group at primary level are estimated at 24.7
percent; 9.5 percent for secondary and 1.9 percent for tertiary education. Gains for richest
quintile are 27.2 percent and 70 percent, at secondary and tertiary education respectively.
This indicates the need to increase access to post-primary education among the low income
groups. This is particularly so because whilst increasing access to primary education is
critical in laying the foundation for entry to higher education, primary education is not
sufficient in itself in reducing poverty; ensuring sustainable development and meeting the
skills needs identified in Vision 2030.

Table 7.4: Benefit Incidence of Public Spending on Education (%)
Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

All Education

Poorest Quintile

24.7

9.5

1.9

17.4

Quintile 2

25.2

15.9

2.0

19.3

Quintile 3

21.6

21.9

7.0

19.4

Quintile 4

18.2

25.5

19.1

20.2

Richest Quintile

10.2

27.2

70.0

23.7

Source: Demery and Gaddis, 2009 based on the KIHBS dataset of 2005/06

7.1.4 Issues and Challenges in Financing of Education and Training
The introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE) in 2003 was intended to enable every
Kenyan child have access to primary education (Std. 1-8). It is, however, reported that not
every child took advantage of the FPE as over 1.5 million eligible children are reportedly
still out of school.

The introduction of Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE) in 2008

was intended to increase enrolment, retention and transition from primary to secondary
education.
Despite the above interventions, there have been high dropout and low enrolment rates at
all levels of education and also low transition rates to secondary schools particularly
amongst the girls in ASAL districts compared to other regions. There are unique social,
religious, cultural and economic challenges facing nomadic children in their quest for
participation in education. School managers at both levels have introduced levies, which

108

are largely responsible for keeping students out of school. The level of grants has also not
been revised to reflect the variations in cost of services; commodities funded at the two
levels; resource needs at institutional levels and the specific standards for school inputs.
For instance, the consumer price index increased at an average of 9 percent between the
period 2003 and 2010. On the other hand, the textbook policy provides that the average life
of a book is 3 years for upper primary and 4 years at lower primary hence need to vary
capitation grants to schools at given intervals while providing for replacements after every
four years.

Despite high spending on the sector by the government, households spend substantial
resources on education. This takes the form of Parents‘ Teachers Association (PTA)
charges, examination fees, sports fees (and boarding), and other school fees. The cost of
uniforms is another area of expense. Fees at private education institutions are high when
compared to public education institutions. All these expenditures constitute off-budget
spending on education but the data is rarely available on the cost burden of schooling on
households despite the free schooling interventions.

Mobilizing resources across the sector lacks coordination. Physical infrastructure
development especially that funded through decentralized funds such as the Constituency
Development Fund (CDF) and Local Authority Transfer Fund (LATF) is not clearly linked
to central government spending and recurrent sector spending. This has resulted in the
emergence of small schools coexisting with larger ones in some localities, without or with
limited number of teachers. Recurrent spending, predominantly administrators and
teachers‘ salaries, accounts for over 90% of education sector public spending. There is
therefore need to identify interventions towards improving efficiency across the sector.
Some options for doing this include improving teacher utilization especially in secondary
education where teaching loads need to be brought up to between 20 and 24 hours per
week to meet international norms, and by implementing enrolment-based differentiated
norms at primary education, and addressing serious levels of teacher absenteeism, which a
recent survey estimated at 45%. Improving school management and targeting in the
disbursement of secondary education bursary fund can also improve the efficiency of the
sector.

109

7.2 Projected Demand for Education and Enrolment
This section presents information on school, age, population, ECDE, Primary and
Secondary Education enrolment and resource projections, 2010 -2015.

7.2.1 School Age Population Projections
Provision and financing of education should be based on the level of potential demand for
schooling or level of school age population over time and the internal efficiency
(progression) across levels of education together with individual school needs. The current
school cohort consists of a population aged 4-5 years for ECDE; 6-13 years for primary
and 14-17 for secondary education. As shown in Table 7.5, from the 2009 population
census, the school-age population for ECDE schooling was estimated at 2.4 million. This
is expected to rise to 2.8 million in 2012 and 3.0 million by 2015. Primary school-age
population in 2009 was 8.5 million and is projected to rise to 9.3 million in the year 2012
and to 10.7 million by the year 2015. At secondary school level, the school-age population
is projected to increase from 3.01 million in 2009 to 3.3 million in 2012 and to 3.6 million
by 2015. The population aged 18-25 years was projected to increase from 6.1 million in
2009 to 6.2 million in 2012 and 6.3 million by 2015.
7.2.2 Enrolments projections Summary
Table 7.5 shows enrolments projections at three levels of schooling from 2009 to 2015. At
ECDE level, total enrolments will increase from 1.8 million in 2009 to 2.0 million in 2012
and 2.4 million in 2015. At primary level, the corresponding figures are millions 8.6, 9.7
and 11.0 for 2009, 2012 and 2015 respectively. At secondary level, enrolments are
millions 1.4, 2.1 and 2.3 for 2009, 2012 and 2015 respectively. The Table also shows
corresponding enrolments in public institutions in percentages.
It is estimated that the MoE should be projecting to provide Basic Education for about 15.8
million children (ECDE, Primary and Secondary education); and tertiary education and
skills development programmes for about 6.3 million youth by 2015. In order to address
the soaring youth unemployment levels in the country, which was estimated at 24% in
2005/6, education and training needs to be clearly linked with the labour market.

110

Table 7.5 School Age Projections 2009 to 2015 (Millions)
2009
Boys

School age

2010
Girls

Total

Boys

2011
Girls

Total

Boys

2012
Girls

Total

Boys

2013
Girls

Total

Boys

2014
Girls

Total

Boys

2015
Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

1.22

1.22

2.4

1.4

1.4

2.7

1.4

1.4

2.8

1.4

1.4

2.8

1.5

1.4

2.9

1.5

1.5

3.0

1.5

1.5

3.0

4.3

4.2

8.5

4.2

4.1

8.3

4.4

4.4

8.8

4.7

4.6

9.3

4.9

4.8

9.7

5.1

5.1

10.2

5.4

5.3

10.7

1.5

1.5

3.0

1.6

1.6

3.2

1.6

1.6

3.2

1.6

1.6

3.3

1.7

1.7

3.4

1.7

1.7

3.5

1.8

1.8

3.6

2.8

3.2

6.0

3.0

3.1

6.1

3.1

3.1

6.2

3.1

3.1

6.2

3.1

3.1

6.2

3.1

3.1

6.3

3.1

3.1

6.3

population 4-5 years
6-13 years
14-17 years
18-25 years
Total Enrolment

6.1

5.7

11.8

6.4

6.1

12.5

6.8

6.4

13.2

7.1

6.7

13.8

7.4

7.0

14.

7.7

7.3

15

8.2

7.5

15.7

ECDE

0.9

0.8

1.8

0.9

0.9

1.9

1.0

0.9

1.9

1.0

1.0

2.0

1.0

1.0

2.1

1.1

1.0

2.1

1.3

1.0

2.4

Primary

4.42

4.17

8.60

4.63

4.35

8.98

4.84

4.52

9.36

5.04

4.69

9.73

5.26

4.88

10.15

5.50

5.11

10.61

5.74

5.34

11.08

Secondary

0.76

0.72

1.48

0.85

0.82

1.67

0.96

0.95

1.91

1.05

1.05

2.10

1.10

1.09

2.19

1.14

1.12

2.26

1.17

1.15

2.32

ECDE

0.66

0.63

1.29

0.70

0.66

1.36

0.72

0.69

1.41

0.75

0.71

1.46

0.77

0.74

1.51

0.80

0.76

1.56

1.07

0.76

1.83

Primary

4.06

3.85

7.91

4.26

4.01

8.28

4.47

4.18

8.64

4.66

4.34

9.00

4.87

4.52

9.39

5.10

4.74

9.83

5.32

4.96

10.28

Secondary

0.70

0.65

1.35

0.79

0.75

1.54

0.90

0.87

1.77

0.99

0.97

1.96

1.04

1.01

2.05

1.07

1.04

2.11

1.10

1.07

2.17

ECDE

71.4

71.3

71.3

71.4

71.3

71.3

71.4

71.3

71.3

71.4

71.3

71.3

71.4

71.2

71.3

71.4

71.2

71.3

77.0

71.2

74.5

Primary

91.9

92.1

92.0

92.1

92.2

92.2

92.3

92.4

92.3

92.4

92.4

92.4

92.5

92.6

92.5

92.7

92.7

92.7

92.8

92.9

92.8

Secondary

91.9

90.1

91.1

92.6

91.2

91.9

93.3

92.2

92.7

93.7

92.7

93.2

93.8

92.8

93.3

93.9

92.9

93.4

93.9

92.9

93.4

ECDE

75.7

74.9

75.3

71.5

70.7

71.1

72.2

71.4

71.8

72.9

72.1

72.5

73.6

72.8

73.2

74.4

73.6

74.0

90.4

72.0

81.4

Primary

102.4

99.3

100.8

111.1

105.2

108.2

109.7

103.5

106.6

108.3

101.8

105.1

107.4

100.8

104.2

106.9

100.6

103.8

106.

100.

103.5

Public Enrolment

% in Public schools

Expected GER (%)

111

5
Secondary

42.4

42.2

42.3

53.6

53.2

53.4

58.7

59.2

58.9

62.5

63.4

62.9

63.7

64.0

63.8

63.8

64.0

63.9

5

63.9

64.1

64.0

Source: Education Simulation model, 2010 and 2009 population census.

112

7.3 Further Elaborations are given Level-by-Level
7.3.1 ECDE Enrolment and projections, 2010-2015
Enrolment at the ECDE level is projected to increase from 1.9 million pupils in 2010 to
approximately 2 million in 2012 and to 2.5 million by 2015. This has serious financial
implications for both the central and county governments.
A total of 35,155 public ECDE classrooms were recorded in 2007. Based on the public
ECDE enrolment projection of three (3) million pupils by 2015; pupil teacher ratio of 25:1
and pupil class ratio of 30:1, a total of 61,343 teachers and 73,721 public ECDE classrooms
will be required by 2015. It is also important to note that public ECDE centres are currently
financed by local communities and in some cases, Local Authorities. It is important that the
government intervenes to improve the quality of the infrastructure. This is because learning in
some ECDE centres takes place in church compounds, social halls and private homes.

7.3.2 Primary Education Enrolment and projections: 2010-2015
Total primary school enrolment is expected to grow at a stable rate during the period from
2010 to 2015 following the stabilization of the impact of FPE which began in 2003.
Enrolment in public primary schools is set to increase from about 8 million pupils in 2009 to
9.2 million in 2012 and 10.5 million by 2015. Total primary school enrolment (public and
private) will increase from 9 million pupils in 2009 to 10 million in 2012 and 11.5 million by
2015.
The projected number of public primary school teachers required using a PTR of 40:1 is
expected to increase to 221,296 in 2011. Teacher shortage at primary education was
estimated at 30,637 teachers in 2011. Private primary schools enrolment is expected to
increase from 793,683 pupils in 2007 to 967,722 pupils by 2015. Assuming a class size norm
of 50:1, the required number of public primary school classrooms in 2015 is projected at
229,248, up from 193,000 in 2007. Automatic progression/transition of pupils from one grade
to the next and from primary school level to secondary education is proposed.

113

Table 7.6: Distribution of Primary School Teachers by Qualification, 2003-2007
INSTITUTION

2003/2004

2004/2005

2005/2006

2006/2007

2007/2008*

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007*

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Graduate

147

107

254

530

395

925

510

380

890

584

436

1,020

620

463

1,083

Approved

11,007

5,753

16,760

26,791

22,309

49,100

25,755

21,447

47,202

22,302

18,572

40,874

23,692

19,730

43,422

570

677

1,247

4,512

4,655

9,167

4,338

4,475

8,813

6,786

7,001

13,787

7,209

7,437

14,646

P1

75,597

54,188

129,785

56,156

43,393

99,549

53,985

41,716

95,701

52,616

40,659

93,275

55,897

43,193

99,090

P2

13,920

10,378

24,298

9,037

6,738

15,775

8,688

6,477

15,165

6,541

4,877

11,418

6,949

5,181

12,130

P3

1,818

2,154

3,972

854

1,011

1,865

821

972

1,793

778

920

1,698

827

977

1,804

103,060

73,256

176,316

97,880

78,501

176,381

94,097

75,467

169,564

89,607

72,465

162,072

95,194

76,981

172,175

KCE/KCSE

958

359

1,317

672

217

889

538

184

722

338

115

453

359

122

481

KJSE

113

36

149

84

40

124

67

34

101

42

21

63

45

22

67

CPE/Others

519

321

840

506

284

790

405

241

646

254

151

405

270

160

430

1,590

716

2,306

1,262

541

1,803

1,010

459

1,469

634

287

921

674

304

978

104,650

73,972

178,622

99,142

79,042

178,184

95,107

75,926

171,033

90,241

72,752

162,993

95,868

77,285

173,153

TRAINED

S1/Diploma

TOTAL
UNTRAINED

TOTAL
GRAND TOTAL
Provisional

**Data does not include teachers on study leave, disciplinary cases and those performing non-teaching duties.

Source: Ministry of Education
114

7.3.3 Secondary Education Enrolment and Resource Projections, 2010-2015
Total secondary school enrolment is expected to rise sharply over the period 2009 to 2015.
This is as a result of a number of factors, including: the impact of free primary education and
hence the growth in numbers completing class 8; the policy of increasing the transition rate to
over 75% by 2012; the expected 100% transition rate by 2015 and the implementation of the
Free Day Secondary Education policy and internal efficiency gains in primary and secondary
schools. Public secondary school enrolment is expected to increase from 1.03 million
students in 2007 to 2 million in 2012 and 2.2 million by 2015. Enrolment in both public and
private secondary schools is projected to increase to 2.18 million students in 2012 and 2.4
million by 2015.
Assuming a maximum class size of 45:1, the required number of classrooms will increase
from 31,473 in 2007 to 52,279 by 2015. The projected number of teachers required for public
secondary schools based on Average Teaching Load (ATL) of 18 hours per week is expected
to rise from the current 51,200 teachers in 2010 to 76,481 teachers by 2011. This translates to
a teacher shortage of 21,728 teachers in 2011; 24,971 teachers by 2012 and a PTR of 24:1 by
2012 which is less than the recommended 35:1. Improving efficiency in teacher utilization by
increasing average teaching load to between 20 and 24 hours average teaching load per week,
and ensuring that teachers teach at least two school subjects will immediately cut the teacher
shortage by around 32%. Table 7.7 shows the distribution of secondary school teachers by
qualification while Table 7.8 shows enrolments in Teacher Training Colleges by gender.
Overall, male enrolment is higher than that of females.

115

Table 7.7: Distribution of Secondary School Teachers by Qualification, 2003-2007
INSTITUTION

2003/2004

2004/2005

2005/2006

2006/2007

2007/2008*

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007*

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

TRAINED
Graduate

19,281

11,206

30,487

19,829

10,499

30,328

19,734

10,629

30,364

21,565

11,934

33,499

23,061

12,762

35,823

Approved

8,197

4,082

12,279

8,456

4,446

12,902

8,415

4,425

12,840

5,225

2,747

7,972

5,587

2,938

8,525

1,029

607

1,636

1,549

1,040

2,589

1,541

1,035

2,576

101

68

169

108

73

181

267

123

390

451

209

660

449

208

657

371

172

543

397

184

581

28,774

16,018

44,792

30,285

16,194

46,479

30,139

16,297

46,436

27,262

14,921

42,183

29,153

15,957

45,110

647

950

1,597

673

92

765

606

85

691

133

19

152

142

20

162

Technical

252

393

646

236

104

340

212

96

308

47

21

68

50

22

72

TOTAL

899

1,343

2,242

909

196

1,105

818

181

999

180

40

220

192

42

234

29,674

17,361

47,035

31,194

16,390

47,584

30,957

16,478

47,435

27,442

14,961

42,404

29,345

15,999

45,344

S1
Diploma
TECHNICAL
TOTAL
UNTRAINED
Graduate
Dip/

GRAND TOTAL
*Provisional

**Excludes teachers on study leave, disciplinary cases and those performing non-teaching duties.


116

Table 7.8: Enrolment in Teacher Training and Diploma Colleges, 2003-2007
Numbers
TYPE OF INSTITUTION/CERTIFICATION

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007*

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

1st Year

4,316

4,210

3,931

4,508

4,589

4,334

4,201

4,589

4,914

4,804

2nd Year

3,963

4,305

4,449

4,730

3,951

4,530

4,589

4,334

4,388

4,300

SUB TOTAL

8,279

8,515

8,380

9,238

8,540

8,864

8,790

8,923

9,302

9,106

Private Primary Teachers (P1)

1,044

1,178

1,117

1,213

1,340

1,456

1,474

1,586

1,800

2,145

1st Year

434

330

425

331

305

282

359

295

365

301

2nd Year

410

290

411

331

421

330

301

261

359

295

3rd Year

352

305

421

304

463

334

344

287

301

261

SUB TOTAL

1,196

925

1,257

966

1,189

946

1,004

843

1,025

857

TOTAL

10,519

10,618

10,754

11,417

11,069

11,266

11,268

11,352

12,127

12,106

GRAND TOTAL

21,137

Public Primary Teachers (P1)

Diploma Teachers**

22,171

22,335

22,620

24,233

*Provisional
**Kenya Science, Kagumo and Kenya Technical Teachers‘ Colleges


117

7.4 Resource Mobilization and Roles for Various Stakeholders by Level
The financing of education and training at all levels in Kenya will be a combined effort
of the National and County governments as provided through various government
legislation, the private sector, NGOs, households, communities, religious organizations
and development partners. The flow of funds to schools and other learning institutions
will depend on the source of funding; and established unit costs. Capitation grants will
be channelled directly to schools and will be based on individual enrolments and special
needs. Schools will then receive guidance on how to prepare their estimates, which will
be sent to County Education Office for harmonization and prioritizing, The County
Office shall then forward the estimates for the County education resource needs to
National Government as basis of the Ministry estimates, drawn on the basis of learning
needs. To this end the Capitation Grants to ECDE, primary and secondary education
will be based on needs assessment at School, County and the Ministry levels.

The disbursement schedules for monies released from the National and County
Governments, the private sector, NGOs, households, communities, religious
organizations and development partners should be sent to County Director of Education
(CDE) and Sub-County Education Officers (SCEOs) for monitoring purposes. County
monitoring reports indicating total disbursements (budget and off-budget) and actual
expenditures/outputs will then be sent to the Ministry of Education, school audit unit.
The managers of the various learning institutions will be held accountable for all
resources sent to schools. The policy of publicly displaying total resources received will
need to be fully enforced. The records must also be available for inspection by relevant
authorities.
The managers will receive regular capacity building on procurement, financial and
human resource management.
The introduction of FPE in 2003 and FDSE in 2008 have lessened the cost burden at the
primary and secondary school levels for the households. However, households continue
to bear more responsibilities in the financing of education and training in public ECDE,
secondary and TTVET levels. There is also significant support by the households at the
university level after the recent introduction of Module II programmes in the public
118

universities. In private institutions, the financing of education and training is borne by
the households.
7.4.1

Recommendations on the role of Stakeholders and Partnerships in the
Financing of Education and Training

(a) To spread the cost of providing education services, the government should invite,
encourage and facilitate other stakeholders to participate fully in providing such
services at all levels, including ECDE, continuing and university education.
Amongst such stakeholders are the private investors in the education sector, NGOs
and other members of civil society.
(b) The Government should retain, through policies and legislation, full responsibility
for curriculum development, teacher training standards, registration and
certification of teachers, public examinations and quality assurance services, to
ensure relevance and quality.
(c) The Government‘s main actions in facilitating private sector participation in
providing education services should include:
(i)

Enabling an efficient inspection and licensing services;

(ii)

Provision of curriculum documents and literature speedily;

(iii) Guidance on teaching establishments and making available lists of trained
and registered, but unemployed teachers;
(iv) Incentives to investors in education by granting free land, development
infrastructures (roads, water, electricity, telecommunications), tax rebates and
tax leave;
(v)

Designing special credit schemes for investments in education and
guaranteeing larger investors to secure international financing;

(vi) Making available unused government buildings and institutions to be used by
private providers at low rentals:
(vii) Granting of loans, bursaries and scholarships to students in private
institutions especially at post-secondary and university levels.
(d) The MoE Report (2007) on Affordable Secondary Education recommended that
public and private sector investment and private public partnership should be
strengthened through the following actions:
(i)

Facilitate public investment in education across levels.
119

(ii)

Facilitate the private school proprietors to secure loans at low interest rates
in order to encourage establishment of new schools and the expansion of the
existing ones.

(iii) Standardize the minimum basic requirements for establishment of both public
and private schools.
(iv)

Facilitate the establishment of a revolving fund where private sector
providers can borrow at low interest rates for development of schools.

(v)

Provide tax rebate on building materials and other taxable costs to boost
the efforts of faith-based organizations in constructing secondary schools.

(vi) Establish a memorandum of understanding between the MOE and MOPW
and uniformed forces together to provide construction services at a low cost.
(e) To address mismanagement of resources, measures should include, the deployment
of more auditors to schools and all other expenditure points.
(f) The Government shall have a policy framework to encourage development partners
and the private sector to invest more in infrastructure development and equipping
of educational institutions.
(g) The Government‘s policy of reaching every educational centre with electricity
under Rural Electrification Programmes should be implemented and where
institutions are far from the national grid, the development of solar power should be
adopted.
(h) The Government should promote linkages between universities and research
centres for collaborative research, allocate reasonable budgets for research
authorities to market research products or empower the NCST to do so for
accelerated national development.
(i) To expand access and equity at secondary school level, the Ministry should adopt a
number of policy measures amongst them:
(i)

Introduction of double shifts in selected secondary schools especially in
densely populated human settlements;

(ii)

Establishment of day wings in existing boarding schools;

(iii) Utilization of primary school premises for secondary education; and
(iv) Reiterate that the three streams be the minimum size of a school.

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7.5 Incentives for Private Sector Provision of Education
7.5.1 Tax incentives
(a) A number of concessionary measures are in place, namely:
(i)

An Educational building allowance has been introduced similar to the
industrial allowance allowing the capital cost of educational buildings to be
written off against corporation tax over two years.

(ii)

Land bought for educational purposes on application to the Commissioner
of Lands, can be exempted from Stamp Duty. (Stamp Duty is normally 4% in
Municipalities, 2% elsewhere.)

(iii) The cost of materials used in construction of private university buildings is
exempt from VAT.
(iv) Under certain circumstances a new private education business may qualify
for up to 150% tax rebate on capital investments. This is available to all
qualifying businesses and advertised by the Investment Promotion Authority.
However, other than Stamp Duty concession very little is currently being
done to offset the price of land in urban and suburban locations.
(b) Other than the VAT concession on material inputs to private universities, very little
is being done to help with the financing of new institutions. Private investment is
only possible in an environment where there is a catchment and rarely in ASALS
except residential universities and possibly some private boarding schools. Parents
in these regions depend on local state sponsored schools or on private boarding
schools.

7.5.2 Recommendations for Private Sector Investment in Education
A number of measures are needed to promote private sector investments in education,
amongst them:
(a)

Strengthen Quality Assurance in order to address private as well as public
education to providers to ensure there is no exploitation of parents and learners.

(b)

Where possible, the government should give land to private developers desiring
to invest in Education.

(c)

Since land has been identified as the biggest single obstacle to the growth of the
private education sector, investors should be allowed the use of government land
and school buildings on a long term lease arrangements so that they can put in
121

fixtures including all furniture, school equipment, library books, textbooks,
stationery, office equipment, all teaching resources and all normal overheads
including electricity, water and maintenance. They would be responsible for
recruiting staff (teaching, ancillary staff and administration and have sufficient
resources to keep the school in operation until it becomes viable) and the state
would benefit from corporate tax, VAT and rent as it becomes viable.
(d)

The new legislative framework should recognize private schools and their
diversity.

(e)

The Ministry should use the data collected in Value-for-Money (2008/9) study
to target schools reporting unusual data, to verify the accuracy of submitted data
and also to enable it to be assured that there are no problems in the schools
supplying aberrant data.

(f)

Any initiatives to encourage increased private sector investment have to be
coupled with a commensurate increase in the Quality Assurance since there are
people who would see this as an opportunity to exploit the public

7.6 Areas of Management and Fiscal Concern
7.6.1 School Financial Management
Although the MoE has set clear FPE and FDSE fees guidelines, implementation and
enforcement systems including procurement at school level need to be closely
monitored. This could address weaknesses in management that lead to schools charging
higher levies than official levels, and putting in place mechanisms for ensuring that
school revenues are efficiently utilised and the provision of quality education.
Furthermore, expenditure on school inputs should reflect their market prices.

7.6.2 Textbook management in schools
The Ministry of Education needs to revisit the textbook funding policy to make it more
consistent with expected education budgets in Kenya, including formalizing the current
pupil textbook ratio of 5:1 for non-core subjects in addition to 1:1 textbook ratio for
upper and 1:2 textbook ratio for lower primary for core subjects. National policy should
also spell out the life of textbooks to be 3 years at lower primary and 4 years at upper
primary. There is scope nationally to reduce further the rate of consumption of
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textbooks by ensuring that best textbook management processes are more widely
adopted, and that a more systematic national approach is adopted to tackle textbook
theft.

The Ministry may need to consider a special textbook allocation to new primary schools
once they are formally registered/recognized to ensure that they are quickly brought up
to parity with other primary schools.

The textbook database should be progressively improved and integrated into the
Ministry‘s mainstream EMIS and DEMIS. Planning department (EMIS division) should
begin planning for annual textbook data collection and other school enrolment data in
good time and protocols should be agreed on how to capture education data including
data on textbooks obtained from other sources; and how to formally dispose of
textbooks no longer in use, and how to engage parents and School Management
Committees in providing additional assurance on the accuracy of reported data.

7.6.3 Management of Risks in the Sector
The Ministry should enhance its current approach to risk management by reviewing the
risks facing the programme and ensuring that it has appropriate controls in place to
mitigate these risks. As part of adopting a more risk-based management approach, the
Ministry should allocate responsibility for managing the risks to members of staff at
national, county and constituency levels.

7.6.4 Schools Audit
The Ministry should enhance the performance monitoring systems to better track the
number of audits being performed and scope covered; the time spent on these audits;
the audit recommendations; the responses by schools; and the follow up to ensure audit
recommendations are implemented. It should also introduce a more rigorous approach
to reviewing the quality of the audit work done by counties and identify key issues and
challenges for wider dissemination and action.

It should ensure that all primary schools are audited through a visit by county-based
schools audit staff at least once every two years. Furthermore, the government should
123

ensure that counties have adequate number of audit staff, with the appropriate skills and
organizational framework, as well as transport and other budgets to carry out properly
planned and fully executed school-based audits.

The Ministry should revise audit technical practices and procedures and move them
closer to international auditing standards through revision of the schools audit
guidelines and training programmes.

7.6.5

Textbooks Selection and Pricing

The Ministry should initiate a formal audit and assessment of whether the systems for
selecting textbooks is operating as intended, whether the staffing resources are
sufficient to manage effectively the activities, and whether the decisions of the
Ministerial level selection committee are consistent with the inputs and advice of the
Independent Administrator.

In addition, more could be done to benchmark the price of books in Kenya with other
countries to ensure that the prices of textbooks remain competitive; and to develop
closer links between the Independent Administrator and schools, possibly via the
network of QASOs, so that information can be gathered on the technical performance of
textbooks when they are used by schools.

When deciding whether to change the titles of books on The Approved List for Primary
and Secondary School Textbooks and other Instructional Materials (the Orange Book)
the Ministry and the independent administrator stationed at the Kenya Institute of
Education (KIE) need to give more consideration to the way this is perceived in schools
by teachers and parents, and the cost implications. Unless strictly necessary on
education grounds, they should seek to moderate the rate of title change.

7.6.6 Textbook Procurement and Discounts
The Schools Audit Service and QASOs should routinely examine whether textbook
discounts are being effectively obtained, properly applied and recorded. The generic
findings and best practices should then be reported across the Ministry. The Ministry
should continue to build on their links with the Booksellers and Stationers Association,
124

seriously consider their suggestions for improvements to drive out malpractices, and
keep schools informed of the outcomes.

For the business community to engage in and support the financing of higher education,
the Government shall develop a framework that clearly defines mechanisms for
enhancing private sector participation in financing and development of higher
education. Mechanisms for encouraging the business community to play an enhanced
role in supporting higher education could include a variety of tax incentives such as,
import tax exemptions, tax rebates and other incentives that are available for private
investors in other sectors.

7.7 Financing Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE)
7.7.1 Current status
According to the Fourth Schedule, on the Distribution of Functions in the Constitution,
county governments shall be responsible for managing ECDE among other areas of
education. It is stated that the National Government would retain responsibilities for
policy, standards and curriculum development, even where implementation is with
county governments.
For several years, Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE), was not part
of mainstream education services, with ECDE provision left to various organisations
and individuals in a totally uncoordinated way. Major stakeholders in the sector
included individual private investors, faith-based organisations, NGOs and private
providers, Ministries of Education, Home Affairs, Local Authorities, Gender, Culture
and Social Services as well as local authorities and communities.
The importance of ECDE to child development and subsequent good performance in
education beyond that level is well established. Amongst benefits identified are the
following:
(a)

Early identification and subsequent realization of the child‘s potential;

(b)

The development and growth of the brain of the child is fastest at ECDE age
bracket;

125

(c)

Children are able to learn and acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes rapidly at that
stage;

(d)

It is relatively easier to mold the character of a child at the ECDE stage; and

(e)

If coupled with nutritional and health services, the ECDE stage facilitates proper
physiological growth of the child.

7.7.2 Major findings and issues on ECDE from the cluster hearings, submissions
and literature review
The demand for ECDE services is high and most stakeholders were positive about its
inclusion in the Constitution. In the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005, the Government was
to integrate ECDE into Basic Education by 2010 but this policy has not been fully
implemented. However, the MoE plans to have children aged 4-5 years who are in
ECDE included in the FPE programme. Interventions for children aged 3 years and
below are classified as child care services.
Availability of ECDE services are variable, with some areas of the country well
provided for as in the urban areas, whilst not so in many other areas. Many ECDE
operators (now mainly private) choose to employ untrained teachers to avoid high wage
bills. Where teachers have been trained, they are employed at very low salaries. ECDE
structures are mostly semi-permanent, local or church halls or any other building which
the local communities accept as suitable, but no inspection of ECDE premises occurs.
Despite the existence of a policy framework, gaps include:
(a)

Shortage of ECDE Centres relative to demand;

(b)

Use of unsuitable facilities as ECDE centres;

(c)

Shortage of personnel to conduct inspection and assure standards and quality;

(d)

Use of untrained ECDE teachers;

(e)

ECDE not being free while primary education is free;

(f)

Lack of learning materials, especially books for use at the early age;

(g)

Use of three different curricula or lack of one at all;
126

(h)

Most parents cannot afford ECDE fees;

(i)

There is no evidence that operators of ECDE centres consider the needs of
children with disabilities.

To put into effect the well-articulated intentions in the policy document, the following
should be done:
Repealing Education Act Cap. 211 (1968) to mainstream ECDE (4-5 years) into Basic
Education and link the institutions with primary education level of Basic Education to
meet the constitutional requirements.
Mainstream ECDE by:
(a)

Recruiting, remunerating and deploying teachers to ECDE centres and to
primary schools with ECDE sections.

(b)

Opening ECDE units in every primary school.

(c)

Opening up training opportunities for ECDE teachers.

(d)

Ensuring automatic transition from ECDE to primary education across the
country.

The Ministry of Education (with responsibility devolved to county governments) and
the County Inspection Service should strengthen ECDE services by:
(i)

Specifying the standards to be met by ECDE Centres.

(ii)

Ensuring that the standards are met before a Centre is registered.

(iii)

Enforcing the employment of trained ECDE teachers.

(iv)

Enforcing the use of appropriate and relevant curriculum at ECDE centres.

(v)

Spearheading the production of ECDE books.

(vi)

Integrate ECDE into the Free Primary Education programme.

(vii)

Promoting enhanced partnership for the development of ECDE services through
a number of incentives to private investors.

(viii)
(ix)

Financing the training of ECDE teachers.
Identifying children with special needs and planning for special ECDE Centres.
127

(x)

Promoting nutritional and health programmes at ECDE Centres in collaboration
with the Ministries of Health, Agriculture and other stakeholders.

(xi)

Financing of ECDE by county and national government on the basis of the
following proposed annual capitation grants:

Table 7.9: Proposed ECDE Annual Capitation Grants, 2011
Item

Unit Cost
(Ksh.)

Quantity
(Ksh.)

Cost per child 2011
prices (Ksh.)

Learning Resources

550

1

550

Teacher guides

130

5

22

Teaching and Learning aids

115

1

115

White Boards, Dusters,
Registers,
Environment and sanitation

5

1

5

250

1

250

Science and applied technology

100

1

100

ICT Infrastructure/ Maintenance

250

1

250

Morning snack and meals
Support staff and maintenance

5080
1000

Grand Total

7,372
2,292

Less meals (Ksh. 5,080)
Source: Taskforce computations, 2011
7.8 Financing Primary Education

The free primary school capitation grant of Kshs. 1,020.00, which was instituted in
2003 has not been increased to keep pace with inflation. Consequently, schools have
resorted to charging parents levies for a range of activities, including supplementary
assessment examinations, additional tuition and development levies. The requirement
that all pupils should wear uniform is an extra cost burden on parents. It has been noted
that as a result of alleged graft and mismanagement, the free primary programme now
faces the withdrawal or suspension of development partners funding the programme.
All these point to the need for enhanced governance reform, the introduction of
legislation to take legal action against corrupt officials and the institution of strong
128

financial management procedures to revitalize the programme. Delays in release of
funds from Treasury, which in turn leads in delays in remittance of funds to school, is a
major challenge.
7.8.2 Major findings and issues from the cluster hearings, submissions and literature
review
The Task Force made the following findings:
(a)

Resource mismanagement - governance and financial management failures
common across the sub-sector;

(b)

Poor infrastructure and corruption related to procurement and failures in
monitoring;

(c)

Lack of accessibility and child friendly facilities;

(d)

Child Labour and failure of schools to report it to authorities or curb it;

(e)

Understaffing and over-staffing due to inequitable teacher deployment by TSC;

(f)

Evidence of the consequences of under-funding for the sub-sector by the Ministry;

(g)

Tuition fees have now become the norm;

(h)

Poor financial management in schools;

(i)

Lack of auditing of school funds.

129

Table 7.10: Components funded under the 2003 FPE programme
The School Instructional Materials to cover (Ksh. 650):
i)

Text Books

ii)

Exercise Books

iii)

Pens and pencils

iv)

Supplementary and reference books

v)

Dusters, white boards and registers

vi)

Charts and wall maps
Sub-total

360
210
15
55
10

General Purpose Account (Ksh. 370) to cover
i)

Support staff wages

ii)

Repairs, maintenance and improvements

iii)

Quality Assurance

iv)

Local Travel and Transport

v)

Activity

vi)

Electricity, Water and Conservancy

vii)

Telephone, box rental and postage

650
112
127
29
21

viii) Contingency
Sub-total
Grand Total

43
10
22
6

370
1,020
Source: MOE Guidelines on use of FPE grant.

130

A number of recommendations are proposed:
(a) Based on the unit cost in Table 7.11, the annual grant should be at least Kshs. 5,185
per child per annum, as per the 2010 projections. Presentation by KEPSHA
recommended that from expenditure records in schools, the annual grant should be
set at Kshs. 7,751 per pupil. While the Task Force considered those figures to be
scientifically and practically correct, it is necessary to recommend a lower level of
Grant. However, the Ministry should adjust the level every two years and
progressively aim at reaching the correct level.
(b) The capitation grant should be applicable to all pupils in public schools. Provision
of grants to learners in private schools will be on agreed conditions between the
government and private education institutions. (See 16.5.2)

A realistic review of school funding based on adjustment for inflation proposes
capitation as in Table 7.11 below.
Table 7.11: Current and Proposed Per Capita Annual Grants (Ksh.)
ACCOUNT 1: SIMBA (School Instructional Materials Bank Account)
Vote Head

Current

Proposed

Text books ratio 1:2 upper and 1:3 lower primary

360

952

Exercise books

210

350

Teachers Guides and Reference materials

55

182

Stationery

25

50

ICT Infrastructure and materials

-

500

Environment and sanitation

250

Science and applied technology

100

131

Assessment and Examinations

-

500

Sub-Total

650

2,884

ACCOUNT 2: GPA (General Purpose Account)
Vote Head

Current

Proposed

Support Staff Wages (SSW)

112

1000

Repairs, Maintenance and Improvement (RMI)

127

200

Lunch
Quality Assurance (QA)
Local Travel and Transport (LTT)

29
21

4,500
60
100

Activity
Electricity, Water and Conservancy
Telephone/Box Rental and Postage
Sanitary Pads (age 10 years)
Capacity Building of BOM

43
10
22
6

100
200
50
585
60

Sub-Total
Less meals (Ksh.4,500)

370

6,855
2,305

NB: The following measures should be taken:
(a)

Total annual textbook allocation to be done once in three years; taking into
account life of a book (3 and 4 years) and associated replacement costs.

(b)

A provision of an additional amount to cover the cost of sanitary towels for
girls.

(c)

A provision of an additional grant for infrastructural works to make facilities
accessible for children with special needs to be determined on a need basis.

(d)

A provision for ICT in every school.

(e)

Provision of supplementary grants (Equalization Grants) targeting especially
areas with peculiar characteristics such as slums and ASALs.

(f)

Provision of water and electricity to primary schools in slums and ASAL areas
should be covered by the equalization grants.

(g)

Training of all head teachers/committees/boards in financial and procurement
management.
132

(h)

Adoption of cost effective staffing norms and ensure equitable teacher
deployment.

(i)

Provision of incentives to teachers deployed to difficult areas, with the guarantee
of serving for a maximum of three years only.

7.8.4 Priority Interventions
There is need to address challenges affecting vulnerable groups at Basic Education level
including school-going age children in informal urban settlements, ASALs, inclusive
and special needs education. Innovative approaches include sustainable support for
mobile schools in the sparsely populated and nomadic parts of the country, improved
health and nutrition programmes, sustained school feeding and capacity building for
teachers in the local communities. Secondary school bursaries (with support from the
Ministry of Education, constituency bursary committees and local communities) should
target the poor and vulnerable children who should be identified right from primary and
provided with full support for full secondary cycle.

Innovative approaches, incorporating the cultural and religious concerns of the local
communities could be explored as follows:
(a)

Integration of ECDE into Basic Education will be considered to ensure
consistency with the Constitution of Kenya (2010). Grants should be transferred
directly to primary schools towards paying ECDE teachers and learning
materials, while encouraging community and county support.

(b)

Infrastructure expansion should be well coordinated and linked with the
recurrent budgetary provisions; both by National government, County
government and decentralized funds. Infrastructure development should also be
driven by demand for schooling and spatial distribution of learning institutions.
Currently, planning systems do not link demand for education with spatial
planning tools. This has resulted in a large number of small unviable schools
across the country, some of which are in the same neighbourhood of existing
schools.

(c)

Although the national average PTR at the primary level is about 43:1, there is a
variation across districts and schools within districts, with a strong correlation
133

between school PTR, class size and school size. This requires continued
redistribution of teachers from the schools with low PTRs to those with high
PTRs, while adopting cost-effective hiring policies and addressing classroom
shortages.
(d)

The recommended primary education staffing norm should be based on
enrolment rather than class-based. Implementation of differentiated norm
allowing for a PTR of 45:1 in high potential areas and 25:1 in rural ASAL areas
should be fully implemented as appropriate. Immediate teacher replacement
after natural attrition will curb the problem of understaffing of schools despite
budgetary allocation for the same. There is also need to fully enforce teacher
absenteeism disciplinary provisions as in the Code of Regulations. One
incentive for encouraging deployment of teachers to difficult areas is to
guarantee that postings will be for up to a maximum of four years only and the
provisions for additional allowance and benefits be enforced. Balancing between
increasing access (quantity) and ensuring quality education service delivery
within the free schooling programmes is critical.

This can be achieved by ensuring the following during the actual teaching and learning
in school.
(a) All teachers should be adequately supervised.
(b) The school curriculum should be reviewed in order to focus on nurturing skills and
talents.
(c) The curriculum implementation should be monitored at all levels.
(d) Absenteeism of teachers and students should be addressed.
(e) The effects of HIV AND AIDS should be continuously studied and addressed.
(f) The reasons for dropout, repetition and low transition need to be explained and
necessary remedies put in place.
(g) There should be increased focus on learning outcomes, that is, relevant to labour
market.
(h) Quality assurance and local administrative systems need to be enhanced at county
and sub-county levels.

134

(i) Innovative interventions towards addressing internal inefficiencies in the education
system could include remedial lessons, increased contact hours for weak students
and remedial support to weak students.

7.9 Financing Secondary Education
7.9.1 Background
The main sources of funds for secondary education in Kenya include households and
the government. Other sources of funds are private sector, religious organizations,
communities, NGOs and development partners (donor community). The cost of
secondary education borne by the government and households consists of salaries for
teaching and non-teaching staff, bursary allocations, capital investments, school fees,
tuition and transport, among others. Over the recent years, the proportion of secondary
education expenditure to total education budget has been in the range of 22-25%.
Financing of secondary education faces many challenges, which include; inadequacy of
public resources to effectively meet infrastructural needs of secondary schools;
inequality of funding between primary and secondary schools; weaknesses in the
bursary funds scheme; inefficiency in resources utilization and lack of enforcement of
fees guidelines. Both the government and communities should contribute towards
infrastructural development in schools.
The specific issues in secondary education include the following:
(a) Inadequacy of FDSE grants;
(b) Resource mismanagement in the schools;
(c) Inadequate infrastructure;
(d) Inadequate land;
(e) Unplanned construction of schools;
(f) High poverty incidences that affect households;
(g) Co-existence of understaffing and overstaffing;
(h) High additional and unregulated school levies;
(i) Burden of ―extra-tuition‖ to learners;
(j) Inadequate capacity of BOGs in Financial Management;
(k) Proliferation of un-coordinated school projects;
135

(l) Delays in remittance of funds;
(m) Failure to comply with financial regulations;
(n) Lack of an effective policy regulating the sharing of scarce resources amongst
schools;
(o) High costs of schools uniforms in some schools;
(p) Inappropriate vote heads;
(q) Failure to abide by MOE Guidelines on the use of FSE grant, 2008.

The Task Force recommends an increase of 20% above the 2008 grants, which together
with an ICT component of Kshs. 500 and a lunch/component of Kshs. 5,799 increases
the per capita grant from Kshs.10,265 to Kshs.19,238 per annum. This is shown in the
table below.

Financing of Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE)

Table 7.12: Current and Proposed Level of Capitation (Ksh.)

Item
Text books, Exercise Books

Current

Proposed

2,185

2,622

Laboratory (infrastructure) Equipment

728

1,000

Teaching and learning materials

300

360

ICT Infrastructure and materials

-

500

Reference materials (Kamusi, Dictionary, Atlas etc.)

70

84

Teachers guides

113

136

Chalk, dusters and registers (stationery)

5

60

Assessments and Examinations

-

800

Repairs, Maintenance and Improvement

199

239

Local Transport and Travel

800

960

Administration Costs

400

400

Capacity Building of BOM
Electricity, Water
Environment and Sanitation

100
500

600

-

250
136

Science and Technology

-

200

Lunch Component

-

5,799

500

600

3,965

4,758

300

360

-

585

10,265

19,238

Activity Fees
Personal Emoluments
Student Health and Safety
Sanitary Pads for Girls

TOTAL (Boys)
TOTAL Girls

20,413

Less meals (Ksh.5,799)

14,614

(a) Based on Unit Cost analysis, the level of annual capitation should bE at least
Kshs.58,585 per pupil as in Table 7.3. This should be the level to which the
Ministry of Education should progressively aim at. For a start, the level proposed in
the Table 7.12 above is recommended. To achieve that, the level of grant should be
reviewed every two years until the correct level is reached.
(b) It is noted that there has been a general inflation at the rate of 9% annually since
2008; giving a general increase of costs of at least 27%.
(c) The capitation grant should be applicable to all pupils in both public and private
schools. Provision of grants to learners in private schools will be on agreed
conditions between the government and private education institutions. (See 16.5.2)
(d) Total annual textbook allocation to be done once in four years; taking into account
the life of a book and associated replacement costs. National examinations, internal
assessment and uniform costs will need to be covered by parents.
137

(e) County Education Boards be empowered to manage all development funds related
to education.
(f) Establish a County Education Development Fund.
(g) The Equalization Grant should be used to cover the cost of water and electricity
installations in targeted areas.
(h) The new Constitution requires the national government to target areas with peculiar
characteristics and to extend additional funding or county governments in those
areas should provide supplementary grants to avoid additional school levies.
(i) In regard to land—
(i) Counties and communities should set aside adequate land for the development
of schools.
(ii) All schools should have official land titles.
(j) Redesign and enhance bursary allocation to the poor and deserving students.
(k) Rules regulating imposition of levies should be reviewed and enforced. Levies
should not be used to deny children opportunity to attend school.
(l) The policy on banning commercial tuition should be enforced and be entrenched in
the proposed Education Bill. Regulations will be made to govern remedial tuition
in schools. The regulations will provide for:
(i) Circumstances where remedial tuition may be recommended.
(ii) Criteria for setting fees for remedial tuition.
(iii) Maximum number of hours for remedial tuition per week.
(iv) No compulsory remedial tuition. Provided that no child may be denied normal
tuition because they cannot afford to pay for remedial tuition.
(m) On teacher utilization—
(i) Adopt cost effective staffing norms and ensure equitable teacher redistribution.
(ii) Average Teaching Load (ATL) be raised from 18 hours per week to between
20 and 24 hours per week based on a class ration of 1:30. The hiring of
teachers on contract and part-time basis to relieve teachers on study leave, sick
leave, maternity leave and out of duty on disciplinary cases and due to long
illness should be supported among other strategies of improved curriculum
delivery; monitoring and assessment.
(n) Establish an education fund: The government spends a substantial percentage of its
annual budget on education and yet not all legible citizens are reached. For an
138

effective and efficient free and compulsory Basic Education, the government needs
the support of various stakeholders and partners. Besides, increasing public
financing alone is not adequate given the envisaged expansion of secondary
education both in the medium term and long term. Other stakeholders (Private
sector, individuals, NGOs, communities) are expected to contribute in provision of
Basic Education. Feasible financing options will include supporting physical
infrastructure, provision of appropriate ICT facilities to secondary schools, and a
scholarship fund at county and constituency levels. This will benefit the poor and
vulnerable children.
(o) The government should channel extra funding to support education through the
decentralized systems of disbursing resources to local levels for poverty reduction
and enhancing equity in educational development.
(p) Enhance bursary funds and full support of secondary school cycle to all orphans
and vulnerable children (OVCs). In the event that full FSE is not practical in the
short term, the Ministry of Education should consider enhancing bursary funds to
OVCs. This will be operationalised at constituency level.
(q) Students‘ Health and Safety vote head should be financed to cater for learners‘
health related issues among other risks.
(r) Selection for bursary beneficiaries to be conducted in the proposed junior
secondary schools. This will enhance 90-100% transition from junior to senior
secondary schools. The government should also set aside education bursaries for
talented pupils from less privileged families to enable them pursue higher
education. Appropriate targeting mechanisms should be adopted so as to support
only needy students.
(s) Work out a differentiated unit cost for different categories of senior secondary
schools.
7.10 Financing Special Needs Education
7.10.1 Current situation
The government, through Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on Education, Training and
Research, sets out clear policy guidelines for all education sub-sectors, including
Special Needs Education, with the intention of putting in place positive measures to
facilitate access to education by children with disabilities by addressing the obstacles to
139

equal rights to education. A key undertaking of the Ministry of Education is to achieve
universal access to education and training for all learners including those from
disadvantaged and vulnerable communities.
In 1999, there were 22,000 learners with special needs enrolled in special schools, units
and integrated programmes. This number rose to 26,885 in 2003. Currently, there are
over 1,100 units and 100 public special schools in the country, which include vocational
and technical institutions that cater for learners with special needs and disabilities. It is
estimated that three quarters of Kenyan pupils with special educational needs are in
special schools with only a quarter in special units located within mainstream schools.
Various commissions have recommended policy guidelines on special needs education
including The Presidential Working Party on Education and Training for the Next
Decade and Beyond (Kamunge Report, 1988); The Totally Integrated Quality
Education and Training (Koech Report, 1999) and the Task Force on Special Needs
Education - Kochung Report (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 2003). A
number of the recommendations by these Reports have been implemented.
(i) Persons with disabilities have immense difficulties exercising the right to education
because of lack of access. This situation exists despite the fact that government
policy documents have over time emphasized the centrality of education as a
mechanism for poverty eradication and development.
(ii) The government has embraced inclusive education whereby learners with
disabilities and special needs are provided with appropriate education within
regular schools. However, the challenge with most regular schools is that they are
ill-equipped to deal with special needs learners. The absence of a necessary barrierfree environment, specialized learning resources and equipment and few teachers
with specialist knowledge leaves the government with little choice but either to
ignore the situation, as is largely happening at present, or to provide additional
resources to resolve the situation.
(iii) Special education has not been fully mainstreamed across the education sector, nor
are its programmes. Clear guidelines and resources are required to implement the
policy on inclusive education in schools.
140

(iv) Persons with Disabilities Act (2003), provides for the establishment of special
schools. However, the role of the government in effecting these provisions is
unclear. The Constitution (2010) clears up this discrepancy and the government
will have to make provisions for an integrated system of special and non-formal
education.
(v) The Ministry of Education‘s Quality Assurance and Standards Division does not
regularly inspect special education learning institutions. Where quality assurance is
undertaken, most officers generally lack expertise to do so.
(vi) Limited access because of inadequate special needs education institutions at all
levels.
(vii) Lack of equity because many regions are without special needs institutions; the
situation is worse in ASAL and slum areas.
(viii) Because of a multiplicity of disabilities, teachers with relevant skills are in short
supply, leading to poor quality and standards.
(ix) Relevant learning materials are in short supply.

(a) The government should train and recruit qualified personnel to assess and establish
levels of challenges among children with special needs below 18 years and place
them in appropriate learning programmes.
(b) The government should assess the condition of existing facilities for special
education, training, and employment of learners with disability and special needs.
(c) The Ministry should formulate a programme of training and placement of the
challenged children involving community care and design targeted skills
development programmes.
(d) A review of the Education Act (1980) should provide the legal framework to effect
the enactment of a Special Needs Policy in line with the Constitution of Kenya,
2010. The Bill of Rights in the Constitution of Kenya makes specific reference to
the right to education for persons with disabilities and, indeed, other persons.
Capitation grants to special needs schools should be based on specific special
education needs as indicated in Table 7.13.

141

(e) The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) should fast track the development and
institutionalization of a specialized curriculum to cover all subjects for children
with disabilities and special needs.
Table 7.13: Proposed Unit Cost for Special Needs Education by Category of
Disabilities per Year
(a) Unit Cost of Educating a Child with Speech and Language Difficulties or with
Learning Difficulties
Item

Cost (Ksh.)

Learning Resources

20,000

Speech Training Material

20,000

Total

40,000

(b) Unit Cost of Educating a Deaf/Blind Child/Multi Handicapped
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Medical Care and Treatment

10,000

Multi-Sensory Early Childhood Development 10,000
Material and Equipment
Pep – Kit

4,000

ADL/Vocational and Pre-Vocational Training 10,000
Materials
Total

34,000

(c) The Unit Cost of Educating a Child with Physical Handicap in a Special School
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Mobility Devices

20,000

Learning Resources – Books, Exercise Books,
Pens, Pencil Holders, Book Holders, Adopted
Teaching Aids

10,000

Total

30,000

(a) Unit Cost of Educating a Cerebral Palsy Child
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Mobility Devices, Adapted Chairs, Tables, 25,000
Buckets
142

Occupational and Physical Therapy

20,000

Learning Materials

10,000

Total

55,000

(b) Unit Cost of Educating a Child who is Gifted and Talented
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Printed Materials

25,000

Project and Research

15,000

Creativity/innovation

Resource

and

Support 10,000

Services
Total

50,000

(c) Unit Cost of Educating Autistic Child Per Year
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Pre-Vocational, Physio-theraphy

20,000

Literary, Numeracy and Perceptional Training

10,000

Auditing Training Unit and Speech Training

10,000

Total

40,000

(d) Unit Cost of Educating a Child with Mental Handicap Per Year
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Pre-Vocational Training

10,000

Textbooks

5,000

Exercise Books and other Learning Materials

1,000

Pens

300

Playing Blocks

2000

Total

18,300

(e) Unit Cost of Educating a Child with Visual Impairment
(i) Total Blindness
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Braille Books

4,500

Braille Paper

3,000

Braillon

5,000

Geometry Kit

-

White Cane

200
143

Typing Paper

500

Pep Kit

4,500

Pre-Vocational

and

Vocational

Teaching 10,000

Materials
Total

27,700

(ii) Low Vision
Large Prints

4,000

Magnified Books

4,000

Pre-Vocational and Vocational Materials

10,000

Total

18,000

(iii) Unit Cost of Educating a Child with Hearing Impairment Per Year
Equipment and Materials
Item

Cost (Kshs)

Speech Kit

10,000

Text Books

6,000

Exercise Books

1,000

Ear Modes

200

Pre-Vocational and Vocational Materials

10,000

Total

27,200

NB: Boarding fee of Kshs. 20, 000 to be charged to those in boarding.

144

7.11 Financing Adult and Continuing Education (ACE)
Kenya is a signatory to various international declarations and conventions in education
and is committed to ensuring the right of every citizen to access, quality education as
enshrined in the World Declaration on Education For All (Jomtien, Thailand, 1990),
Dakar Framework For Action on Education For All (EFA), (Dakar, Senegal 2000) and
the Belem Framework for Action (Belem, Brazil 2009). These international
commitments emphasize the importance of literacy in equipping citizens with
knowledge and competences to be able to seek gainful employment or engage in
income-generating activities thus contributing to national development. Further, literacy
empowers citizens to participate in social and practical decision making processes,
enjoy their fundamental rights and enable them to lead quality life. It is for these
reasons that the government addresses the literacy needs of Kenyans who do not meet
the minimum mastery level as well as those who need to achieve the desired mastery
level.
Adult and Continuing Education (ACE) is a vehicle for transformation and
empowerment of individuals and the society. The ACE and NFE offer opportunities for
those outside the formal school system to benefit from education and training. For this
reason, ACE and NFE programmes are consciously designed to meet specific learning
needs. Some of their benefits are:
(a) Once parents become literate, they will value taking their children to school, hence
facilitating the achievement of EFA;
(b) ACE helps out of school youth to improve their quality of life and contribute
effectively to national development;
(c) The programme builds on previously acquired knowledge and skills for purposes of
certification, self-improvement and more effective participation in community and
national development;
(d) It provides opportunities for youth and adults to integrate into the formal education
system;
(e) ACE instils knowledge, technical and vocational skills, values and positive
attitudes. This enables learners to participate effectively both in democratic
145

processes, as well as in the management of their resources, conservation of
environment, natural resources and cultural heritage.

7.11.2 Provision of ACE in Kenya
ACE is a dynamic education sub-sector and this calls for specialized and wellarticulated training for management and technical staff to address the needs of the target
clientele. ACE is a shared responsibility and apart from government departments, other
providers, NGOs, CBOs and private individuals take the challenge. However, the
country lacks a harmonized National Monitoring and Evaluation Framework to ensure
all players provide quality programmes. The Board of Adult Education is mandated
through the Board of Adult Education Act Cap. 223 (1967) to coordinate ACE. The
provisions of the Adult Education Act will need to be integrated into the proposed
Education Legal Fframework. Weak linkages and transition mechanisms pose a
challenge to the provision of ACE. Commissioning of a National Qualification
Framework (NQF) complete with an assessment system that shall guide and regulate
ACE sub sector is required. The Framework would provide links with the formal
system of education and development of National Qualification Framework. The
capacity of Multi- purpose Development Training Institutes (MDTIs) to mount courses
and programmes that address the needs of the communities is constrained by inadequate
staffing, poor infrastructure and low funding. The Community Support Grants initiative
has been instrumental in expanding access. The literacy and learning environments have
been greatly enhanced. This has attracted more learners to the centres.
Table 7.14: Adult Education Centres per Province, 2003 – 2010
2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Nairobi

267

255

219

236

242

254

254

172

Central

986

976

916

831

836

861

866

1,197

Coast

1,110

1,074

1,052

934

949

977

977

669

Eastern

1,095

1,093

1,089

876

882

894

894

1,760

495

485

471

461

477

491

491

344

1,350

1,320

1,302

1,032

1,042

959

961

1,401

North Eastern
Nyanza

146

Rift Valley
Western
Total

2,196

2,190

2,182

816

806

800

10,318

10,203

10,036

1,846

1,850

1,906

1906

1,553

628

637

656

656

716

6,844

6,915

6,998

7,005

9,822

The provision of infrastructure for Adult Education Centres is offered by public primary
schools, community centres, faith-based institutions and other community owned
facilities. During the period 2003 and 2006, the number of adult education centres
declined by 33.7% from 10,318 to 6,844, respectively. The reason for the decline is the
closure of adult education centres that were managed by volunteer teachers whose
services were not considered for absorption as part-time teachers, natural attrition,
teacher turnover and retirement. Between 2008 and 2010, the number of Adult
Education Centres rose from 6,915 to 9,822. The increase in number of adult education
centres was due to capitation through KESSP (Community Support Grants) while in
2010, the increase was attributed to the employment of 880 full-time teachers and
advocacy for additional adult education centres in every newly created district. The
statistics on centres by provinces are in Table 7.14 above.

147

Table 7.15: Trend in Learners’ enrolment from 2000 to 2010

300,000

250,000

Enrolment

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

-

Male

2000
25,802

2001
69,747

2002
69,678

2003
31,305

2004
31,562

2005
38,902

2006
37,338

2007
39,270

2008
69,678

2009
69,747

2010
80,397

Female

68,101

171,938

146,184

77,126

78,411

87,422

91,973

78,994

146,184

171,938

172,156

Total

93,903

241,685

215,862

108,431

109,973

126,324

129,311

118,264

215,862

241,685

252,553

Year

The trend indicates that female learners increased from 68,101 in 2000 to 172,156 in
2010, an increase of 152.8%. In the years 2008 and 2009, the enrolment rose from
215,862 to 241,685. This was as a result of the funding through the Community Support
Grants. Though the proportion of male enrolment has been on the increase, the male
population participation in adult literacy classes is low. Low male participation in ACE
programmes can be attributed to cultural barriers and fear of defeat by women and
attitude towards the roles of men and women in the community. Women participation is
on the higher edge because of the formation of the merry-go-rounds and other income
generating activities in the ACE centres.
7.11.3 Adult Education Teachers
Full-time adult education teachers are employed by the government to manage and
facilitate the adult education centres with majority having attained secondary level of
education. The trend indicates that the number of full-time adult education teachers has
148

declined from 1,945 in 2000 to 1,592 in 2009. In 2009, there were 722 male teachers as
compared to 870 female teachers with males constituting 45.4% of the total teachers.
The decline in the number of full-time adult education teachers has been due to:
(i) Natural attrition
(ii) Retirements
(iii) Non-replacement and majority transferring services as a result of poor
remuneration.

In 2010, the Ministry of Education employed 880 Full-time Adult Education teachers
and hence raising the number to 2,472, an increase of 55.3%.

Table 7.16: Number of Full-time Adult Education Teachers by gender and
province, 2003 to 2010
Province

2003
M

2005
F

M

2007
F

M

2008
F

M

2009
F

M

F

Nairobi

24

48

18

30

16

29

16

22

16

18

Central

136

127

105

123

97

123

97

120

89

120

Coast

109

99

78

101

76

99

76

99

76

99

Eastern

129

171

128

169

128

169

122

169

109

156

65

32

58

27

58

27

58

27

53

25

Nyanza

137

205

116

202

109

198

97

172

99

152

R/Valley

216

219

213

215

209

215

204

207

189

183

Western

97

131

91

129

91

129

91

122

91

117

913

1,032

807

996

784

989

761

938

722

870

N/Eastern

Total
Grand Total

1,945

1,803

1,773

1,699

1,592

149

From 2003, part-time teachers in the public adult education centres were drawn from
the Central Government, the Local Government Authorities and Volunteer Self Help
Teachers. However, in 2008 the local authorities reassigned the staff to other
responsibilities. Hence, as indicated the trend shows that the number of part-time adult
education teachers declined from 4,425 in 2003 to 3,000 in 2008, a decline of 32.2%.
Since 2008, the Directorate of Adult Education and Continuing Education has
maintained a constant number of part-time teachers at 3,000.

Table 7.17: Number of Part-time Adult Education Teachers by gender and
province, 2003 to 2010
Province

2003
M

2005
F

M

2007
F

M

2008
F

M

2009
F

M

F

Nairobi

45

78

45

78

39

48

38

42

38

42

Central

142

318

142

318

96

189

96

181

96

181

Coast

187

507

187

507

98

386

98

362

98

362

Eastern

196

299

196

299

156

245

146

246

146

246

N/Eastern

194

107

194

107

109

76

99

76

99

76

Nyanza

397

269

397

269

117

256

112

256

112

256

R/Valley

557

769

557

769

339

646

318

646

318

646

Western

155

205

155

205

103

186

103

181

103

181

1,873

2,552

1,010

1,990

Total
Grand
Total

4,425

1,873 2,552 1,057 2,032 1,010 1,990

4,425

3,089

3,000

3,000

150

(a) Resource allocation and investment in literacy and adult programmes have been
low.
(b) A shortage of literacy and adult education teachers has worsened in the past two
decades.
(c) More people are knowledgeable in computation compared to reading.
(d) More males compared to females recorded higher performance in reading and
numeracy at 64.1% and 67.9% and 58.9% and 61.3% respectively.
(e) In terms of participation in adult literacy programmes, more females than males are
enrolled.
(f) The sub-sector is under-funded and has not been supported by strong policy and
strategic planning.
(g) Perceptions that adult literacy programmes are ineffective and thus a vicious circle
has been established.
(h) The programme also suffers from inability to gain 100% awareness as only 30% of
the population is aware of it (KNALS, 2007).
(i) Inadequate print and relevant teaching/learning materials.
(j) Inadequate monitoring and evaluation of the 6,800 centres.
(k) Inadequate number of teachers, technical staff, and high turnover of volunteer
teachers.
(l) Non-conducive learning facilities, insufficient learning/teaching materials, and high
poverty levels amongst the illiterates.
(m) Regional and gender disparity is a concern among learners in ASALs, urban
informal settlements, people with special needs, areas and regions with low
incomes as well as prisoners.

Given the above challenges, it is recommended that:
(a) Funding of Adult and Continuing Education should be guaranteed and based on a
realistic needs assessment including the provision of tutors, infrastructure,
equipment and other teaching and learning materials.
151

(b)

Deploy adequate numbers of teachers to adult learning centres with a minimum of
class per location and revise the existing scheme of service for adult education
tutors (full-time and part-time) to retain qualified teachers.

(c)

Deploy quality assurance officers, to ensure that quality education is offered in
adult learning centres.

(d)

Develop a national qualification framework that will provide opportunities for
linking ACE with the formal education and training systems, thus creating re-entry
at all levels.

(e)

Harmonize all legal provisions dealing with education including ACE and NFE,
Children‘s Act and the Board of Adult Education Act.

(f)

The Ministry to request for additional funding from the exchequer to enable the
Directorate of Basic, Adult and Continuing Education to refurbish and complete the
stalled projects in the Multi-purpose Development Training Institutes (MDTI‘s) as
well as establish Continuing Education (Secondary) classes for the out-of-school
youth and adults.

7.12 Financing Technical, Industrial, Vocational, Entrepreneurship and Training
(a) Quality Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET)
is critical to developing the individual‘s knowledge in broad occupational areas that
require technical and professional competences and specific occupational skills.
TIVET should provide individuals with science, technology and innovative skills
critical for any country to gain a competitive edge in the global economy. One
critical feature of TIVET is its orientation towards the world of work and
curriculum emphasis on acquisition of employable skills that develop skilled and
entrepreneurial workforce that most countries, Kenya included, need for sustainable
growth, wealth creation and poverty reduction. In Kenya, TIVET training is critical
to the attainment of Vision 2030 goals.
(b) The key objective of TIVET in Kenya is to offer opportunity for students to explore
their practical aptitudes, and to develop elementary skills and gain perspective of
technology which enables them to become more effective and informed members
of society. TIVET training courses are offered at Youth Polytechnics, Technical
152

Training Institutes, Institutes of Technology and National Polytechnics, and other
similar TVET Institutions. There are a lot of un-utilised machines in some technical
institutions.
(c) Presently, TIVET programmes are offered at four levels as follows:
(i) Artisan – taught in Youth Polytechnics and other similar technical training
institutions;
(ii) Craft – taught in Technical Training Institutions and Institutes of Technology;
(iii) Diploma/Technicians – taught at National Polytechnics, Technical Training
Institutes and Institutes of Technology;
(iv) Higher Diploma (higher level technicians) – taught at National Polytechnics
and Technical Teacher Training Colleges.
The above TIVET programmes are taught, examined and certificated by the Kenya
National Examinations Council (KNEC).
(d) There are about 1,600 TIVET institutions in Kenya offering a wide range of
programmes. Most of these institutions are concentrated within urban areas, where
the population is high and poverty levels are lower than in the rural areas. On the
other hand, the institutions located in the rural areas are characterized by low
enrolments due to poor infrastructure and low average incomes among the
population and negative attitude towards TIVET institutions.

About 50% of these institutions are run by the private sector, communities, and civil
societies, the majority of which are in the category of Youth Polytechnics. The rest are
public institutions spread across several government Ministries and departments.

The majority of people in rural areas have no reliable sources of income and hence
cannot afford boarding expenses. At the same time, the institutions are not located in
the convenient places for day scholars due to lack of reliable transport and the
comparatively long distances from home to the institutions.

153

7.12.2 Major findings and issues from the cluster hearings, submissions and
literature review
(a) Public Technical, Vocational, Entrepreneurship and Training in Kenya does not
emphasize on imparting of high technology skills.
(b) Re-engineer TIVET to respond to the demands of Vision 2030.
(c) Delivery of TIVET is weakly coordinated and is offered at various levels: Artisan
level in Youth Polytechnics and on-the-job training in the formal sector and
informal sector (Jua Kali apprentices); Craft level in Technical Training Institutes
(TTIs) and Institutes of Technology (ITs); Technician level in National
Polytechnics (NPs) and a few selected TTIs and ITS; and Technologist in National
Polytechnics and University. Most of these institutions lack appropriate equipment
and skilled manpower. Besides the formal TIVET institutions, there are several
non-formal institutions run by government and parastatals as well as private
institutions and universities. They include Agricultural Colleges, Kenya Railway
Training Institute, Kenya Institute of Mass Communication, the National Youth
Service, Industrial Training Centres, YMCA Vocational Training Centres and
Christian Industrial Training Centres. There are also TIVET institutions run by
private individuals, NGOs and religious institutions. In the informal sector, trainees
undergo apprenticeships with experienced artisans and craftsmen prior to venturing
on their own (ILO, 2001).
(d) In the absence of government provision of TIVET for adult learners, alternative
training is offered by the informal and private sectors through on-the-job training.
The on-the-job training is offered in various churches, NGOs training centres, and
private-for-profit training providers, many of which have come up in recent years
and focus on the development of business skills and the traditional apprenticeship
system. Most of the technical training in the Jua Kali sector is carried out through
the traditional apprenticeship system, particularly in manufacturing and services. It
is estimated that 40% of all trainees acquire their skills through apprenticeship but
apprenticeship programmes are not entrenched in the TIVET programme.

154

(e) A noticeable feature of enrolment patterns in most TIVET institutions in Kenya is
the relatively low female participation in technical training. Most TIVET
institutions offer engineering courses alongside courses in science and business
studies. However, data on student enrolment by department/course and gender
shows female concentration in non-engineering courses. Business studies and
management courses are perceived as female-oriented and record high female
enrolment.
(f) There are challenges with regards to the vocationalised curriculum offered by
TIVET institutions. Although TIVET in Kenya cuts across all levels and segments
of education, there is a weak link between the development of primary and
secondary curricula and TIVET curriculum. Whereas the curricula for TIVET,
secondary and primary institutions are nationally designed by KIE, universities on
the hand implement their own curricula, which are internally designed. Even with
the 8-4-4 curriculum, universities lag behind in the implementation of vocational
curriculum. This means that admission of graduates from TIVET into appropriate
courses at universities is difficult.
(g) The management of TIVET is under different Government Ministries. These
include Ministries of Higher Education, Science and Technology; Labour and
Human Resource Development; State for Youth Affairs. For instance, National
Polytechnics and Technical training institutes are under the authority of the
Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology; the Ministry of State for
Youth Affairs oversees Youth Polytechnics; Ministry of Labour and Human
Development is responsible for National Industrial Training Centres. This makes
coordination of TIVET activities and maintenance of training standards difficult. In
addition, individual Ministries run sector specific TIVET programmes such as
health, agriculture, trade among others. There are an increasing number of
institutions run by private operators. To a large extent, supervision of the
institutions is often left to individual ministries and the private sector that often
have limited capacity to assure quality and high standards.
(h) Although the curriculum design emphasizes both manipulative and analytical skills,
there is concern about relevance and quality. A large part of the current TIVET
curriculum is inflexible and imparts limited technical skills. TIVET curriculum
155

development is under-funded and has not received input from employers. High
costs of training materials and textbooks, inadequate physical facilities and
insufficient modern equipment in most TIVET institutions have adversely affected
the curriculum implementation.
(i) In some institutions some machines are obsolete compared to what is in the market
today.
(j) TIVET is mainly financed through public spending, which has not been adequate.
Expenditure on technical education as a percentage of total education sector was
2.8 percent in 2009/10 and 0.002 percent of GDP. Much of this expenditure on
TIVET goes to salaries, which consume an average of 76 per cent of total
expenditure on TIVET. Similarly, only 0.12 percent of the GDP is allocated for
TIVET. On the other hand unit costs for TIVET are high due to the low student
teacher ratio, expensive training equipment and costly training materials.
(k) The cost of equipment, infrastructure, consumables such as raw materials and spare
parts is high. In Kenya, the TIVET sub-sector has various programmes including
completing stalled projects, creation of centres of excellence, upgrading of TTIs
into National Polytechnics and National Polytechnics into university colleges and
the rehabilitation of TIs. All these require substantial funding.
(l) Even with the constrained public spending on TIVET, the government has not been
able to mobilize funds through private sector inducement because of lack a policy
framework to guide the partnerships. The involvement of enterprise/employers in
supporting TIVET is evident in many countries. Commonly known as social
partnerships, this type of financing mechanism is common in countries such as
Japan, USA, Malaysia, and South Korea. It involves enterprises conducting
vocational training of the labour force directly and bearing the entire costs of
training. Social partnerships have worked well in countries where governments take
an increasingly active role in promoting this kind of enterprises involvement as is
the case of East Asian countries. In Kenya, only few medium and large enterprises
have been found to have some interest in training. Technical training is expensive,
and most of these enterprises are foreign-owned. Other partners in this case
include:

government,

Civil

Society

Organizations,

enterprises,

labour
156

representatives and the educators (educational institutions). Such partnerships
should be involved in developing and administering the curriculum as well as
assessing it; devising financing mechanisms.
(m) Non-targeted skills development is one of the major weaknesses of TIVET in the
country. The programmes are mainly supply-driven and are not designed to meet
the projected and observed demand of the labour market. There is also no
framework for training institutions to track their graduates in the labour market.
This leads to lack of opportunities for trainees to give their feedback on quality of
training attained and relevance to labour market, which would otherwise be utilized
to review the curriculum and training packages. Without tracer studies, TVET
institutions are not able to improve the relevance of their training programmes.
(a) Develop a new policy framework to promote and regulate private investment and
public private partnerships so as to increase their participation in the TIVET sector;
(b) Establishment of endowments/grants from private individuals and industries to
support financing of TIVET;
(c) Provide tax incentives to private sector to support, establish and even run TIVET
institutions relevant to their line of investment;
(d) Expand collection of training levy to complement industrial training levy and
catering levy;
(e) Promote income generating activities and self-sufficiency in TIVET institutions;
(f) Bring TIVET into the mainstream education system so that students can benefit
from mainstream financing and enhanced skills development;
(g) Encourage partnerships with international TIVET institutions for enhanced skills
transfer and high level technical skills development;
(h) Amend the Industrial Training Act and HELB Act to provide for funding of
students in TIVET institutions.
(i) Discourage converting middle level colleges into University Campuses.

7.13 Financing of University Education and Training
157

7.13.1 The Present Situation
The Kenya Government recognizes that education and training, especially at the
university level, is an essential element in the overall national development as well as a
major determinant of substantial private benefits. Investment especially in higher
education and training is defensible because there is a strong linkage between higher
education levels and economic and social prosperity in the knowledge-based
economies. University education and training is expensive and requires considerable
investment by all partners, both public and private. In 2009/10, the proportion of public
spending at university level as percentage of total education allocation was estimated at
11%. This excludes direct household financing. The literature on funding university
education in Kenya confirms that public funding is inadequate as it meets about 60% of
their budgetary requirements. The increasing enrolments in public universities has
strained the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology resources that face
competing needs from other levels of education and training. Inadequate funding of
Kenya‘s national universities is likely to affect their input-output relationships and
hence reduce the quality of their outputs in terms of teaching, research and provision of
services critical to the economy.

However, the private/personal rate of return is also higher for university education than
for Basic Education. This partly explains the increasing demand for university
education with students willing to pay fees for their degree programmes. Therefore,
private financing by the students (or their family) is mainly justified by the
straightforward human capital argument of profitability: education enables students to
earn more after graduation. They should therefore contribute towards financing of their
education.

7.13.2 Major issues facing University Education in Kenya
(a) Capacity
A critical issue facing the country today is how to increase access to university
education to cater for the increasing number of students completing secondary
education and others who want university education. There are few student places
available in Kenyan universities. Kenya has only 6.5% of its tertiary education age
cohort joining university education after secondary school education. The gross
158

enrolment rate is 3.5%. The participation rate needs to be increased to more than 50%
by 2020 if Kenya is to become a middle-income country.

The problem is compounded by limited opportunities for post-secondary education and
training in other tertiary institutions. This limits opportunities for acquisition of
knowledge and skills needed to compete in the rapidly changing economy. The
situation in Kenya needs to be compared with what prevails in other countries that are
making major strides in the global knowledge economy such as China, South Korea and
Singapore. Some of these countries have targeted about 50% of the secondary output
proceeding to university. Table 7.18 shows the transition of secondary education to
universities in Kenya.
Table 7.18: University and Module 1 University Enrolments, 1994 – 2008
and Estimates through to 2015

Year

Candidates
Registered

No. qualified for
admission (C+)

Module I candidates
Admitted

Difference

Percent of
qualified
admitted

1994

143,157

23,122

8,649

14,473

37.4%

1995

140,503

21,900

7,953

13,947

36.3%

1996

155,020

28,119

8,428

19,691

30.0%

1997

156,591

31,295

9,017

22,278

28.8%

1998

169,357

30,243

8,150

22,093

26.9%

1999

173,792

30,666

8,899

21,767

29.0%

2000

178,608

40,491

11,147

29,344

27.5%

2001

194,788

42,158

10,966

31,192

26.0%

2002

198,076

42,721

10,923

31,798

25.6%

2003

207,730

49,870

10,263

39,607

20.6%

2004

222,519

58,239

10,632

47,607

18.3%

2005

260,643

68,040

12,479

55,561

18.3%

2006

243,318

62,853

16,151

46,702

25.7%

2007

276,193

74,299

16,629

57,670

22.4%

2008

304,995

72,590

20,073

52,517

27.7%

KCSE

159

2009

322,467

74,643

21,223

53,420

28.4%

2010

340,939

78,919

22,439

56,480

28.4%

2011

360,470

83,440

23,724

59,716

28.4%

2012

381,120

88,219

25,083

63,136

28.4%

2013

402,952

93,273

26,520

66,753

28.4%

2014

426,036

98,616

28,039

70,577

28.4%

2015

450,441

104,266

29,645

74,620

28.4%

Source: Financing University Education in Kenya: A Report to the Ministry of Higher
Education Science and Technology (2009). All figures beyond 2008 are projections.
The number of students taking KCSE is estimated to increase by 5.7% over the
previous year. The 5.7% rate itself is derived from the average rate of increase in the
period 1994 to 2008. The number of students scoring C+ and above is estimated at
23.1% of the total number of candidates, also derived from the average increase of the
period 1994 to 2008. The number of students admitted through JAB is estimated at
6.6% of the total candidates taking KCSE, derived from the highest rate ever recorded
in the period and was realized only in the latest admission of 2008 and previously in
2006. These capacity constraints will be magnified by increases in the number of
secondary schools graduates qualified to enter higher education in upcoming years due
to demographic growth accelerated by increases due to policies for free primary and
secondary education.

(b) Equity concerns associated with current cost-sharing in university education
For many years, government funding for Recurrent Expenditure of University education
does not reflect the real per student unit costs by programme on board. Due to
inadequate funding, Kenya introduced cost sharing. There is also a self-sponsored or
parallel group of Module II students. This system is inefficient as parents are burdened
with the costs while Module I students are highly subsidized.

The inability of some households to meet the high fees charged by universities raises
equity issues considering that most of the ―lucrative‖ academic programmes such as
medicine, law, engineering and business are accessible to those from affluent
backgrounds. Despite the key role played by private universities in increasing supply of
160

higher education in Kenya, current higher education financing lacks specific policy
provisions for supporting these institutions as it happens in other countries such as
South Korea and Australia.

(c) Funding for medical and technical related university programmes
The current funding for public universities is based on undergraduate students admitted
by the Joint Admissions Board (JAB). The Kshs. 120,000 per student was determined
over two decades ago and has not been revised. The recurrent governmental funding at
university education does not reflect the true total enrolments or the real per-student
unit costs by programme and level. In addition, the public spending does not account
for the different underlying per-student instructional costs by programmes or by levels
including undergraduate, graduate, or advanced professional levels differentiated unit
costs. The budgetary allocations do not recognize the substantially higher costs of
instruction for example in highly technical courses such as engineering, laboratory
science, upper level clinical instruction in medicine (or dental or veterinary medicine)
that require costly equipment.

(d) Funding for research and low numbers of academic staff at the Doctorate level
(PhD)
Quality research requires appropriate and sufficient funding, availability of highly
trained research staff, adequate and appropriate facilities and equipment. For the
country to meet its development and socio-economic needs, it is essential that research
and development is made a priority. Kenya Vision 2030 has recognized that the
immediate challenge facing the country‘s development efforts is how to meet the
human resource requirements for a rapidly changing and more diverse economy.
Therefore, the role of universities in training high-level skilled manpower cannot be
ignored. The recent data from the Commission for Higher Education (CHE) show that
there are few lecturers with doctoral degrees.
University staffing numbers indicate that there is a scarcity of highly qualified staff in
the universities. While much of the training of Kenyan PhDs has been supported by
universities and donor agencies in the industrialized countries, some of the research is
done in Kenyan universities. There is increasing need for PhD trained academic staff in
161

Kenyan universities. In addition to the need for more and better quality research linked
to national needs, a much greater financial commitment from both governmental and
other Kenyan sources of revenue will be required.

The expansion of Kenyan university education requires a commensurate increase in the
numbers of new academic staff with PhD qualifications. However, weak targeted
support for research, declining numbers of persons with the capacity to supervise
research, and few opportunities and limited resources available for academic staff
capacity development makes the prospect of meeting this need very bleak. There is a
serious risk of compromising academic standards across the sub-sector as a result. The
current operating institutional budget allocation does not recognize the very high costs
of PhD level graduate instruction, or the research capacity required by the academic
staff qualified to teach at such a level, or the high technology and quality research that
is required by the students to meet the country‘s needs. Areas of training that require
increased research funding include; public health, medicine, engineering and dry land
agriculture.

(e) Support of private university sector
A severe challenge to Kenya‘s current higher education financing is the absence of a
specific policy backed up by an explicit set of tools or mechanisms for public support to
private higher education sector. The government has long recognized the importance of
a quality private sector higher education through CHE, the principal task of which has
been the accreditation and continuing quality assurance of private universities and their
degree programmes. The government also explicitly recognized the importance of a
growing private sector in its Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 (endorsed also in the 2009
National Strategy for University Education) as well as the requirement, beginning in
2009, for HELB to begin making student loans available to needy private sector
university students. At the same time, there are a great many other tools by which
government can encourage a private higher educational sector on the grounds that a
private sector can frequently provide certain degree programmes more efficiently and
more responsively than can public institutions of higher education.

(f) Efficiency in the use of university resources
162

Another challenge that is contributing to the poor conditions of university finance in
Kenya is the widespread perception of inefficiencies in the use of existing resources in
some or many public universities and university colleges. These inefficiencies may be
manifested, among other ways, in: (a) high numbers of top-level administrative staff
who, other than presenting the institution with considerable emolument costs,
frequently withdraws much needed senior teaching staff from the classroom, laboratory,
and Ph.D. dissertation supervision; (b) high levels of clerical and other mid- and lower
level staff—at least compared to staff-student ratios in many other countries; (c) an
uneven distribution of faculty among academic programmes—leaving certain high
demand areas with very high student/faculty ratios and other academic areas with
inefficiently low ratios; and (d) underutilization of physical facilities such as classrooms
and laboratories. This challenge has been exacerbated by the ongoing clamour for new
satellite campuses and colleges of both public as well as private universities in Kenya.
There are many learning centres being set up by these institutions without recruiting
adequate numbers of teaching staff, amid serious inadequacies in teaching and learning
facilities. There are potent fears of declining quality of education being offered in these
satellite university centres.

Clearly, the funding level from the Government is presently insufficient and
unsustainable to meet, for example, the increasing demand for higher education, staff
salaries and maintain acceptable standards of educational quality. This calls for
investment by other stakeholders to supplement the Government‘s efforts in financing
and expansion of higher education and training. Without a working partnership on
financing, it will be hard to address problems of poor access, inequity, quality and
relevance and also the current heavy household financial burden. However, costs of
technical and industrial courses offered at university level are higher, particularly for
capital development.

7.13.3 Proposals
163

From information contained in past Education Commissions and research reports,
cluster hearings, submissions and literature review, the following recommendations are
made:

(a) Increased levels of research funding
The government should take the responsibility of funding research and development
and invest more in target priority development areas (for example, emphasize
agricultural research for food security, focus on light industries (jua kali) and raw
material processing to ensure value addition. At the same time ensure that there is a
strong linkage between the country‘s research with respect to goals, aspirations and
commitments of Vision 2030. Other areas where the government shall need to provide
direct funding include establishment of innovative and pioneering programmes that the
government may deem to be priority investment for economic development. Such may
be established at any institution that may be deemed to be strategically best placed and
enjoys comparative advantage. In addition, the Government with support from various
stakeholders, especially the private sector shall need to invest considerable resources
towards Science, Technology and Innovations and in particular Information and
Communication Technology.

(b) Strengthen the Role of Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) in Financing
Higher Education
In the last 20 years, HELB has supported many Kenyans who could not afford to pay
fees for university education and training through provision of loans, bursaries and
scholarships. Over the same period, HELB has diversified its products to include
support for needy students in chartered private universities in East Africa and awards
loans to postgraduate students to conduct research. As a result, about 95 percent of the
75 percent of total loan applicants have been awarded loans. In addition, the board has
instituted prudent loan recovery measures, which has enabled it to recover some loans.

The government should continue to support the development of HELB into a strong
financial institution capable of supporting needy students to pursue higher education in
universities, TIVET and other tertiary Institutions. Students at both public and private
institutions should be supported and encouraged to re-pay their loans as soon as
164

possible. Some reforms that are required to restructure HELB to become a financial
institution in order to mobilize resources in the financial market, solicit government
funding, manage endowments, foundations, trusts and other initiatives, prudently invest
funds not required immediately, and recover loans advanced to students. The resource
base from these sources should enable it to establish and manage a revolving fund. The
funds mobilized from various sources, revolving fund and investments should be used
to adequately respond to the demand for financial assistance by students. This will
entail building the capacity of HELB towards becoming an efficient and effective
financial player in the raising, administration and management of funds, investing funds
and disbursing loans, bursaries and scholarships to students pursuing higher education
and training in Kenya.

Students in higher education and training institutions shall access resources under
HELB through a number of mechanisms, such as full scholarships based on merit; and
agreed national priorities of their disciplines; loans to needy students - this could be full
or partial cost of the courses taken at any university. To undertake this task, HELB
should review, strengthen and apply fully the objective testing mechanisms for efficient
and effective criteria for identifying needy students such as; orphans, marginalized and
vulnerable for loan, scholarship, bursaries and any other support. This should be
undertaken with full involvement with the local communities; secondary school board
of governors, teachers and head teachers (refer to Figure 7.1).

165

Figure 7.1: Enhanced Role of Higher Education Loans Board
Source of Resources

Investment of the Resources

Utilization of the Resources

Recovered
Loans

Government
Funding
Donors
Funding
Trusts and
Foundations

Education
Financial
Institution

Loans, Bursaries
and
Scholarships to
Students

Other Sources

166

(c) Reform of university funding mechanisms
The Task Force made the following observations:
(a)

The rationalization of governmental recurrent institutional revenue allocation to
universities should be based on a formula budget system, common in many
developing and industrialized countries; and differentiated by programme type.
Social sciences, humanities, business, law, and education should constitute lowexpense programmes whereas sciences, engineering, fine arts, medical fields and
Ph.D should comprise the high-expense programmes category. In the same breath,
HELB‘s annual lending capability should be expanded to accommodate the
anticipated rise in university students‘ enrolment. A more efficient and equitable
system of funds to cover fees and accommodation costs needs to be developed.

(b)

There is need to better align university enrolments by programmes and levels with
national and regional needs, and with the government‘s ability and readiness to
finance such programmes and enrolments.

(c)

Universities need to rationalize income generation activities without compromising
the core functions, namely, teaching, scholarship and research.

(d)

The Education Policy and Act should provide a mechanism for allocating the
scholarships in order to provide support to the bright students to undertake the
various programmes that are strategic to the government and the needs of the
country. Considerations should be given to providing each institution with a blank
grant based on student numbers, and require institutions to manage the scholarship
programme.

(e)

Financing university education and training should be based on differentiated unit
cost of running the particular programmes in each institution. In addition, each
university shall be allowed to set its own actual unit costs as dictated by its own
unique circumstances subject to the respective maximum unit costs as set by the
market. The differentiated unit costs must be relatively competitive as compared to
charges from universities elsewhere as well as being sensitive to the economic
situation and special circumstances in the country.

7.13.4 Recommendations for University Education
The government should adopt the following policy and legal priorities:
(a) Address the issue of university funding to enable access and equity for students with
talent and special needs.
167

(b) Promote research, science, technology and innovation throughout university education.
(c) Create an efficient and effective system of student loans in HELB and provide legal
support for judging defaulting graduates.
(d) Restructure the National Council for Science and Technology to cover research and
innovation.
(e) The NCST to establish a system whereby each institution‘s research output is assessed
every two years, and on the basis of a comparison of the performance between Kenyan
universities award institutions additional research funding to the best performing
institutions by research area on a sliding scale.
(f) Provide for the establishment of a National Research Development Fund (NRDF) to
provide sufficient research funds for development. This fund will be used by universities
and other research institutions in Kenya, and will be administered by NCST.
(g) Formalise public-private partnership arrangements in the Higher Education sub-sector by
redefining and institutionalising the role of the private sector in the provision of higher
education; establishing clear rules and regulations to govern public-private partnerships,
and by amending existing charters.
(h) Develop a framework of incentives for private sector education investors to establish,
strengthen and expand private universities and other tertiary colleges. These should
include offering infrastructure such as land, roads, water and sewage system, installation
of initial electricity and security. The private education institutions should demonstrate
the ability to expand enrolments.
(i) Redefine and expand the mandate of the Council for Higher Education (CHE) to
empower it to take responsibility for all quality assurance in public and private
universities.
(j) In collaboration with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, develop ways and means to attract
foreign students to Kenyan universities.
(k) Design special credit schemes for investments in education and guaranteeing larger
investors to secure international financing.
(l) Make available unused government buildings and institutions to be used by private
education providers at low rents.
(m) Secondment of specialists and teachers to private investors on agreed terms to help
establish educational institutions and programmes.
(n) Exercise some coordination and control of the level of fees and charges levied by private
investors to avoid exploitation of parents and guardians.
168

(o) Funding of universities should be enhanced to provide for more infrastructure and
equipment.
(p) The funding support to both public and private universities should, however, be driven
and targeted to the number of needy students admitted to each university subject to the
agreed national priorities in specific programmes and/or courses. The current loan
repayment interest rate of four percent (4%) is unrealistic considering the high cost of
capital in the country. For this reason, the current loan repayment interest rate should be
adjusted to reflect the real cost of borrowing capital and be pegged to Treasury Bills
interest rate.

Parents need to be educated on the value of higher education. This can be done by having
University Open Days with adequate explanation of the career values of each University
course. A clear explanation is needed from the Government if it is to fund certain strategic
courses while leaving others. A proper and adequate information package needs to be
prepared by each University. A prospectus as such is insufficient.

7.14 Summaries of Overall Education Costs: 2011-2015
The implementation of recommendations contained in the report has cost implications. The
costs are shown in the following Table, covering 4 years up to 2015;
Table 7.19: Summary of cost projections, 2011- 2015

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Levels
General
Administration
ECDE
Primary
Secondary
Special Needs
Adult
Education
Technical
Education
University
Education
TOTAL

2011
17,352,810,620

2012
26,046,923,044

2013
36,088,799,966

2014
28,172,351,965

2015
29,299,246,043

53,153,362,457
84,506,547,211
79,787,659,599
551,400,000
14,429,700

54,986,464,007
119,888,773,450
105,034,933,805
2,067,270,348
1,196,976,995

56,848,281,146
93,337,432,200
95,403,414,417
2,111,248,904
1,244,859,194

58,739,023,269
99,391,717,462
96,618,986,124
2,156,841,860
1,294,653,562

66,475,476,788
110,214,407,965
97,546,505,121
2,204,124,562
1,346,439,705

10,357,200,000

10,771,488,000

11,202,347,520

11,650,441,421

12,116,459,078

41,304,000,000

42,956,160,000

44,674,406,400

46,461,382,656

48,319,837,962

287,027,409,586

362,948,992,648

340,910,789,747

344,485,398,318

367,522,497,224

% age change

1.

-

+26%

-6%

+1%

+7%

The cost drivers for the projections are:


Increased capitation for both FPE and FDSE



Mainstreaming ECDE into basic education

169



Infrastructure development



Provision of teaching /learning materials



ICT investments



Teachers‘ salaries



Provision of lunches at ECDE, primary and secondary schools



Provision of sanitary towels for both primary and secondary schools



Increased enrolment at all levels



One hundred percent transition from primary to secondary schools.

170

CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE OF EDUCATION
AND TRAINING

8.1 Introduction
Education management involves the prudent utilization of personnel, funds and equipment
aimed at enhancing the efficient delivery of quality education. Institutional management
involves the planning, organization, and co-coordination of delivering educational services.
This Chapter focuses on primary school, secondary schools and middle level colleges.

Governance can be defined as the process of providing policy leadership, oversight and
strategic guidance on management of resources and delivery of services as well as the
formulation and implementation of sound policies and regulations. In view of devolution as
defined in the Constitution of Kenya (2010) the issue of governance requires serious thought.

The Task Force noted both from county consultations and submissions from various
stakeholders (find list attached in the appendices), that educational institutions are grappling
with various challenges in regard to management at all levels. Some cases of under
performance in examinations, governance issues, financial management concerns, high staff
turnover and infrastructural deficits characterize many education and training institutions.
Studies indicate a strong positive relationship between quality of institutional management
and the degree of attainment of institutional goals. Various gaps presently exist in the area of
institutional management.

Concern exists amongst state and non-state actors about the general quality of educational
provision in these institutions, and in particular, over the manner in which they are managed
and governed. The Task Force found issues of efficiency, effectiveness and quality
enhancement are common. This section explores the issues and challenges facing
management and governance of education in Kenya, addressing aspects of the Constitution of
Kenya, 2010, and the demands of Vision 2030 as they relate to institutional management and
governance of education.

8.1.1 Situational analysis for Institutions
At present, secondary and primary schools are headed by head teachers, and colleges are
171

headed by principals; all deployed by the Teachers Service Commission. The heads of
institutions report to district education officers, provincial education officers, the Ministry of
Education Headquarters and the Teachers Service Commission (TSC). Universities are
headed by vice chancellors and managed by independent senates and governing councils.
Boards of Governors at secondary schools and TTC‘s are managed by BOGs, while primary
schools are governed by School Management Committees (SMCs). ECD centres are largely
managed by individuals, NGOs, faith-based organizations and local communities, with the
exception of those few centres attached to public primary schools. The MoE also provides
limited technical and financial support to selected public and community ECD centres.

The deployment of heads of institutions is currently provided for in the TSC policy on
deployment of heads of institutions. Notably, the same does not provide for financial
management as one of the skills prior to deployment. Over the years, quality assessment and
audit reports have shown that there are cases of impropriety in financial management and
weak accountability mechanisms, which have undermined effectiveness of the institutions
with regard to service delivery.

The Task Force also noted considerable concern over the way in which the finances of
institutions are audited. Books of accounts are audited by school auditors based at the district,
provincial and national levels, but audit reports have to be authorized by the head of schools
audit at Ministry headquarters. Authorized audit reports are sent to institutions to be
discussed by respective governance bodies. In most cases these reports get back to the
institutions a little too late for any meaningful corrective measures to be taken by respective
management teams. What makes the situation less satisfactory is the fact that most
institutions (particularly primary and secondary schools) lack bursars/accounts clerks, while
others have employed finance staff with questionable qualifications. The system for
recruiting such staff, the processes and procedures, and the fact that evidence of patronage
appears to run through them, renders those employed less independent than they should be,
and indebted to persons appointing them. The Task Force was told that this made it difficult
for bursars/accounts clerks to raise questions in cases or events of misappropriation of funds
or misuse of other institutional resources.

8.1.2 Gaps and Challenges in Institutional Management

172

Some of the issues and challenges troubling the sector were noted by earlier Commissions.
The Koech Commission of Inquiry into the Education System (2000), for example, noted an
inertia and an inability within the education system, and in institutions to deal with
management issues, crises and new challenges. There was a lack of accountability whilst the
misappropriation of finances were common. One reason identified was the lack of, or poor
management training of officers assigned management responsibilities.

Arising from public hearings, county consultations and written submissions, the Task Force
identified the following gaps:
(a) Minimum qualifications for appointment to management positions remain unclear at all
levels.
(b) The absence of a framework for capacity development for School Management
Committees and Boards of Governors.
(c) The position of institutional heads is not substantive; with many deployed directly from
the classroom.
(d) The absence of conditions of service which requires individual and collective
accountability by management.
(e) Poor co-ordination among levels and individuals. Lack of coherence in the management
of individuals and between different offices and bodies whose roles are not clearly
defined. This has caused much confusion in the administration and decision making
processes.
(f) Undue political interference in institutional management.
(g) Poor use of mapping and planning information when new schools are established leading
to staff shortages.
(h) An absence of minimum professional standards, benchmarks for use when appointing
institutional managers.
(i) Lack of engagement of communities in the establishment, management and governance
of schools.

8.1.3 Recommendations for Improvements in Institutional Management
(a) All institutions will be managed by Boards of Management (BoMs).
(b) Develop a policy framework on institutional management with clear provisions on:

173

(i)

Open and competitive processes for identification and appointment of institutional
heads;

(ii)

Clear job descriptions and a competitive scheme of service for head teachers;

(iii) Minimum qualifications in terms of education attainment; skills, competences and
values, with basic training in financial management, strategic leadership, quality
assurance and mentorship;
(iv) Minimum set of professional standards for school managers which should include,
but not be limited to, standards for effective leadership, integrity, respect to
national values and declaration of wealth as provided for in the Constitution.
(v)

Appraisal mechanisms based on performance and achievement of set objectives
and targets;

(vi) Heads of schools will be appointed on tenure of five (5) years with an option of
renewal once depending on one‘s performance;
(vii) Clear definition of roles, responsibilities and expectations of all stakeholders at
institutional level, with attendant reporting lines and accountability structures;
(viii) The scheme for head teachers to be managed by the Teachers Service Commission
(TSC);
(ix) Appointment to and removal from office of head teachers to be done through
consultation between County Education Board (CEB), TSC and the sponsor.
(c) The Policy Framework should include provisions for setting up:
(i)

A clearly focused system of capacity building for institutional managers; to
occur regularly and which will have some bearing on promotion and motivation.

(ii)

A clearly defined accountability structure governing resource use and financial
management.

(iii) A scheme of service providing for the employment of transferable, high integrity
institutional accountants (bursars), accounts clerks and other support staff by MoE.
(iv) Appointment modalities for head teachers to be managed by TSC in consultation
with MOE and other stakeholders to avoid conflict with other government
agencies.
(v)

A system that incorporates effective participation of learners, parents and
teachers in day-to-day running of the institutions. For learners, this can be achieved
through establishment of such participatory forums like pupil/student councils in
schools and colleges to create room for learner participation in school
management.
174

(d) Other recommendations towards improving institutional management include:
(i)

All public education and training institutions should be managed by the MoE
through CEB to avoid conflict with other government agencies and departments
such as local authorities;

(ii)

Institutional managers should be guided by policies that specify their roles in line
with institutional policies, which must conform to national education policy and
legislation;

(iii) The TSC will continue to recruit, deploy, promote, discipline teachers but the dayto-day management of institutional managers will be the responsibility of the CEB
through BOM;
(iv) Management of private education institutions will be a responsibility of the
individual entrepreneurs as per the guidelines provided by the Directorate of
partnerships and private educational institutions.

Finally, the Task Force recommends that the new Education Act and Policy should provide
for community representation, involvement and participation in establishment, management
and governance of schools and institutions they host, and that these should apply equally to
both public and private institutions.

8.2 Situational Analysis on Governance in the Education Sector
At present overall policy leadership is bestowed on the government through the twin
Ministries of Education and that of Higher Education, Science and Technology. The two
ministries are run by separate Ministers and in each Ministry there is a PS as the Chief
Accounting Officer responsible for both administrative and technical leadership. Under the
PS Ministry of Education, there is an Education Secretary leading the technical arm of the
Ministry, working with and overseeing six directorates i.e., DACE, DBE, DQAS, DSTE,
DFOS and DPP&EAC. Further, each directorate is subdivided into departments with
respective officers responsible for specific educational activities, roles and responsibilities
under their mandate.
In current practice, governance of education is devolved to the provinces headed by PDEs in
charge of primary, secondary and tertiary education in their areas of jurisdiction. Provincial
education offices have different departments with staff responsible for different education
activities and functions within the provinces. However, the governance structure is different
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in cities and municipalities, where ECD and primary education is under city/municipal
education authorities (falling under the Local Government Ministry) with departments and
staff to oversee curriculum delivery and quality assurance of ECD centres and primary
schools; while PDEs retain mandate over secondary and tertiary education. PDEs are
supported/guided by Provincial Education Boards (PEBs), the main governance organ for the
education sector at the provincial level (there are eight provinces, being phased out as per the
provisions of the new Constitution). Below the PDEs we have DEOs responsible for overall
management and governance of education in their respective districts all the way from ECD
to tertiary levels.
The DEOs have departments with staff undertaking various education functions in the
districts (currently we have 285 districts, falling within the newly created 47 counties). The
DEOs are guided and supported by DEBs, which is the main policy organ governing the
education sector in the district. It is important to note, that both PDEs and DEOs are also
responsible for teacher management issues in their respective areas through Agency on behalf
of TSC. At the institutional level, we have BoGs for secondary and tertiary institutions and
SMCs for primary schools.
The Minister for Education has considerable powers vested in his office through the
Education Act regarding the management and governance of the Education Sector. He/she
appoints members of respective governing bodies and most of these bodies are required to
refer cases for a decision to the Minister. This undermines the independence of the governing
bodies and removes responsibility for decisions and accountability for their actions from
themselves.
Further, in the absence of a strong system of checks and balances, cases of impunity and
patronage have occurred. Due to the dual role of policy making and implementation, a heavy
burden is placed on the Ministry, with some functions being neglected for capacity and lack
of coordination reasons. The Task Force notes that it is not possible for the Ministry to
undertake an objective evaluation of its own policies and plans. This in turn makes
accountability very difficult. There are weak linkages in data management due to multiplicity
of codes from different agencies such as TSC, KNEC and MoE. This means that one school
in most cases would have more than three codes, causing disharmony and inconsistency in
data collection.

176

As regards the legal framework, the present Act creates a centralized system of management
and decision making at Ministry headquarters. Governance and management bodies at the
provincial, district and institutional levels must refer many cases of decision making to the
Ministry of Education headquarters in Nairobi.
The Task Force sought to establish, therefore, what pre-conditions were necessary to ensure
that national government and the county government could cooperate in governance of the
education sector in a harmonised and seamless way; what structures would be necessary to
facilitate this, what the roles and responsibilities of political leaders, technical experts and
professionals should be in the running of education affairs especially with regards to policy
development, planning, implementation and monitoring, and what degree of responsibility for
the provision of education services should be devolved to the counties.

From the submissions and county consultations, the Task Force has found many of the issues
facing the management of education were similar in the areas of governance. They include:
(a) Lack of clarity on the roles of parents, communities, civil societies, professional groups,
teacher unions, sponsors, teachers, learners and other stakeholders in the running of the
system.
(b) Lack of an education stakeholder forum or national education advisory council which
could ensure that all stakeholders have a voice in the system.
(c) The sector is governed by too many un-harmonised rules and regulations, with the
resultant conflict and failure to take action.
(d) Instances of mismanagement of resources and general non-accountability of the same in
the sector at all levels - from Ministry headquarters to schools/institutions.
(e) Funds sent directly to institutions and those managed by MoE offices are not properly
utilized. This is made worse by weak/less accountable governance structures and weak
monitoring and tracking systems.
(f) The current management structure within the MoE is top-heavy and centralised,
hierarchical and bureaucratic. Decision- making is inefficient with field officers
preferring to refer matters up the chain of command rather than take action which could
result in censure from the Ministry.

177

(g) Currently, vocational training institutions like youth polytechnics are managed by other
ministries like Ministry of Youth Affairs, thus creating a problem of coordination as they
still require technical support from either of the two education ministries.
(h) SMCs and BoGs do not have enough power to make all requisite management decisions
for proper running and governance of their schools.
(i) The Education Act does not provide effectively for PTAs, neither do they have any legal
recognition, despite the fact that this is a very important body in governance of schools.
This implies that teachers, learners and parents at the moment do not have adequate
voice in the governance of their schools.
(j) There is real and potential conflict between the County government, MoE and TSC in
regards to their mandates in management and delivery of education services within the
counties. The Task Force further observed that the conflict between Ministry of
Education officials and school sponsors remains unresolved.

It is clear that the central government is mandated with provision of education services to all
the citizenry at all levels. However, under the devolved structure, participation by major
stakeholders and the county governments will need to be captured under a policy framework.

8.2.2 Recommendations for Improvements in Institutional Governance
The Task Force has seen it fit to structure the recommendations to deal with the identified
challenges at the three levels i.e. national, county and institutional.

a) National Level Recommendations
(i) In terms of management of education, there should be one Ministry of Education headed
by a Cabinet Secretary, supported by Principal Secretary (PS), who is the Chief
Accounting Officer and a Director General (DG), who is the professional head of the
Ministry and will be responsible for co-coordinating all the directorates. The DG must be
a distinguished Professional Educationist with fifteen (15) years‘ experience.
(ii) There should be a functional review of the MoE in order to rationalise the number of
directorates and staff in view of the devolution of responsibilities to Counties. The Task
Force proposes the following eight directorates:
1)

Policy and Planning

2)


3)

Research and Development
178

4)

Higher and Teacher Education

5)

Basic, Adult and Continuing Education

6)

Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET)

7)

Field and Co-curricular Services

8)

Administration, Finance and Support Services

Each of these directorates will be headed by a Director in charge of different divisions and
departments as defined in the regulatory framework. All the functions of MoE should be
distributed between the eight directorates as outlined by the Principal Secretary.
(iii) Broad functions of the Ministry will include regulation, coordination, policy, planning,
partnerships and curriculum oversight.
(iv) For governance and oversight in the education sector, there will be a National Education
Board (NEB) whose role will be to advise the Cabinet Secretary on all matters
concerning education in the Country. The membership of NEB will be appointed by the
Cabinet Secretary and will comprise of not more than 14 members drawn from:
1) Renowned Educationist (1) (Chairperson)
2) Teachers Union representatives (2)
3) TSC (1)
4) Religious Organizations (3)
5) Kenya Private Sector Alliance Representative (1)
6) Representative of Parents (1)
7) Kenya Private Schools Associations Representative (1)
8) Head Teachers Associations (3)
9) Representative of PWDs (1)
NEB will have ex-officio members as follows:
1) PS, MoE
2) PSs of other relevant ministries
3) State Legal Office
The NEB may co-opt other members to address specific interests of society, which include
but not limited to:
1) Student Councils
2) Marginalized groups
(v) Functions of NEB will be defined around the following areas:
(a)

Advise the Cabinet Secretary and the relevant ministries on policy matters on
education, training and research.
179

(b)

Monitor and evaluate implementation and effectiveness of all education policies
and plans and produce periodic progress reports.

(c)

Collaborate with the proposed ESQAC commission/authority and stakeholders
to uphold standards in education and training;

(d)

Work with relevant authorities and agencies to ensure that all the barriers to the
right to quality education are removed and that the State facilitates realization of
the right to education by Kenyans.

(e)

Approve guidelines developed by MoE on establishment of education and
training institutions across the board.

(vi) The NEB will be supported by an independent secretariat headed by a full-time secretary
appointed by the Board.

b) County Level Recommendations
(i) It is recommended that there should be a County Education Board (CEB) with a clear
mandate to provide policy and governance oversight on education matters at the county.
CEB will have a maximum of 14 members appointed by the Cabinet Secretary in
consultation with county education stakeholders.
(ii) The membership of the Board should include the following:
1) Renowned Educationist from the county (1) (Chairperson)
2) Teachers Service Commission (1)
3) Teachers Unions Representatives (2)
4) Religious Organizations/Sponsors (3)
5) Kenya Private Schools Associations Representative (1)
6) Head Teachers Associations (2)
7) A Representative of Parents (1)
8) Representative of PWDs (1)
9) Business Community (1)
10) County Director of Education – Ex - officio (Secretary)
11) County Government Representative (1) (preferably the county secretary
responsible for matters of education)
The CEB shall co-opt other members to address specific interests of society, which include
but not limited to:
1) Student Councils
2) Marginalized Groups
180

(iii) Functions of the County Education Board will include the following:
(a) Interpret national policies in education based on the county needs.
(b) Initiate proposals for policy reforms.
(c) Plan, promote, develop, and coordinate education, training and research in the county
in accordance with the provisions of the Education Act, national education policy and
policies of the county government.
(d) Collaborate with appropriate authorities in the management of basic schools and
TIVET institutions.
(e) Register and maintain a data bank of all education and training institutions in the
county.
(f) Monitor curriculum implementation in Basic Education Schools and TIVET
institutions.
(g) Monitor the conduct of examinations and assessments at the Basic Education and
Training levels in the county in collaboration will all the relevant national bodies.
(h) Appoint members of Board of Management for Basic Schools and TIVET institutions
within the county.
(i) Collaborate with TSC on teacher management.
(j) Hear and determine appeal cases on discipline and complaints related to matters of
education.
(k) Prepare a comprehensive annual report on all areas of its mandate including education
and training services, curriculum and policy implementation within the County and
furnish the Cabinet Secretary with the same.
(l) Oversee the operationalization of ECDE programmes in the county.
(m) Work with all relevant agencies to ensure that all the barriers to the right to quality
education are removed and that the county government works with central
government to facilitate realization of the right to education within the county.
(n) Put measures in place to ensure all children and youth of school going age attend and
stay in school to complete Basic Education.
(o) Resource mobilization.
(p) Perform such other functions as may be conferred upon it in accordance with the
provisions of Education, national education policy and county government policies.
(q) The functions of the Board may be executed through technical committees.
(r) Conduct County Primary 3 Assessments.

181

(iv) Education at the County level will be headed by a County Director of Education (CDE),
to be recruited by PSC through a competitive recruitment process with appropriate staff
to oversee/carry out education activities as per the needs of the county. The CDE is the
Professional head of educational services at the county level. Each county will have a
county Director and appropriate staff as per the needs of the county covering the
following critical areas:
1)

ECDE (an officer of the county)

2)

Vocational Institutions and Youth Polytechnics (an officer of the county)

3)

QAS (answerable to CDE)

4)

Assessments and Examinations (KEAC officer answerable to CDE)

5)

Curriculum (KICD officer answerable to CDE)

6)

TIVET and Higher Education (MoE officer answerable to CDE)

7)

Basic Education (basic and high schools)

8)

Finance and Audit (answerable to CDE)

9)

Special Needs Education.

(v) The CDE will work closely with other relevant county officers for the promotion of
education at the county level.
(vi) The chairman of the CEB will be appointed by the Cabinet Secretary from persons who
are residents in the county but conversant with matters of education.
(vii) The county Governor shall recommend a nominee to the CEB to be appointed as an exofficio member.
(viii) At the Sub county level, there will be established an Education Office, headed by a
Sub County Education Officer (SCEO) reporting to CDE. The SCEO will have adequate
staff as defined by the CDE‘s office. The functions and responsibilities of SCEOs will be
defined by the CDE.
(ix) There will a Sub County Education Committee (SCEC), whose secretary will be the Sub
County Education Officer.
(x) The membership of the SCEC will be as follows:
1)

Educationist from the constituency (1)

2)

Head Teachers Association representatives (2)

3)

Teachers Service Commission representative (1)

4)

Religious Organizations representatives (3)

5)

Kenya Private Schools Associations Representative (1)

6)

Professionals from the constituency (1)
182

7)

Teachers Unions (2)

8)

Parent Representative (1)

(xi) The functions of the SCEC will be as follows:
(a)

Be a link between the CEB and the Sub County in regards to education matters
through the Sub County Education Officer.

(b)

Co-ordinate co-curricular activities at the Sub county/constituency on behalf of the
CEB.

(c)
(d)

c)

Support BOMs of Institutions in the constituency when required.
To preside over the elections of BOMs and PTAs in primary schools.

Institutional Recommendations

(i) At the institutional level, there should be one management organ in charge of the day-today management or running of the institution known as Board of Management (BoM).
(ii) The BoM for Primary Schools will be composed of not more than nine members drawn
from the following:
1)

ECDE – Parent (1)

2)

Lower Primary - Parent – (1)

3)

Upper primary - Parent (1)

4)

Sponsors (3)

5)

Teachers representative (1)

6)

Professionals (community) (2)

Ex-officios will be:
1)

Head teacher as Secretary

2)

Sub-County Education Officer

3)

Ward representative

The BOM for primary may co-opt other members to address specific interests of the
community.
(iii) The BoM for Secondary Schools will be composed of not more than nine members
drawn from the following:
1)

Parents (3)

2)

Professionals (1)

3)

Community Interests (2)

4)

Sponsor (3)

183

1)

Head teacher

2)

Ward representative

3)

CDE or representative (1)

The BOM for secondary may co-opt other members to address specific interests of the
community.
(iv) During the inaugural meeting the members will elect one of their own as Chairperson,
and the school manager as the Secretary; for sponsored schools one representative shall
be the Chairperson.
(v) The Councils for TTCs and TIVET institutions will be composed of not more than nine
members drawn from the following:
1)

Student Leaders (1)

2)

Sponsors (1) for sponsored Institutions

3)

Nominee from employment organizations (2) (TSC for TTCs and FKE for
TIVET)

4)

Professionals (3)

1) CDE or representative (1)
2) Principal /Manager as Secretary
The Council for TTCs and TIVET institutions may co-opt other members to address specific
interests of the community.
(vi) At each level, the BoM/Council should select an executive committee of up to three
members to work and support the Manager on the day-to-day running of the institution.
(vii) There will be a panel led by the Sub-County Education Officer (SCEO) to preside over
nominations or elections of BoM members for Primary Schools. After each institution‘s
elections, the SCEO will forward names of duly elected BoM members to CDE for
appointment by the County Education Board.
(viii) Nominations or elections of members of BoMs/Council for Secondary Schools, TTCs
and TIVET institutions will be managed directly by CEB.

Each institution will have a Parent Teachers Association whose membership will be as follows:
(a) Primary School:
(i) The 3 parents in the BOM
(ii) One parent (1) representative per class i.e. for Pre-primary; Six (6) for Primary, and
(iii) Three (3) teachers i.e. One for Pre-Primary and two Two (2) for Primary.
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(b) Junior Secondary School:
(i) 3 parents in the BOM
(ii) Three (3) parents – each representing a class
(iii) Three (3) teachers
(iv) One (1) student council representative

(c) Senior Secondary:
(i) The 3 parents in the BOM
(ii) Three (3) parents per specialization stream
(iii) One (1) teacher per specialization stream
(iv) One (1) student council representative

The Chairperson of the PTA in both Primary and Secondary Schools will be elected by the
members during their inaugural meeting.
(ix) The functions of the PTAs among others will be to:
(a) Speak on behalf of parents and teachers on matters concerning the running of the
institution.
(b) Endorse agenda for Parents Teachers meetings.
(c) Receive periodic reports from the BOM on the institution affairs.
(d) Endorse development plans for the institutions.
(e) In collaboration with the BOM, raise funds to meet the development plans for the
institution.
(x) Students‘ Councils can raise issues of concern with the BOM through the PTA.
(xi) Each junior and senior secondary and tertiary institutions will have to establish Student
Councils with effective representative committees incorporating all learner interests in
the institution, to harness, nurture and promote effective participation of learners in
teaching, learning and extra-curriculum activities as well as management of their
institutions.
(xii)

In all the three cases the BoM/Council shall meet at least three times a year.

(xiii) Functions of BoMs/Council at all levels will include the following:
(a) Provide oversight on management of the school.
(b) Monitoring curriculum delivery and learning achievement in the institution.

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(c) Develop all institutional policies and ensure accountability and prudent use of
institutional resources.
(d) Resource mobilization for institutional development based on agreed strategic plan.
(e) Promote networking and partnership for the institution.
(f) Discuss, approve comprehensive termly and annual reports and forward them to
the County Education Boards through the CDE‘s office.
(g) Promote quality education and training for all learners in accordance with the
standards set under the Education Act, national policies and county government
policies.
(h) In consultation with relevant agencies supervise and ensure quality in curriculum
implementation and delivery and oversee the conduct of examinations and
assessments at the institution.
(i) Ensure and assure provision of proper and adequate physical facilities as well as
teaching and learning resources in order to create enabling environment for the
school community to perform their duties effectively to achieve set objectives of
the institution.
(j) Advise the CEB on the resource needs of the institution.
(k) Receive, approve, institutional budget.
(l) Receive and discuss audited reports for the institution.
(m) Make recommendations to CEB on appointment and removal of qualified and
suitable institution managers.
(n) Encourage local community, parents, learners, teachers and stakeholders to
actively participate in development of the institution.
(xiv)

All BOMs and Council Members for TTC and TIVET institutions will be paid a
sitting allowance as will be determined by the MoE and shall hold office for five (5)
years.

(d) Management and Governance of Universities
Currently, Universities are managed by individual Universities‘ Act but the Task Force took
note of the ongoing reforms targeting universities, particularly the movement towards
establishment of a single Act of Parliament to govern operations of all public and private
universities. We, therefore, recommend that in this process, all stakeholders in higher
education should be adequately consulted to ensure that management and governance

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structures of our universities are reformed to conform to the requirements of the New
Constitution and Vision 2030.

(e) Role of Faith-Based Sponsors in Education and Training
A sponsor refers to any religious organization which provided land where a school or
education institution sits and has continued to provide spiritual guidance.
Roles of Sponsors should include:
(a) Being consulted in appointment of institutional managers
(b) Nominating faith-based persons to manage the spiritual aspects of a school
(c) Participating in Board of Management as full members
(d) Providing spiritual leadership and guidance to the institution
(e) Providing ethos of the institution
(f) Participating in resource mobilization.

8.2.3 Proposals to Improve Governance and Accountability in Education Sector
(a) All heads of institutions and members of Boards of Management will be held
accountable and liable for any loss, misuse or embezzlement of funds under their docket
either from parents, donors or government. In case of any malpractice, credible
investigations will be carried out by relevant authorities, and those found guilty or
culpable will not only be held to account, but will also be forced to repay back all the lost
funds to the institution.
(b) All officers in the Ministry of Education at all levels will be held accountable and liable
for any loss, misuse or embezzlement of funds signed for either as imprest or
project/activity implementation funds drawn directly from the MoE, NGOs or
development partners. In case of any malpractice, credible investigations will be carried
out by relevant authorities, and those found guilty or culpable will not only be held to
account, but will also be forced to repay back all the lost funds to the Ministry.
(c) MoE should employ all support staff for schools, under a well-defined scheme of service.
(d) In order to streamline data collection, processing and management, the Education Act
and Policy should provide guidelines and penalties for officers who give false
information or fail to participate in this process. In addition, there is need to create one
unique institutional identifier for purposes of data collection and build capacity of field
officers and heads of institutions in data collection, management and processing and
storage.
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(e) In order to strengthen institutional accountability and address cases of mismanagement
and wastage of resources within education institutions the following must be done by
heads of institutions and Boards of Management:
(i)

All institutions must form and support pupil or student councils, with effective
committees, through which they can discuss and raise their concerns, voice their
issues and prepare recommendations on how best they want their school to be
managed or run. Teachers, heads of institutions and Boards of Management
should use these councils and committees to ensure regular, genuine and effective
consultations with learners.

(ii)

In addition to parental participation, institutions should device ways and
means of engaging members of the local community in governance of the
institutions. This will strengthen community support and ownership and promote
accountability and transparency.

(iii)

All Boards of Management must prepare annual plans and budgets, with termly
implementation plans, which must be made public and available to learners,
parents, teachers and other stakeholders at all times. In addition, implementation
plans, finance reports and books accounts showing all receipts and expenditures
must equally be made public and available at the end of every term. These termly
implementation and finance reports should be sent to CEBs with copies posted on
institution‘s notice board.

(iv)

Strengthen both finance unit and internal audit systems, by providing close
supervision and improving integrity through trainings for news skills and values.

(v)

Establish a strong M&E division at the MoE to ensure that implementation of
education programmes, projects and activities are followed and tracked regularly.

(vi)

NEB, CEB, and BoMs must ensure there are adequate and proper systems,
structures and mechanisms in place to promote accountability and transparency in
use of education sector resources at all levels. They have to ensure that funds
meant for education programmes and activities within the Ministry, county and
for respective institutions are utilized properly for intended purposes. Any officer
found guilty of misuse or embezzlement of education resources should be held
accountable and made to pay in accordance with the provisions of the
Constitution, particularly Chapter Six on Leadership and Integrity.

(vii)

All private schools should be regulated and supervised by MoE and other
education bodies as established in the Education Act to promote quality and
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ensure standards. Figures 8.1 and 8.2 represent the proposed MOE and county
organograms, respectively.

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Figure 8.1: PROPOSED MOE ORGANOGRAM
Cabinet Secretary

TSC

Principal Secretary

SAGAs

Directorate of
Administration
, Finance &
Support
Services

Directorate of
Research and
Development

Directorate
of Basic,
Adult &
Continuing
Education

NEB

ESQAC

Director General of Education

Directorate
of TIVET

CEB

Directorate of
Field and CoCurricular
Services

CDE
BOM/Council
Learning
Institutions

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Directorate of
Higher and
Teacher
Education

Directorate
of Policy
and
Planning

Directorate of
Partnership and
Private
Educational
Institutions

PROPOSED MOE ORGANOGRAM (CONT.)

Cabinet Secretary

TSC

Principal Secretary

ESQAC

NEB

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION SAGAS

NCRST

KISNE

KEMI

KLB

KEAC

NQA

KICD

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JKF

HTELB

CHE

CEMASTEA

Figure 8.2: PROPOSED COUNTY EDUCATION ORGANOGRAM

CEB

CDE

Basic, Adult &
Continuing
Education

SCEC

Partnership
and Private
Institutions

Schools
Audit

ESQAC

Policy,
Planning &
Research

Field & Cocurriculum
Services

TIVET, Higher
&Teacher
Education

SCEO
Secondary
Schools

BOM

PTA

WEO

Primary
Schools
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BOM

PTA

CHAPTER NINE
9.0 HUMAN CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING

9.1 Introduction
The most important resource for socio-economic development of a nation is the human
resource. Nations and individual organizations continually invest heavily in human
resource capacity development. Human capacity development in the education sector is
defined as a planned process designed to improve the effectiveness of education staff by
enhancing their knowledge and skills in response to changing circumstances with the
intent of improving the quality of education and training.

Human capacity development programmes, must therefore aim, at raising staff
competence, and stimulating their attitudes. These staffs in general, being individuals
have differing needs and for that reason, a whole range of development opportunities
must be made available at all levels.
The Ministry of Education‘s efforts are geared towards having a ―Globally Competitive
Quality Education, Training and Research for Sustainable Development‖ by 2030. The
Ministry therefore requires adequate and quality human resource necessary for the
realization of the economic, social and political goals of the Vision 2030.

Educational staff refers to the various persons in the various offices and government
agencies mandated to undertake provision of education, for example, the Provincial
Directors of Education and District Education Officers (PDEs & DEO‘s), Board of
Governors, School Management Committees (BOGs & SMCs).

9.2.1 Current HR Capacity Situation
(a) The HR function in the Ministry broadly entails planning, attracting, engaging and
retaining the required staff levels in terms of quality and quantity, to facilitate the
Ministry to achieve its mandate.
(b) The current human resource capacity/strength of the MoE is 5,300 personnel against
an establishment of over 10,000. Issues exist over staffing levels and the
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effectiveness of deployment policies. A key issue concerns the management of staff
and the funding of units and sections to meet their work demands. It was evident that
some staff are under-utilized while others were overworked.
(c) MoE administers schemes of service for the following cadres: education officers,
quality assurance and standards officers, adult education officers, adult education
teachers, lecturers (for the MDTIs) and School Auditors.
(d) In terms of management structure of MoE, we currently have the following
categories:
(i) Minister and his/her assistants
(ii) Permanent Secretary
(iii) Education Secretary overseeing Directorates
(iv) Administration
(v) Field Staff at all levels.
All these officers are responsible for management of both human and other resources so
as to facilitate smooth operations of the Ministry as a whole.
(e) At institutional level, all secondary schools have BoGs appointed by the Minister for
Education, while most primary schools have SMCs elected by parents. However, the
centralized appointment for BoGs has been characterized by delays in constituting
the boards leading to management and governance lapses. Though there are
guidelines on qualifications of members to these boards/committees, these have not
been followed to the letter, mainly because of lack of qualified persons in some
areas.
(f) On average each secondary school has the following categories of core non-teaching
staff employed by the BoG—bursars/accounts clerks, secretaries, matrons, lab
assistants, storekeepers, cooks, watchmen, groundsmen/women and cateresses.
Besides these, some schools have non-core staff who include artisans, technicians,
housekeepers, nurses, drivers, librarians, computer technicians and farm assistants.
(g) At the moment the Ministry expects schools to employ these personnel based on the
recommendations of the Task Force on Affordable Quality Secondary Education in
Kenya of 2007, which proposed guidelines on staffing norms for non-teaching staff.
(h) In primary schools, non-teaching staff are employed by SMCs. These include
watchmen, groundsmen/women and cooks. On average primary schools employ ten
support staff.
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(i) All schools (primary and secondary) are headed by school heads appointed by TSC
on deployment, but reporting to DEOs and PDEs, respectively. Qualifications for
being head of a secondary school is a minimum of job group M, while for primary it
is P1 and having passed the headship interviews conducted by DEOs.
(j) Enrolment levels in ECDE, Primary, Secondary Schools and Middle Level Colleges
have increased:
(i) The introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE) in January 2003 resulted in
a significant increase in enrolment in primary schools, rising from 7.2 million
in 2003 to 9.4 million in 2010. An increase of 30.6 percent; translating to an
annual increase of 3.8 percent over the last 8 years. This phenomenal increase
has presented primary education with some significant challenges particularly
to teachers in some districts, especially those in high potential and urban
slums; teachers have to provide education to class sizes of 100 students and
more, while in other districts, e.g. in the ASAL areas, class sizes, may be less
than fifteen (15) children in a class.
(ii) At secondary level, the government has continued to implement Free Day
Secondary Education (FDSE), whose objective is to increase access to
secondary education by providing more resources. This is in line with the
policy of having 12 years of Basic Education as well as meeting the new
constitutional requirement towards providing right of education to the citizens.
At this level, the total enrolments have increased by 12.9% from 1,507,546
students in 2009 to 1,701,501 students in 2010.
(iii) The total teacher trainee enrolment in primary TTCs rose from 26,324 in 2009
to 28,466 in 2010, an increase of 8.1%. On the other hand, enrolment in the
three diploma training colleges rose from 2,002 trainees in 2009 and 2,076
trainees in 2010. The proportion of female enrolment in P1 and Diploma
colleges was 50.1% and 39.2% respectively.
(iv) The overall TIVET enrolment declined by 6.9% from 89,023 in 2009 to 82,843
in 2010. Youth polytechnics accounted for 40.0% of the total enrolment
followed by Technical Training Institutes at 27.6%, while enrolment in
Kisumu and Eldoret National Polytechnics increased by 23.9%.

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(v) The decrease in TIVET enrolment should be of grave concern to planners and
policy makers since without increased enrolment in technical education, our
journey towards Vision 2030 will be hampered.
This trend in surging enrolment at all levels except TIVET, and growth in number of
education and training institutions at all levels has great implications on human resource
requirements. It means, therefore, that as we plan human resource needs for MoE
(which is envisaged to combine both MoE and MoHEST) we have to factor in this level
of growth and projections into the future.

In addition to the institutions mentioned above that fall under the Ministry of Higher
Education Science and Technology (MoHEST), other Government Ministries operate
institutions that provide specialized technical training. These include institutions run by
the Ministries of Home Affairs, Office of the President, Agriculture, Health, Water
Resources Management and Development, Roads and Public Works, and Labour and
Human Resource Development, among others.

Furthermore, the policy of inclusive education, particularly for vulnerable children and
children with Special Education Needs means many teachers need skills to help them
continue to provide a relevant and supportive service to all children. To this end, the
success of the FPE initiative will largely depend on having a well trained, well educated
and highly motivated education sector staff and teaching force.

It is expected that on the issue of teachers, TSC given its new mandate will establish the
number of teachers required between now and the year 2030 and put in place a concrete
strategy and plan for recruitment, deployment, motivation and management.

9.3 Overview of Skills and Competences
MoE workforce at the top management level and in the field possesses the necessary
educational and professional qualifications. Officers at this level are expected to
demonstrate a high degree of professional competence, administrative and managerial
capabilities in planning, organizing and controlling resources. They are also expected to
understand national goals and policies and interpret them in their respective

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departments/divisions. Besides this noble role, the officers are also agents of change and
reforms to enable the Ministry staff embrace improved practices in the workplace.

9.4 Issues/Challenges in Human Capacity
The team noted several challenges and issues affecting human resource capacity and
development. These include:
(a)

HR management in the education sector has proved cumbersome and complex as a
result of large numbers of staff involved at every level; the variety of staff and
grade levels, recruitment of temporary and auxiliary staff.

(b)

There has also been a problem of stagnation, with some officers remaining in one
job group for over 12 years.

(c)

Deployment of staff has not always matched the individual‘s skills and
competences.

(d)

Staff morale is low, especially as the management of staff is largely ineffective,
and their staff development needs are not being met. Deployment of staff is not
systematic, whilst most critical activities are generally being undertaken by
available personnel rather than by most skilled or experienced employees. This
leads to a lack of job interest, low morale and low motivation, which eventually
affects service delivery.

(e)

In some cases underutilization of the workforce contributes to high staff turnover.

(f)

No clear policies/guidelines exist on probationary service and subsequent
confirmation.

(g)

Lack of capacity to impart new key competences that are needed in a rapidly
changing and dynamic world, to enable staff fit and function well in the labour
market.

(h)

There are a limited range of capacity building opportunities made available to staff.
Appraisal is viewed by many as a bureaucratic process which has little relevance to
improving performance and accountability. Appraisal forms are filled as a matter
of routine, and not used as a means for enhancing staff development objectives.

(i)

Many INSET events take place without proper coordination, or having been
assessed for the quality and effectiveness thereof. Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005
noted that there are gaps between competences and the responsibilities of
educational staff in majority of the posts. Therefore, the need for collaboration
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between the Public Service Commission (PSC), which recruits officers and the
Permanent Secretary who deploys and supervises officers in the field was
emphasized. The situation has not improved since then.
(j)

Low commitment of specialized personnel seconded to MoE by other Ministries.

(k)

In most cases, Provincial and District Education Officers act as conduits for
transmitting information from the field to the Headquarters. Most matters that
could be decided at local level are not addressed, with officers preferring to leave
decisions to be made higher up the authority chain.

9.5 General Recommendations/Proposals for Human Capacity Development
Kenya will only be able to deliver and achieve her education goals when an adequate
number of personnel, with requisite qualifications with commitment to their career exist.
Measures need to be taken to strengthen the existing capacity for planning, policy
development, financial management and management. It is recommended that:
(a) The capacity and programmes of KEMI be expanded to provide training in
Education Management at all levels of the education sector.
(b) All persons serving as members of BOMs receive training in general school
management and financial management, in particular.
(c) A systematic, transparent system of promotion be established, with rights of appeal
for persons who feel they have been discriminated against.
(d) Job descriptions and job specifications should be prepared in clear terms for all
categories of staff. All employees of MoE should sign from Performance Contracts,
from which annual appraisals accrue.
(e) Probation should be used as a period of consolidation based on practical experience.
New staff should be adequately supported during this time and be provided with
guidance and assistance by those nominated as their mentors.
(f) Clear links should be developed between staff appraisal and the individual‘s
personal professional development. Staff development programme should emphasize
―on the job‖ competences.
(g) There is need to carry out a survey to establish the optimal staff requirements at all
levels as per the responsibility.
(h) The MoE should consider out-sourcing specialized services that are generally done
poorly by officers seconded by other Ministries.
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There is need to focus on training technical staff in other professional courses as directed
by the Public Service Commission, in such areas as:
(i)

Financial management

(ii)

Performance based management and accountability

(iii) Policy formulation, analysis and implementation
(iv) Project planning and management
(v)

ICT for development

(vi) Performance contracting and evaluation
(vii) Communication, report writing and change management
(viii) Negotiation skills and conflict management
(ix) Fundamentals of human resource management and development
(x)

Procurement, planning and reporting

(xi) Monitoring and evaluation.

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CHAPTER TEN
10.0

MENTORING AND MOULDING TO NURTURE NATIONAL VALUES

10.1 Introduction
The MoE‘s purpose for requiring the Task Force to consider the issue of Mentoring and
Moulding in the ToRs, demonstrates the importance of an individual‘s right to dignified
growth and development, free association and free speech. This is facilitated by the
education system, which prepares individuals to participate effectively in society in an
informed and acceptable way on the basis of values aimed at national cohesion and unity.
Article 10 of the Constitution, 2010 contains the national values and principles of
governance to be upheld by all Kenyans. Education and Training will provide the best
medium of inculcating these values. The values include:
(a) Patriotism, national unity, sharing and devolution of power, the rule of law,
democracy and participation of the people.
(b) Human dignity, equity, social justice, inclusiveness, equality, human rights, nondiscrimination and protection of the marginalized
(c) Good governance, integrity, transparency and accountability; and
(d) Sustainable development.
In addition, article 11 recognizes culture as the foundation of the nation and as the
cumulative civilization of the Kenyan people and nation. Education and training
therefore shall:
(a) Promote all forms of national and cultural expressions through literature, the arts,
traditional celebrations, science, communication, information, mass media,
publications, libraries and other cultural heritage.
(b) Recognise the role of science and indigenous technologies in the development of the
nation; and
(c) Promote the intellectual property rights of the people of Kenya.
The Vision 2030 further reckons that Kenya‘s journey towards widespread prosperity
involves building a just and cohesive society that enjoys equitable development in a
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clean and secure environment. Some of the related major challenges that need to be
addressed within the education sector include:
(a) Causes and effects of post-election violence of 2008
(b) HIV AND AIDS menace
(c) Substance abuse and related addictions
Mentoring is a long standing form of training, learning, guidance, encouragement,
support and development and an increasingly popular tool for supporting personal
growth and development. It involves giving help and guidance in a non-threatening way
and in a manner that the mentee will appreciate the value and get empowered towards
achieving set goals. Mentoring is a one-to-one relationship in which a mentor supports a
mentee to achieve academic, career, social or personal goals. The mentoring process
therefore is always between an experienced person, the mentor, and a new entrant or
learner, the mentee. This is carried out over a prolonged period of time, providing
consistent support and guidance. The knowledge, skills and attitudes acquired are
especially important when the mentee goes through difficult and challenging situations or
periods in life.
Moulding on the other hand is the art of shaping an object, substance or human being to a
desired outlook or frame, in terms of both internal and external features; and can even
include shaping mannerisms and character. It is therefore a specific and definite
systematic way of impacting or inculcating principles and ethos of the society. Ideally,
moulding and mentorship complement each other with moulding coming out as part of
the wider process of mentoring. Mentoring and moulding are provided first by parents
and once the young ones leave home, teachers, tutors and significant others take over.
This involves inducting persons into values endorsed by the country, the family,
community, a school, university or place of work.
A mentor is distinct from a role model. With role modelling, the individual feels they
wish to mirror or copy their role model, whereas in a mentorship relationship the
mentor‘s job is to guide the mentee, who still retains independence and volition and
develops his or her own social skills. The essence of mentoring is to bring about
sustainable growth and development in young people. It can be an important role played
by leaders and people in position of authority provided the motive is honest and not for
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purposes of personal gain or influence. At best it can establish, entrench and institute a
culture of excellence over time with careful selection and training of mentors. Mentoring
can also turn sour if the relationship fails to allow the mentee freedom of thought and
action. In a mentorship relationship, the mentee does not learn through direct instruction
but through guidance and learning from experience. The mentor becomes, in effect, the
gateway to the expertise and resources the mentee needs to succeed.
There are basically three types of mentoring, namely, career/business, personal
development and educational mentoring.
(a) Personal development involves aspects of character building such as ethics, values
and integrity, career exploration, communication, interpersonal relationship, network
and leadership skills. This helps mentees to see things that they might ordinarily
miss out on their own, thus improving their self-awareness, self-confidence and selfdiscipline as well as correcting areas of their character that could stand in the way of
making them achieve their goals. A mentor can act as a sounding board for trying
new ideas or skills by encouraging the mentee to safely take risks before leaving the
nest.
(b) Educational mentoring helps improve learners‘ overall academic performance and
achievement. This supportive form of development leads to an increase in the
learner's self-esteem and social skills. The moulding that takes place helps to shape
the character by helping to pattern the behaviour of less privileged persons with the
goal of achieving desired results. It also involves grooming youths so that they
become effective leaders.
(c) Career mentoring involves helping the mentee develop the necessary skills to focus
on a career path that will be beneficial to both the mentee and the society as a whole.
The people with the most experiences effectively pass down knowledge, facilitating
faster goal achievement by providing support and innovative strategies. The mentor's
experience provides valuable lessons, knowledge and attitudes to the mentee.
(d) The essence of mentoring is to bring about sustainable growth and development in
the individual. The goal is to achieve more with less as a result of optimal resource
utilization as the moulding establishes, entrenches and institutes a culture of
excellence over time. Mentoring is a long-term interaction characterized by
interrelation of activities, behaviors patterns, responses to challenges, proactive
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positive reaction to life challenges. Consequently, mentoring helps in achieving
growth as well as sustaining the intellectual and economic growth, emotional
stability, temperamental enrichment and possessing a positive mental attitude
towards life. Mentoring provides a good foundation for others to build on with some
mentees becoming future mentors.
10.2 Current Status
Currently, mentoring as practised in Kenya has often been equated with concepts such as
Guidance and Counselling, Moulding and Coaching. Moulding plays a significant role in
character development and good leadership through techniques employed by a mentor in
making the mentee adhere to the teachings and coaching. In the mentoring process,
coaching refers to facilitating the acquisition and improvement of a skill through
teaching, demonstrating and role play from the mentor. On the other hand, there is
observation and participation from the mentee. Coaching is thus, both theory and
practice.
Guidance and Counselling and Life Skills Education services are found within different
levels of the education sector. Life Skills Education entails the acquisition of abilities for
adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday life. The teaching of such skills are therefore aimed
at equipping the learner with psychosocial competences that would help him/her make
informed decisions, solve problems, think creatively, communicate effectively, build
healthy relationships, empathize with those in need and manage his/ her life in a healthy
and productive manner.
Guidance can be defined as the expert direction or help given to someone through
teaching, directing, opinion giving, exemplifying, explaining, advising and instruction to
enable the person to make informed and responsible choices so as to adjust or cope with
various challenges in his/ her direct environment. Counselling is a helping process
through a special kind of relationship to help individuals to get access to a greater part of
their personal resources as a means of responding to the challenges in life.
The Ministry of Education (MoE) established a Guidance and Counselling Unit at the
inspectorate headquarters in 1971. Following various recommendations and guidelines;
and considering the seriousness with which the Government of Kenya (GoK) takes
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Guidance and Counselling in learning institutions, the MoE has continued to improve
structures and mechanisms to facilitate the establishment of guidance and counselling in
schools. There is, however, a need to enhance this important service in line with the
Vision 2030 and the Constitution, 2010.
10.3 Findings, Issues and Challenges
The Task Force drew on various reports, including The Ominde Report of 1964, the
‗Gachathi Report‘ of 1976, the Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower
Training for the next decade and beyond of 1988, the Kamunge Report of 1986, the
Development Plan, 1997-2000 and the Koech Report all of which recommended the need
for guidance and counselling of learners without creating the necessary support
structures.
The Task Force found a common thread throughout, namely, that many good ideas have
not been implemented with funding and lack of capacity as the main reasons for lack of
progress in this regard. One such programme with considerable merit, Peer Education
and Counselling Clubs (PECC) has not been rolled out effectively in spite of its
acknowledged value. The Task Force was informed that the Primary Education
Curriculum for a Life Skills Education has not been effectively resourced and teachers
have been left without adequate support. Similarly in the Secondary School, whilst
handbooks for Life Skills and Guidance and Counselling exist, the programmes have not
been effectively monitored or evaluated.
The Task Force also found that in some cases, schools have evolved their own learner
mentoring programmes with Form One students being paired with older students and
with teacher–parents being attached to monitor the progress of the new students until
they settle in, but such innovations have not been effectively institutionalized across all
primary and secondary schools.
At university level, guidance and counselling services are normally offered through the
office of the Dean of Students. Two private universities, Strathmore and African
Nazarene, have a successful mentoring programme for its students.
(a)

Mentoring and Moulding and other related support services are absent at the
ECDE level.
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(b)

A Curriculum for Life Skills Education has been provided for Primary School and
Secondary Schools levels although the effectiveness thereof is not known.

(c)

Propagation of the National Values as stipulated in the Constitution, 2010 and the
Kenya Vision 2030 is not evident.

(d)

Guidance and Counselling services are provided at Secondary School and
University levels although the effectiveness thereof is not known.

(e)

Although laudable efforts have been put in place, the state of guidance and
counselling services in Kenyan schools and colleges is far from adequate.
Guidance and counselling course content in teacher training colleges is
inadequate, the majority of teacher-counsellors are not trained and very few
primary schools conduct guidance and counselling.

(f)

The majority of today‘s learners are faced with numerous crises related to human
sexuality, peer pressure, drug and substance abuse, harmful traditional practices
and negative media influence. In order to adequately and effectively manage these
crises, the learners require guidance and counselling services, which currently do
not exist in sufficient depth.

(g)

There is lack of evidence of mentoring and moulding taking place, or indeed any
satisfactory preparation being provided for new entrants into the world of work.

(h)

The curricula on life skills and guidance and counselling need to be aligned with
the new Constitution (2010) and Vision 2030.

10.4 Recommendations
(a) Develop a Mentoring and Moulding policy with clear guidelines on implementation,
monitoring and evaluation in order to ensure relevance to the national values and
culture.
(b) The MoE should undertake a major review of the provision and effectiveness of
Guidance and Counselling across both Primary and Secondary schools, and come up
with recommendations regarding the training of teachers and the funding,
monitoring and evaluation of school-based programmes.
(c) Sponsors, parents and especially religious organizations to play an important part in
Guidance and Counselling of learners. The MoE shall review and revise guidelines
(rules of engagement) to govern such involvement, and provide funding for
monitoring and evaluating such activities.
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(d) The MoE to work closely with TSC and training institutions to ensure that every
learning institution has trained guidance, counselling and mentoring teachers in
sufficient numbers.
(e) The MoE to introduce standardized screening tools to assess persons given the
responsibility of mentoring and guiding young people.
(f) Develop guidelines for a mentoring programme for parents and guardians at
different stages of the child/student in order to empower them with appropriate
parenting skills. Informed parents and guardians will be involved in the mentoring of
the young people.
(g) Strengthen co-curricular activities including volunteerism and community out-reach
services to enhance relevant values and introduce the young to the world of work.
(h) Develop criteria for identifying, training and developing mentors for the various
levels and categories of the stakeholders.
(i) Services to be provided to enable learners cope with emerging issues such as HIV
AND AIDS, substance abuse, disasters, conflicts, violence and trauma.
(j) Develop structured peer support initiatives in education and training institutions for
service providers
(k) Orient the curriculum materials to integrate inculcation of relevant values and
culture.
(l) Career guidance should be structured and strengthened as part of the mentoring
programme.
(m) Establish a community out-reach service programme that promotes national unity,
culture of community service and introduction to the world of work.
(n) Develop a drug and substance abuse prevention and management policy and
guidelines for learners and staff in learning institutions.
(o) Strengthen the students‘ support system at higher institutions of learning.
(p) All teachers should participate in student support as one of their core duties.
(q) Mentoring and moulding should be integrated in topics such as Careers, Ethics,
Human Relations and Family Life/Parenting.
(r) Mentoring should be strengthened at all levels and should target new teachers and as
well as parents in Basic Education.
(s) Introduce students‘ support services units in all learning institutions. Guidance,
counselling, moulding, mentorship and career guidance will be offered in these units.
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(t) Mentoring and moulding should form part of the teacher-training curriculum in all
teachers training colleges and at the university level, and to include parental
guidance on parenting skills.

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CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

11.1 Introduction
Research refers to a set of systematic investigative activities designed to survey,
observe and clearly portray the status quo of Education and other social settings as well
as the need and way of working towards continuous improvement of education or social
process. It depicts a process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through
planned and systematic analysis and interpretation of data. It is a process of searching
that never ends. In Education and Training, evaluation research seeks to provide
objective assessment of the past, present and proposed programmes of action. It
involves the collection of data by the researcher from the field to assist education
planners plan efficiently and effectively.

The commonly used education researches include the following:
(i)

Quantitative research which involves the collection and analysis of quantitative
data (numbers) to identify relationship between different variables, e.g. the
infusion of FPE funds and enrolment in primary schools.

(ii)

Qualitative research, which involves the collection and analysis of qualitative data
(non-numerical) data patterns, for example, the introduction of school milk and
pupils‘ health.

(iii) Mixed research, which combines both numerical and non-numerical data between
variables to determine relationships.

11.2 Importance of Research in Education
(i) It provides for needs assessment to justify an education programme and as a result
gain approval for funding. It can also determine which activities are most needed in
terms of priority and help target the most needy and those likely to benefit from an
education programme. For example, while piloting the double shift programme in
secondary education in Kenya, a needs assessment was carried out in 10 secondary
schools to determine who was most likely to benefit from that programme.
(ii) Research is critical because it is used to evaluate processes and programmes. This
assists the researcher determine whether the programme was implemented as
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promised, how it was delivered and received.
(iii) Research done in a programme‘s formative stage may be used to modify it before
mistakes are made. For instance, there was need to carry out a formative evaluation
of FPE in the early stages of implementation to avoid wastages and get value for
money.
(iv) Research is used to determine whether education goals and objectives are met, in
what is called summative evaluation.
(v) Finally, research is important because it can be used to examine the broad context of
an education programme to determine its political, social and economic
ramifications and implications.

In summary, research plays the vital role of ensuring:
(i) Improvement and development of ongoing education activity
(ii) Accountability, certification and selection
(iii) Decision making
(iv) Increased awareness about activities while promoting desired values.

11.3 Current Status of Research in Education and Training in Kenya
Research in Education and Training in Kenya is not a new phenomenon. Over the years,
the Government has undertaken various research processes that mainly sought to
investigate the educational system and to address the socio-economic context of the
country since independence. These were by way of education committees, working
parties, commissions and task forces that were established to look into the broad
objectives and issues in education in Kenya.

Recent developments have seen research confined to institutions of higher learning as
basic institutions lacked the capacity and finance to carry out adequate research.

Research in MoE is undertaken by the following among others:
(a) The Ministry of Education
The role of the Ministry of Education as provided for by the Education Act Cap. 211
is the promotion of education in line with the national plan for socio-economic
development. In this regard, research is undertaken through the collection of basic
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educational statistical data at all levels, which then informs the Ministry of
Education on issues relating to:
(a) Enrolment rates
(b) Retention rates
(c) Gender participation in education
(d) Transition and completion rates and
(e) Any other issues that impact on education.

(b) The Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC)
KNEC is involved in examination/assessment-related research. For example, in 2006
KNEC

established the National Assessment Centre with a mandate of having an

effective national system for monitoring learner achievement in the formative stages of
any given education cycle. The result of this research is contained in a report – KNEC
2010 National Assessment Systems for Monitoring Learner Achievement (NASMLA).

(c) The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE)
KIE is involved in research of instructional supervisory programmes. It is central in the
development of the curriculum, with a mandate that includes research on factors that
determine the direction the curriculum will take and include political, social and
economic demands. Another research role played by KIE is the approval of primary and
secondary textbooks and other instructional materials.
“The institute has the express mandate of vetting text books and other instructional
materials to make them curriculum compliant, of appropriate quality and acceptable
standards. The yardstick for approval include such factors as syllabus coverage,
content, illustration and layout, exercise and activities, price, durability” and gender
sensitivity among others.
(Source: Republic of Kenya Ministry of Education approved list of primary and
secondary text books and other instructional materials Revised 9th Edition: January,
2009.)

(d) The Directorate of Quality Assurance
Through interaction within the education institutions, the Directorate of Quality
Assurance collects all the necessary data and information and informs the Ministry of
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Education on trends in standards and achievements in Education in Kenya. As a
research department it ensures that procedures are followed and maintained.

The purpose of standard assessment is to evaluate the quality of education provision
within a school, focusing on the quality of teaching and learning and students‘
achievements; monitoring the quality of pedagogical processes in the school is at the
core of the assessment process. The assessment process has strong research ingredients
in that it involves the following:


Observation of education management and leadership processes.



Discussion with students to assess how well they are progressing.

(e) Examination of students‘ work.
(f) Discussions with staff, government and parents.
(g) Assessment traits.

(e) The Teachers Service Commission (TSC)
TSC as constituted in the new Constitution will engage in more research given the
mandate, which include:
(i) To register trained teachers.
(ii) To recruit and employ registered teachers.
(iii) To assign teachers employed by the Commission in any public school or institution.
(iv) To promote and transfer teachers.
(v) To exercise disciplinary control over teachers.
(vi) To terminate the employment of teachers.

Furthermore, the Commission shall:




Review the standards of education and training of persons entering the teaching
service;
Review the demand for any supply of teachers; and
Advise the national government on matters relating to the teaching profession.

(f) Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE)
KISE has the mandate of identifying students with special needs, training of teachers for
special needs and monitoring, evaluation and reporting on special needs issues.
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(g) Directorate of Research, Management and Development
It was established through a Presidential Order No. 1/87 to promote, facilitate and guide
the national research system through policies that rationalize the integration of Research
and Development (R&D) into the overall national economic development.

(h) At the Provincial and District level, the respective field officers i.e. the Provincial
Director of Education and the District Education Officer, respectively play the
critical research roles of identifying, planning, implementation, co-ordination,
development of education and the inspection of all education (excluding universities) in
their areas of jurisdiction.
(i) At the school level the head teacher is involved in research through:







Improving teaching and learning by providing direction in terms of appropriate
curriculum.
Developing an organizational structure that provides for collegiality in curriculum
implementation.
Developing supervisory strategies.
Providing instructional materials.
Evaluation of pupils‘/students‘ work and progress.
Human resource management.

a)

Research has not been given prominence in institutions of basic education and has
been seen as a preserve of institutions of higher learning and particularly at the
postgraduate level. This is against a background of education being a social domain
that begs for ample social research, since research is crucial to Education as a
planning and management tool.

b) The twin programmes of Free Primary Education and FDSE that address access,
equity, quality and relevance depend a lot on adequate and reliable data that should
inform policy and practice. However, the absence of data due to weak research
makes the implementation of Education programmes difficult and unpredictable.
Growth and trends in enrolments are based on unreliable projections.
c)

A mismatch between the skills obtained during the education and training cycle and
the job market is caused by weak research on market/job skill requirement. This has
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created hordes of unemployed youth.
d) While Vision 2030 calls for a technologically driven economy, lack of adequate
funding to research on technology savvy economy may render its achievement a
Herculean task.
e)

While the industries are the consumers of the labour churned out from the education
system, there is little collaboration between the industries and the education sector in
terms of support for research.

f)

Kenya suffers from a high level of brain drain because of poor remuneration of its
highly skilled researchers. As a result there is little research undertaken at our
institutions of learning.

g) There is the general challenge of inaccessibility of research materials/products, e.g. it
was difficult for Kenyans to access the results of the last population census, yet such
data is critical for planning in such sectors as education. This is compounded by poor
connectivity.

(a) Evidence-based interventions informed by investigation or research should be
encouraged. Proactive research to be undertaken at all levels to inform planning and
determine the interventions that will deliver optimum results in each target area and
target population in all sectors.
(b) Dissemination of research findings should be encouraged and enhanced by
establishing a dynamic information and communication infrastructure.
(c) Position and strengthen research both as a discipline and as a tool of management.
(d) Introduce research in Basic Education, higher institutions and colleges in order to
encourage critical, independent and investigative thinking among young learners. It
should be applied as a way of life to inquisitive minds and encourage innovation
among citizens. Research clubs to be established in schools.
(e) Research should be cascaded to the grassroots as a skill to create new knowledge and
the capacity to apply it at all levels.
(f) Integrate research and related disciplines at all levels of education and training. The
pool of skills emanating from education and training shall influence the ability to
develop quality human resources in all sectors.
(g) The Government to deliberately promote research through investment, creativity and
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learning by discovery through a participatory approach as well as promote attitudes
receptive to research among the citizens.
(h) Align research to tackling developmental challenges through education as the avenue
to enhance national values and cohesion including achievement of the Social,
Economic and Political goals as articulated in the Vision 2030 and Constitution
2010.
(i) Expand the knowledge base open to researchers especially new technology based
knowledge.
(j) Establish a network of research centres and think tanks with a capacity to tap into the
growing stock of global knowledge, assimilate and adapt it to local needs and create
new technologies as appropriate.
(k) Enhance basic and applied research at higher institutions of learning
(l) Proactive approach to research and development in collaboration with industry
players.
(m) Co-ordinate research activities to ensure synergy and to avoid duplication by
patenting research products.
(n) Conduct continuous M&E on implementation both internal and external.

In addition, the following interventions are proposed:
(a) Establish a strong and well-linked National Innovation System to ensure adequate
linkage between academia and industry.
(b) Establish a national Data Management Information System (KMIS) for data sharing.
(c) Decentralize research services and spell out the role of the county governments in
the regional Research and Development programmes.
(d) Establish an online national research database of abstracts – enhance connectivity.

There is need to review the following laws that relate to research to make them userfriendly:
(i) The Science and Technology Act, 1980, Cap. 250, which establishes the National
Council for Science and Technology, an Advisory Research Committee responsible
for publication of results and targeted dissemination both locally and abroad.
(ii) National Museums of Kenya Act, Cap. 216.
(iii) Books and Newspapers Act, Cap. 111.
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(iv) The Copyright Act, Act No. 12 of 2001 - Kenya Copy Right Board, Kenya
Intellectual Property Organization.
(v) Kenya National Library Services Board Act, Cap. 222: dissemination of research,
acquire books and publications, publish national bibliography and reference services.
(vi) The Public Archives and Documentation Services Act, Cap. 119 - where Permanent
Secretaries and other Government bodies including State Corporations are required
to submit new publications.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
12.0

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION

12.1 Introduction
The Vision 2030 identifies Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) as a foundation
for the social, economic and political pillars for overall socio-economic development.
The Vision recognizes the role of Science and Technology in development as new
knowledge is expected to boost wealth creation, social welfare and international
competitiveness.

Globally, it is recognized that social and economic growth of any country is largely a
result of the transformation of knowledge, science and technology into goods and
services. Integration of Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) in national
production processes is central to the success of the Government‘s policy priorities and
programmes as outlined under Kenya Vision 2030. This is particularly important within
the context of demands of global economic competitiveness, sustainable development
and equity concerns. Development of the necessary scientific and technological
infrastructure as well as the technical and entrepreneurial skills is an essential
prerequisite to the transformation of Kenya into a knowledge-based society.
Development of innovative ideas into products, processes and services is highly
dependent on a well-defined and supportive policy, institutional and legal framework that
effectively addresses citizen needs and aspirations.

In its long-term development strategy, outlined in Vision 2030, the Government of
Kenya envisages a nation that is globally competitive and prosperous with a high quality
of life by the year 2030. In pursuit of the Vision, Science, Technology and Innovation
will be harnessed to stimulate technological and industrial transformation that will lead to
sustained economic growth of 10 per cent per annum, and social well-being in the next
25 years.

12.2 Current Status
The MoHEST has formulated the National Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I)
Policy and Strategy to guide and promote focused integration of ST&I in all sectors of
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the economy. Accordingly, specific emphasis will be placed on identified National
Priority Growth and Social Sectors that have high potential to harness ST&I in attaining
the targeted 10% annual economic growth and social development for the Kenyan
people.
In order to realize the above, the Policy and Strategy calls for Government‘s commitment
to facilitating the identification, acquisition, transfer, diffusion and application of
relevant ST&I knowledge in all sectors of the economy. In this regard, the Government
seeks the concerted and supportive efforts by stakeholders in the Kenyan national
innovation system to re-engineer structures, institutions and sectoral policies for
successful implementation of the ST&I Policy and Strategy.
The ST&I‘s mandate is embedded in Vision 2030. ‗A nation that harnesses science,
technology and innovation to foster global competitiveness for wealth creation, national
prosperity and a high quality of life for its people; and the mission, ‗To mainstream
application of science, technology and innovation in all sectors and processes of the
economy to ensure that Kenyans benefit from acquisition and utilization of available
capacities and capabilities to achieve the objectives of Vision 2030 and Constitution
2010.‘

The National Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) Policy and Strategy
underscores the importance of mainstreaming science, technology and innovation in all
sectors of the economy and ensure that Kenyans benefit from acquisition and utilization
of available ST&I capacities and capabilities to improve their quality of life. A country
that is considered developed, among other criteria, has high level technology and
innovation capacity. This is so because the level and intensity of technology and
innovation in a country is one of the key indicators of the degree of economic growth and
development.
Through this policy and strategy, the Government will harness Kenya‘s collective talents
and creativity to promote capacity building in ST&I human, financial and infrastructure
development and effective networks and linkages for knowledge generation and sharing.
Equally important will be the creating of an enabling environment to apply these skills
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into productive and innovative competences and opportunities for technological learning
particularly within industry and business enterprises. Kenyans are expected to promote
scientific and technological deepening and application in industry, enterprise,
community, research and development institutions.

The success in attaining these objectives, however, has immense human, financial and
capital implications and will entail paradigm shifts in the way our sectoral research,
science and technology priorities are identified, programmed and managed. The
attainment of the desired levels of ST&I will stimulate and support high economic
growth and development.

Areas identified in Vision 2030 as growth sectors in order to achieve the envisioned
growth and development include Agriculture and Rural Development; Health and
Biology; Trade Industry; and Human Resource Development.

12.3 Challenges and Findings
The challenges faced by the ST&I sector include the need to develop stronger, national
innovation systems. There is also a need to ensure sustained development of human
resources within the realm of science and technology. The relative contribution made by
the private and public sectors needs to be considered. The ST&I sector must address the
changing role of intellectual property rights and global-scale issues that call for enhanced
international co-operation in science and technology. There is also a need to efficiently
harness available natural resources in a sustainable way for the benefit of all Kenyans.

In addition, a recent decline in the number of science and engineering graduates poses a
great concern because it could hamper the long-term growth prospects of the country.
The challenge of meeting demand for science and technology talent is made more
difficult by waning interest in science among the youth thus leading to a rapid ageing of
the workforce in the public ST&I sector. Further, there is an obvious gender gap among
science and technology graduates (notably at the doctorate level) with male students
forming a large majority.

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Policy and legal frameworks need to be developed or reviewed in order to ensure that
Kenya has institutions and organizations that give effect to the various functions of the
national system of innovation. Also important is the fostering of interactions among and
within all sectors and actors in the economy and ensuring that there is an agreed set of
goals and objectives which are in harmony with Vision 2030 and Constitution, 2010.

The knowledge-intensive nature of science and technology requires highly qualified and
skilled human resource. Over the years, the supply of such human resource has suffered
acute shortage, while employment of technically qualified personnel remains low by
international standards. The rapidly growing economy has already started showing the
skills constraints with shortages in critical cadres. An added dimension to this is the
emerging age-gap between the senior and junior scientists, engineers, technologists and
researchers in related areas.

To strengthen supportive physical infrastructure, including strategic facilities to create
and maintain through renewal and upgrading, strategies will involve establishing
infrastructure and equipment needs for ST&I with capacity to support overall national
development objectives. ICT infrastructure will also be expanded through nation-wide
development of initiatives for application of information technologies to strategic priority
sectors.

Dialogue involving researchers, the different users and beneficiaries on ST&I is
encouraged to promote public acceptance of and support for national science, technology
and innovation activities. Communication between the scientific community and their
audience, comprising of consumers of ST&I products and services needs to be promoted
through online and other approaches to ST&I information exchanges.

To secure adequate funding streams for the various science, technology and innovation
components, a robust institutional framework needs to be established to source, mobilize
and manage ST&I resources targeted at strategic national priorities. Administrative and
financial procedures for ST&I funding mechanisms and measures will be reviewed to
promote achievement of set performance targets.
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In order to develop a comprehensive Performance Management Framework (PMF)
linking programme outcomes to long-term impacts of ST&I initiatives, an effective and
efficient Web-based monitoring and review mechanism should be established while
exploiting the ongoing initiatives on ministerial re-organization to have the PMF well
defined and funded.

Effective, expeditious and transparent performance management mechanisms are
necessary in securing the success of ST&I initiatives. To this end, there is need to put in
place a comprehensive performance management framework linking programme
outcomes to long-term impacts based on a clear implementation strategy with strong
monitoring and reviewing mechanisms. All agencies and organs will have specific
performance targets to ensure coordination of efforts. It is also expected that results of
such effort will result in positive outcomes for the Kenyan people.

Deliberate efforts to create demand for ST&I is critical while at the same time ensuring a
high correlation to the structure of the economy is maintained. The goal should remain
that of putting in place a well functioning innovation system that will ensure enhanced
competitiveness. The pressure of competition will drive firms to demand better skills and
knowledge. This will result in ―technology deepening‖ and expansion across sectors and
as a result of increased interaction of all actors in search of better and more cost-effective
technological, better means of producing goods and services will be demanded.

As the Kenyan economy moves into an era of high growth, there will be need for new
and better human resource skills and technologies focused on making business and other
processes more efficient and effective. Lessons from South Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan,
Brazil and Chile indicate that in the absence of local demand for ST&I, technological
deepening had to be supported by aggressive government interventions that included
targeted public procurement, creation of specialized public ST&I Institutes, and
preferential arrangements to steer firms to targeted technology sectors.

12.4 ST&I Infrastructure
Whereas ST&I is infrastructure intensive, the network of existing infrastructure is
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inadequate to facilitate the achievement of the national objectives in the field. In order to
address this concern, there is need to create a suitable environment for the strengthening
of supportive physical infrastructure for science, technology and innovation supported by
an efficient ICT infrastructure to ensure speedy, secure and cost-effective access to
information.

The main structure for implementing and evaluating the ST&I policy and strategy is the
proposed Institutional Structure for the Kenya National Innovation System that provides
an opportunity to articulate means for the promotion of coherence and integration among
national activities. The proposed new Kenya National Innovation System (KNIS) aims at
ensuring that there is greater harmony in ST&I policy prioritization coupled with a
coherent implementation of identified priority ST&I programmes and projects.

Proposed policy institutions will include the Presidential Advisory Commission on
Science, Technology and Innovation (PACSTI). PACSTI will be drawn from members
of the National Economic and Social Council (NESC). A Parliamentary Office for
Science, Technology and Innovation (POSTI) will be set up to ensure that the legislative
arm of government is fully appraised of the need to prioritize ST&I Policy together with
the accompanying legislation. Other measures will include a reorganisation of the
National Council for Science and Technology (NCST), regulatory Institutions,
implementing institutions at sectoral level and funding mechanisms.

There is need for an effective M&E framework that will monitor and evaluate the inputs,
activities and outputs. This will ensure that the policy and strategy objectives are
delivered in accordance with the implementation plan.

(a) The education sector should provide the skills that will be required to steer Kenyans
to the economic and social goals of Vision 2030 by providing the necessary Human
Resource requirements for a rapidly changing environment and a more diverse
economy. Education provided must meet high quality standards with a content that is
relevant to the needs of the economy and society. According to the Vision 2030,
education should create a cohesive society imbued with the culture of hard work,
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efficiency and concern for the environment.

(b) Establish and enhance an effective innovation system to harness the potential offered
by modern science and technology for social and economic advantage. The national
system of innovation in its broadest conception is the means through which Kenya
will acquire, exploit and diffuse knowledge for the achievement of individual and
collective goals. The accuracy and effectiveness of the national system of innovation
will depend on how well knowledge, technologies, products and processes are
converted into increased economic growth for improved quality of life.
(c) Since the Government recognizes the importance of ST&I, it shall institute a number
of measures to leverage ST&I sector to deal with the challenges it faces for the
benefit of Kenyans and include:
(i) Strengthening Technical Capacities and Capabilities
The government will focus on the creation of better production processes, placing a
strong emphasis on technological learning. The focus will be on technologies and
processes that enhance national competitiveness and facilitate the creation of quality
jobs. In addition, the capacities of ST&I institutions will be enhanced through
advanced training of personnel, improved infrastructure, equipment, and by
strengthening linkages with actors in the productive sectors.

(ii) Developing a Highly Skilled Human Resource Base
Although Kenya has a pool of talented human resource, there is a shortage of skilled
workforce in many ST&I fields that support the national priority sectors. In order to
develop a highly skilled human resource base, measures will be put in place to
improve the national pool of skills and talent relevant to the needs of national priority
areas. The number of researchers, scientists and engineers will be increased to focus
on national priority sectors. Furthermore, the current transition rate from secondary
level education to university will be increased and the postgraduate training will be
strengthened, particularly in the fields of science and technology.

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(iii)Intensification of Innovation in Priority Sectors
The Kenyan economy exhibits limited levels on innovation required to foster
increased output and productivity improvements necessary for employment and
wealth creation. In this regard, a biannual national innovation survey will be
conducted to determine the incidence of innovation in the national priority areas as
well as determining the impediments to increased innovation in those sectors.
Additionally, to intensify innovation, the funding for basic and applied research at
higher institutions of learning, as well as for research and development conducted in
collaboration with industries will be increased. Indigenous knowledge and
technology, which is part of Kenya‘s national heritage, remains unmapped. Measures
will therefore be taken to identify and protect this heritage. In order to encourage
innovation and other scientific endeavours, a system of national recognition will be
established to honour innovators.
(iv) Enhancing Science, Technology and Innovation Awareness
In view of the importance of ST&I in society, efforts will be made to promote
awareness of new ideas and discoveries to the general public. A key goal of activities
under this thrust will be to impart a culture of creativity, innovativeness and
continuous learning in Kenya, which is supportive of ST&I uptake and utilization.
Under this plan, measures to create and deepen ST&I awareness amongst policy
makers and implementers, particularly in the social sphere will be put in place. In
addition, multi-sectoral initiatives to develop ST&I solutions that can address current
and future development problems will be publicized and showcased. Such a
programme will create and nurture a passion for learning, creativity, technology and
innovation.
(v) Strengthening the ST&I Performance Management Framework
There is a lack of adequate information to facilitate regional and international
benchmarking and track the implementation of ST&I activities. Consequently, under
this plan, an understanding of the utilization of resources in the ST&I sector and its
capacity to contribute to national development will be critical. A framework to
collect and disseminate information on the resources employed by the sector and their
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effectiveness will be put in place. Coordination of STI activities will also seek to
leverage the activities of international organizations working in the country for the
furtherance of national ST&I objectives.

(d) Resource Mobilization
Implementation of ST&I will require significant resources. Funding will be drawn from
the following sources:
(i) Government Funding: With regard to Government funding, the sector will prepare
its annual budget estimates and medium-term expenditure framework reports to form
the basis for resource bidding under the overall budgetary process. In this regard, all
the sector members will be involved in the budget process to ensure that the annual
ministerial PERs and sector reports accommodate their respective needs.
(ii) The Kenyan National ST&I Fund: The objective of this fund will be to secure
adequate local and international funding in support of the national ST&I. The fund
will be formulated as a general national fund with a framework that allows for the
creation of various specific funds to meet specific funding needs in ST&I sectors.
(iii) Venture Capital: The private sector will be targeted to provide capital to bridge the
gaps in science and technology as well as financing innovation programmes. The
macroeconomic environment for attraction and growth of venture capital will also be
created. In addition, the financial services sector will be strengthened and focused to
support the growth of venture capital. The programme will also focus on PPPs ST&I
funding as well as general financing of ST&I initiatives.
(iv) Tax Concessions and ST&I Levy: Tax concessions on targeted sectors will be
introduced to motivate the private sector to contribute to ST&I funding.
Additionally, a national ST&I levy will be targeted to support the financing of ST&I
- this will be a PPP arrangement, where the Government and private sector
contribute to the levy. This will be implemented under an agreed framework of
partnership.
(v) Development Partners: Development partners are currently supporting the
government in some initiatives. The relationship between the sector and the
Development Partners will be strengthened by developing strategic alliances based
on the needs and policy direction of the Vision 2030. Subsequently, the
224

Development Partners will form a joint financing framework that will fund the
implementation of the projects and programmes.

(e) Policy, Legal and Institutional Reforms
The capacities of the national R&D and innovation system will aim at responding to the
needs of activating innovation and will therefore enhance the competitiveness of national
industries in the regional and global market, in undertaking policy, legal and institutional
reforms. A deliberate effort will also be made to rationalize the participation of the
Government, the private sector and civil society organizations. The Government, through
the Ministry responsible for ST&I will provide the necessary policy and political
leadership to facilitate the realization of the goals and objectives underscored in ST&I
under Vision 2030, which will include:
i)

Ensure consistency in implementation of STI programmes, projects and plans;

ii) Create a favourable business environment required for the performance of ST&I
initiatives;
iii) Provide a framework for mobilizing resources, including funding support from
domestic and foreign sources within the framework of the national policy for
coordinating support for ST&I from Kenya‘s development partners;
iv) Ensure coordination of the activities of ministries in order to implement ST&I
programmes and create unified management and organization arrangements at
national and local levels.

(f) Global Competitiveness
In order to benefit from globalisation, the Government shall enhance the global
competitiveness of exports by using ST&I. The specific areas of focus shall include
the development of innovative ideas into products, processes and services; measures
aimed at creating more jobs; safeguarding the environment against disasters; and
mitigating the effects of climate change. To achieve this, adequate supply of
scientific and technological skills will be put in place by:
(i) Training, acquiring and retaining highly skilled staff;
(ii) Strengthening policies to enhance awareness and public understanding of science;
(iii)Improving the quality of scientific and technological learning;
225

(iv) Encouraging individual creativity and broadening opportunities and support for
students to pursue ST&I studies;
(v) Adapting curricula to changing skill demands;
(vi) Including interdisciplinary knowledge and managerial/entrepreneurial skills;
(vii) Developing partnerships with the industry players;
(viii) Science congresses at the Primary, Secondary and Tertiary levels should be
strengthened to enhance the ST&I culture. Emphasis should also be given to the role
of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) in safeguarding innovations and inventions.

226

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
13.0

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN
EDUCATION

13.1 Introduction
In the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 Chapter VII, the Ministry‘s policy clearly
articulates intentions to integrate information and communication technology (ICT) into
education. This is intended to ensure that education and training service provision and
delivery utilises modern ICT tools. It should be noted that there are two dimensions to
ICT in education, i.e. teachers and learners learn about ICT and teachers and learners
learn with ICT. Learning about ICT allows learners to contribute to the development of
ICT technology and also become ICT literate. On the other hand, learning with ICT is
aimed at enabling learners to acquire knowledge and skills that they can use effectively.
These two approaches have been assimilated into education in Kenya. The Ministry‘s
policy is to integrate ICT in education and training in order to prepare learners and
education managers of today for the 21st century education and knowledge economy.

The implementation of the National ICT Strategy for Education and Training through
multi-stakeholder participation in 2006, laid the foundation for developing the necessary
capacity for skilled human resource required to achieve Kenya‘s Vision 2030. This was
also in line with the 2010 Constitution.

Governments worldwide view the main thrust of ICT programmes as being that of
transforming all schools into places where students and teachers work in an instructionlearning environment that affords learning and activity online both within and outside the
school environment. ICT will therefore extend boundaries of the classroom to beyond the
fixed time and space of school, help adapt instruction to the differences between the
students, provide fora for organizational pedagogical feedback in real time, strengthen
the continuum of learning in the classroom and at home.
Specifically, incorporation of ICT in the teaching environment is expected to:
(a) Improve quality
(b) Lead to improved teacher skills
(c) Adapt teaching to the diversity of students
(d) Improve how the school works and is managed
227

(e) Provide feedback on students in real time
(f) Improve the attentiveness and interest of students
(g) Lead to a continuum of learning in the classroom and at home
(h) Improve communication between all the partners (teachers, students and parents)
(i) Impart 21st Century skills (literacy, information and communication, thinking and
problem solving, interpersonal relations, collective learning and development of
independent learners).
During the KESSP 1 implementation period (2005 to 2010) the following
accomplishments were made:
(a) Development of National ICT Strategy for Education and Training (2006) to guide
ICT investments in the education sector.
(b) Establishment of a public private sector partnership framework that has helped the
Ministry mobilize resources for ICT in education programmes e.g. Kenya ICT Trust
Fund.
(c) Increased access to ICT facilities by MOE Staff at headquarters, County Education
Offices.
(d) Increased training on basic ICT literacy skills of education managers and
administrators.
(e) Adoption and implementation of New Partnership for Africa‘s Development
(NEPAD) E-Schools project. The Heads of African States resolved in 2003 to have
all education institutions equipped with modern ICT tools for increased access and
quality of education and training by 2013. Six demonstration e-schools were
identified in Kenya with a plan to have a roll out by 2008 but nothing further was
achieved and the project has become moribund.
(f) The development of Digital content has been progressing at the Kenya Institute of
Education (KIE).
(g) Establishment of an ICT Integration Team to coordinate and harmonise the
implementation of ICT across the MoE.

228

The following were identified as the main issues and challenges facing ICT in education
and training:
(a) ICT programmes have put a lot of emphasis on the use of ICT in administration, and
hence administrative support is required to ensure appropriate utilization of ICT to
support management systems in government i.e. e-government.
(b) Currently only about 2% of the schools in the country have networked computer
laboratories.
(c) The priority in the education sector is to improve connectivity in the schools. The
limited connectivity, lack of ICT infrastructure have, however, been attributed to a
lack of funding for most institutions.
(d) ICT is a crosscutting investment, and an enabler for efficient delivery of other
programmes. Obtaining a realistic costing for equipment and activities is a
challenge.
(e) It‘s widely understood that ICT has three pillars: e-government implementation,
EMIS Support and ICT Integration in teaching and learning. Policy and
implementation has failed to recognise this and its interrelatedness.
(f)

Policy-wise, the Ministry needs to prioritise the adoption of ICT at all school levels,
ensuring a rollout of providing power and connectivity to all schools. Only then will
its use in administration and management, decision-making and planning and in the
teaching and learning environment, occur.

(g) There is a deliberate dumping of old and used computer and ICT equipment to
education institutions hence contributing to the problems of e-waste. The
development of ICT applications has also resulted in a number of security problems,
including those related to system integrity and application use. To coordinate and
integrate ICT application, the MoE has to develop security procedures for
equipment, systems and data to prevent computer hacking. In addition, the MoE
needs to create a virus-free environment within its offices and educational
institutions.
(h) No ICT curriculum exists at school level or policy and strategic plan to rollout the
use of ICT as a teaching and learning tool. An ICT curriculum has been introduced
at teacher training level.
(i) Inadequate investment in ICT in teacher training colleges.
229

(j) Lack of ICT skills by practising teachers.
(k) Insufficient integration of ICT education in teacher training colleges, primary and at
University level.
(l) Uncoordinated players in the ICT sector.
(m) The digital content in the development of curriculum materials has been limited due
to lack of financial resources.

(a) Develop a policy and strategic framework for effective integration of ICT in the
teaching and learning environment.
(b) Strengthen the institutional framework to allow efficient integration of ICT across
the entire education sector (e-management, teaching and learning).
(c) Adopt ICT systems and tools for effective management and governance within the
whole educational system (Ministry, county offices, schools/institutions) and the
transition to digital instead of paper business processing.
(d) Scale up ICT capacity building and access through the provision of ICT
infrastructure to Ministry staff and educational institutions.
(e) Provide technical back-up support to all ICT using government education
institutions (Desktop Computers, Servers, and Network Devices), Software
(upgrades, updates and License renewal) and connectivity (appropriate/safe use,
security).
(f) Provide connectivity to facilitate communication amongst all agencies in the
Ministry (Headquarters, agencies, provinces, county education offices and schools)
(g) Establish and operationalize a National Centre for ICT in Education (ICTEC) where
modern ICT tools can be tested, demonstrated and recommended for use in teaching
and learning in Kenya‘s education and training institutions.
(h) Enhance public-private sector partnerships in resource mobilisation for ICT
integration in education.
(i) Integrate monitoring and evaluation in all programme activities for proper utilization
of ICT in education investments.
(j) The Ministry should continue to develop ICT in education and training. This will be
geared towards increasing efficiency and effectiveness in teaching and learning and
the e-management of the national education system. The proposed Ten-Year Master
230

Plan for ICT in Education will ensure that the planning for ICT development will be
made holistic and integrated with all levels of educational organisation. This
translates to realising the aim of producing citizens who are knowledgeable and
skilled in using ICT as well as having the ability to compete with the outside world
as envisioned in the Vision 2030. Efforts should be made to acculturate ICT at all
levels of the education system and Kenyan community.
(k) Provide adequate funding for progressive digitization of curriculum content.

13.5 Recommended Actions
13.5.1 Strengthen ICT Institutional Framework
(a) Establish National Centre for ICT in Education (ICTEC) within a restructured
CEMASTEA with branches at the County level to steer the integration of ICT in the
education sector.
(b) Establish an ICT Education board/council at ICTEC with representatives of all major
stakeholders, directorates and departments to coordinate and harmonize all ICT
initiatives (technical and educational) within the country.

The ICTEC will:
(i) Set up an ICT Educational department to spearhead and advise/coordinate in
particular ICT education (pedagogical/didactical) issues.
(ii) Set up a department for the ICT technical support with structures at the County level
to assist ICT users in education institutions.

13.5.2 Strengthen ICT Technical Support by:
(a) Facilitating the support of all MOE Systems (FPE/FSE Disbursement Systems,
EMIS, Skills Inventory, E-readiness, Schools Database etc.).
(b) Facilitating support of all ICT equipment in the Ministry of Education (Headquarters
and Counties).
(c) Facilitating the establishment of National ICT Support Help Desk (at Department of
National ICT Innovation) and support its operations in serving education institutions.
(d) Facilitating software upgrades and updates including keeping inventory of all
licenses covered and used in the education sector (Headquarters, Agencies, County
Education Offices, schools).
231

(e) Supporting the ongoing development and review of Education Portal.
(f) Training technical team to handle support of hardware, software and systems in the
education sector.

13.5.3 Increase usage of ICT by Education Managers
(a) Provide the necessary ICT equipment/tools for the work environment (desk, mobile)
at all management levels and link them to major information sources (EMIS).
(b) Provide server and web-based applications that allow easy communication and
collaboration, and allow easy and efficient transaction of business processes, e.g.
Management Information System (MIS).
(c) Ensure that managers acquire the necessary skills to work efficiently with ICT
equipment/tools and server/web applications in their daily activities.
(d) Provide the necessary back office technical systems and structures for digital
business processing and operationalization of e-government.
(e) Set up reliable and efficient ICT support and maintenance structures to allow a
continuous and uninterrupted workflow.
(f) Develop a change management programme to guide in the transition of adoption of
digital business (e-management) processes/e-government by managers.

13.5.4 Increase Access to ICT Infrastructure
(a) Ensure that all learning institutions are installed with power supply.
(b) Working with all departments and directorates in planning for acquisition of ICT
equipment for use by Ministry staff at headquarters, agencies, counties and
constituency education offices.
(c) Develop standards and guidelines to help schools in the adoption and integration of
ICT for teaching and learning.
(d) Support the ongoing government initiative of establishing e-schools/smart schools
by providing necessary ICT equipment to educational institutions.
(e) Facilitate the establishment of a framework aimed at enabling Ministry staff and
teachers acquire laptops and other ICT facilities for use in their day-to-day service
provision.
(f) Facilitate the acquisition of office productivity software and appropriate licenses.

232

(g) Facilitate the acquisition and establishment of equipment for data recovery and
business continuity for the sector.

13.5.5 Provide Internet Connectivity
(a) Provide connectivity (bandwidth) to MOE‘s headquarters, county education offices
and schools.
(b) Provide connectivity (bandwidth) to schools in collaboration with sector partners.
(c) Provide the connectivity equipment.

13.5.6 Promote ICT Integration in Education
(a) Training on ICT-related human resources and continuous skills upgrade at
headquarters, agencies, county education offices.
(b) Training of teachers on effective integration of ICT into their teaching process
(subject integration) and mainstreaming ICT into the entire teaching and learning
process.
(c) Enhance the digital content development in all subjects at all levels of education and
ensure that it will be provided to all learners through open source mode.

13.5.7 Fast Track ICT Innovation and Integration at the National Centre for ICT
in Education
(a) Establish and develop the department of National ICT Innovation at NACICTIE.
(b) Establish and develop a National Help Desk and Support Section to guide the sector
stakeholders in utilizing modern tools and content in education and training.
(c) Enhance the capacity of staff to efficiently manage and operate the department.

13.5.8 Enhance Public Private Partnership
(a) Strengthen current membership base of public private sector partners in order to
increase levels of participation.
(b) Facilitate joint operations with partners in advancing ICT investments in the
education sector.
(c) Facilitate resource mobilization forums including workshops to strengthen
partnership for ICT investment in the education and training sub-sectors.

233

13.5.9 Introduce Monitoring and Evaluation
(a) Monitor and evaluate the use of ICT in the teaching and learning process in
classrooms.
(b) Monitor and assess the impact and disposal mechanisms of available e-wastes to
(c) Monitor and evaluate the threats, risks and safety of use of modern tools, including
Internet for teaching and training.
(d) Assess and evaluate the added value of digital content (developed and
supplementary) in the teaching and learning in schools.

13.5.10 Utilize E-waste and Refurbished ICT Infrastructure
A national policy on refurbished computers and old ICT equipment that are brought to
the country should be developed in addition to a policy on e-waste resulting from use of
ICT in the education institutions.

13.5.11 Prepare an ICT in Education Ten Year Master Plan
A ten-year ICT in education and training Master Plan is required in order to guide the
process of ICT education and ICT integration in teaching and learning.

13.5.12 Design ICT Curriculum
Develop ICT curriculum for all levels of education institutions.

13.5.13 Promote Research and Development in ICT
Increase research and development in ICT in all education institutions.

13.5.14 Provide Computers
Provision of computers should be based on the ratio of one laptop per teacher and one
Desktop per 15 learners. A detailed costing for introducing ICT into education is
provided in Table 13.1.

234

Table 13.1: Projected Costs for Implementation (Million Ksh.) 20102015
Primary

2010 - 2015

Computer Learning Resource Centres

23,017,629,695

Computers for Teachers

6,042,127,795

Secondary
Computer Learning Resource Centres

11,390,279,148

Computers for Teachers

2,698,489,744

Total

43,148,526,382


13.6 Expected Outputs
(a) Highly motivated, efficient and focussed members of the working staff who are
competent in ICT use in education management, teaching and learning.
(b) Ability to troubleshoot and diagnose deficiencies in ICT and their accessories.
(c) Well-equipped, innovative national centre put up to cater for the ICT needs of the
whole teacher and pupil population in the country.
(d) Sustainable ICT driven programmes that are properly evaluated.
(e) ICT teaching should be compulsory at all teacher training levels.

235

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14.0

OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING IN EDUCATION

14.1 Introduction
The term Open and Distance Learning (ODL) covers the various forms of contemporary
education themes such as e-learning, lifelong learning, open learning, mobile and flexible
learning. In Distance Education (DE), learning occurs at levels where there is no
continuous immediate interaction of teachers, tutors, lecturers or professors with
students/learners in the same premises. It is also defined as a type of learning where the
learners take their initiative for their learning. Hence learners acquire knowledge and
skills at their own time and place. This is also referred to as Open Learning since the
learning is not confined to the school environment and not limited by institutional
timetable. ODL approaches focus on expanding access, quality and equity to education,
hence could respond to the demands on education of 2010 Constitution and Vision 2030.
The philosophy of Open, Distance Learning (ODL) system is characterized by removal
of barriers such as lack of access, quality, and equity to education. This allows learners to
study what they want, when they want, where they want and whatever age they want it.
ODL systems typically use technology to mediate learning, for example, printed study
materials, audio, computers, TV, mobile and wire telephones and the web. It is often
argued that ODL gives learners access to education that they would not otherwise have
for various reasons.

14.2 Current Status
In Kenya training opportunities such as mixed mode of delivery (face-to-face and
Distance Education) have also been provided using information and communication
technology. However, advances in educational technology have changed the way people
learn and teach. Information and communication technologies such as the use of the
Internet, CD-Roms, computers, video-conferencing, mobile telephones and electronic
communication such as e-learning are increasingly being employed in education.
Distance Education has now been designed, planned and organized to help people learn
using these technologies.

236

Currently, such learning approaches are in use in the University of Nairobi and Kenyatta
University in teacher training as well as in the training of other professionals. In
countries such as Britain and USA, Health Professions courses such as nursing and
medical education are offered by use of the open learning and e-learning.

(a)

Despite the mention of Open and Distance Learning in Sessional Paper No. 1 of
2005, the government lacks a policy on ODL. This is in spite of the fact that
global trends in ODL have shown marked adoption of innovative technologies in
offering education, for example, in electronic learning and teaching, which has
favoured the development of ICT specifically for:
(i)

Learning and teaching purposes

(ii) Open learning students
(iii) Mobile learning students.
(b)

Limited use of ODL approaches in primary and secondary schools in Kenya even
in areas where physical, socio-economic and time factors hinder the delivery and
access of education especially among pastoral communities.

(c)

Some parts of the country are not covered by mainstream electronic media
thereby raising issues of equity and cost in provision of education through ODL.

(d)

Lack of awareness among education recipients and providers about ODL and its
viability in delivering quality education.

(e)

Limited number of skilled manpower in ODL approaches amongst the providers.

(f)

Inadequate infrastructure and related support for ODL in educational institutions.

(g)

No institutions of higher learning wholly dedicated to the use of ODL mode of
delivery in the country.

(h)

Unfavourable attitude and prejudice amongst learners of ODL.

(i)

ODL is not used to deliver learning and teaching in primary and secondary
schools.

(j)

Some communities live far away from educational institutions.

(k)

Parts of the country have poor transport systems.

(l)

Certain individuals may have family and workplace commitments.

(m)

Physical disability may hinder access to education in formal schools.

(n)

Overcrowded classrooms.
237

(o)

Difficulties in leaving workplaces during official working hours.

(p)

Migration, mobile working or nomadic lifestyles may hinder access to quality
education.

(q)

Offering education through ODL in certain professional disciplines is still a major
problem.

14.5.1 Policy
(a) Fast track the processes of the establishment of a National/Public Open University
with satellite centres in all counties as recommended by Public Universities
Inspection Board 2006 Report.
(b) Prepare a regulatory and legal framework for all other institutions that envisage to
establish open universities/institutions in Kenya as recommended by the Kamunge
Report (2) of 2008.
(c) Introduce distance and open learning approaches including home learning at all
levels of education in Kenya

14.5.2 Quality
(i) Teachers and education managers at all levels of education should be trained to:
(a) Acquire skills to enable them develop distance and e-learning study materials.
(b) Develop capacity to train ODL providers (peers) in developing distance and elearning study materials.
(c) Tutor distance learners in order to enhance equity, access, equality and quality.
(d) Offer learner support services to distance and e-learners in the country.
(e) Integrate ODL methodology in teacher education and training programmes at
university and middle level colleges.
(ii) Initiate development of ODL approaches that would meet the education needs of elearners, online learners and distance learning students at all levels of education and
with main focus on ASAL areas, pastoral communities, marginalized groups, special
needs education and non-formal education.
(iii) Retrain teachers and a core critical staff that will manage the ODL and e-learning
programmes as the centre and possibly county ODL coordinators.

238

(iv) Collaborate and strengthen the network of public libraries through Kenya National
Library Service to support ODL, ACE in order to promote the culture of reading.
(v) Evaluate the outcomes of the actions to determine efficacy and effectiveness of ODL
and e-Learning programmes.
(vi) Integrate ODL methodology in teacher education programmes.
(vii) All institutions of higher learning should roll out ODL programmes.

14.5.3 Equity
(a) ODL be used as a vehicle for promoting the culture of lifelong learning by
establishing continuing education programmes in areas of Kenya where such
programmes have not been initiated especially the ASAL areas.
(b) The Government undertakes concrete measures including sustainable funds
mobilization and allocation for the launching of the educational broadcasting
services with outreach to all areas of the country.
(c) Collaborate with the Kenya National Library Service to strengthen the network of
public Library services across the country to support ODL, ACE and promote a
reading culture.

14.5.4 Access
ODL be alternative modes of delivery of wide range of courses in all public/private
universities, middle level colleges, primary schools and secondary schools.

239

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
15.0

TEACHER EDUCATION AND MANAGEMENT

15.1 Introduction
Teacher education refers to the education that is offered to persons who influence all
aspects of education upon completion to undertake the teaching career and beyond. It is
influenced by social, political, economic and technological developments in a society. It
comprises undertaking a curriculum that provides more knowledge on subject area
content plus pedagogical skills that will enable that learner to be an effective imparter of
knowledge. Through it, teachers who are considered mentors of societies are prepared
and produced (Lukas, 1972).
Teacher education is therefore the main pillar of any established system of education and
custodian of the society‘s culture. The Sessional Paper No. 6 of 1988 states: ―there is
urgent need to develop and promote teacher education programmes if the administration
of education in the Country is to succeed and national development is to be accelerated.‖
(Republic of Kenya, 1988). It is, therefore, arguable that the role of teacher education is
critical for societal existence and survival. In this aspect, education is regarded as the
driving force behind development in a society.
Policy document on teacher education identifies the need for a reformed education
curriculum in order to meet the aspirations of Vision 2030. Indeed reformed education
requires reformed initial teacher trainers‘ education curriculum because a repertoire of
skills and competences evidently lacking for now by both the learners and teachers are a
prerequisite.
Kenya is confronted with the challenges of quantitative expansion, qualitative upgrading
and management improvement, which is necessary to be included in teacher education
curriculum as quality improvement strategy in teacher education.
There is need, therefore, to construct a balance school and teacher education curriculum,
INSET and Continue Professional Development (CPD) with a definite career growth that
will focus on generic educational outcome independent of subjects being taught while
recognising at the same time that this is highly subjective and to a large extent depends
on national priorities, education philosophy and one‘s understanding of how people learn
240

best. It is also evident that Teacher Education in Kenya generally has not kept pace with
development that has taken place throughout the developed countries.
Kenya currently has six public universities offering initial teacher training courses. There
are 20 public teacher training colleges offering certificate training for primary teaching
and 2 public teacher training colleges offering diploma level training. There are also 85
private institutions offering a similar range of programmes.
Table 15.1: Levels of Teacher Education in Kenya
Level

Minimum Qualification

Duration Certification

ECDE

1. KCSE, Grade D+ or KCE Division III 2 years

ECDE Certificate

and one-year teaching practice.
2. ECDE

teachers

with

KNEC

certificate proficiency and KCSE D or
KCE Division IV, KCPE and three
years‘ teaching experience
1. ECDE teachers with KCSE C 3 years
(Plain)

KCE

Divison

II

ECDE Diploma

or

equivalent qualifications and two
years teaching experience
2.

ECDE teachers with Ministry of
Education

Certificate

Childhood

in

Education

Early
(ECE)

certificate and KCSE D+/KCE
Division

III

and

two

years‘

teaching experience.
Primary

KCSE Grade C

Secondary KCSE Grade C+ (plus)
KCSE Grade C+

2 years

PI Certificate

3 years

Diploma

4 years

B.Ed Degree

241

Table 15.2: Primary Teacher Training College Enrolment
FIRST YEAR (2011)
S/NO

COLLEGES

M

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

Eregi
315
Garissa
226
Kigari
261
Kitui
104
Kamwenja
230
Kericho
208
Muranga
174
Asumbi
211
Tambach
261
Meru
172
Thogoto
196
Kaimosi
253
Mosoriot
270
Machakos
203
Kilimambogo 235
Egoji
391
Shanzu
198
Baringo
190
Migori
274
Bondo
104
Narok
103
TOTAL
4579

SECOND YEAR (2011)

F

TOTAL

M

F

TOTAL

255
217
377
172
207
191
182
230
254
306
155
245
207
317
272
325
215
161
264
102
109
4763

570
443
638
276
437
399
356
441
515
478
351
498
477
520
507
716
413
351
538
206
212
9342

234
143
369
328
274
195
212
214
152
147
251
277
296
163
332
204
200
242
4233

267
161
285
205
282
177
229
225
282
148
234
199
225
282
148
234
199
225
317

501
304
654
533
556
372
441
439
434
295
485
476
521
480
616
413
396
492
8408

4175

GRAND
TOTAL

1,071
747
1,292
276
970
955
728
882
954
912
66
983
953
1,041
987
1,332
826
747
1,30
206
212
17,750

Different levels of teacher training courses focus on specific areas as follows:
(a) Pre-primary teacher training courses focus on pedagogy and, where appropriate,
subject knowledge content.
(b) Primary teacher training courses focus more on subject knowledge content. Teacher
trainees take thirteen (13) subjects without specialization. They are exposed to
teaching practice of a total of three (3) months split into one (1) month per term
during the last year of study.
(c) Secondary teacher training courses concentrate on subject knowledge in two subject
areas and the on the teaching thereof. Teacher trainees at diploma and degree levels
undertake a one-off teaching practice of three (3) months.
243

(d) In addition students are required to follow courses in education theory.
(e) Teacher educators in TTCs are graduate teachers posted by TSC to perform those
duties.
15.3 Issues and Challenges in Teacher Education
(i) The balance of time allocated to theory and practice is currently a matter of concern
with the argument now moving towards a greater emphasis on teaching and teaching
methods, leaving the more theoretical aspects of education to be addressed in postgraduate study.
(ii) Majority of staff in the teacher training institutions don‘t have teacher Trainer
Education qualification. There is no proper preparation or training for teacher
educators.
(iii) The impact of teacher training therefore is questionable and ultimately working
habits acquired by persons who become teachers in the early stages of their own
schooling tend to stay with learners to some degree throughout their learning or
teaching careers. These include over-dependence on memorization, failure to
identify symbols to link them with their concrete manifestations, intellectual
passivity and the uncritical acceptance of statements as facts.
(iv) The hardest element to change concerns changes in instructional practices and in the
culture of teaching. Changing that practice towards greater collaborative
relationships between teachers and learners, and changing the culture of teaching and
learning, is the major challenge facing the profession.
(v) The initial teacher education curriculum for ECDE, primary and secondary school
teachers requires constant review to conform to classroom demand.
(vi) There is encroachment of TTCs by Universities. Some TTCs have already been
converted into University campuses, for instance, Narok (taken over by Moi
University), Bondo (taken over by Maseno University), Kenya Science Teachers
College (taken over by Nairobi University), Taveta (taken over by JKUAT) and
Kibabii (taken over by Masinde Muliro).
(vii) Lack of a coordinated Continuous Professional Development of teachers and teacher

educators.

244

(i) Arising out of Vision 2030, the following repertoire of skills and competences are
required by learners and teachers, and should therefore be included in the
curriculum:
(a) Literacy, numeracy, and enquiry skills (the ability to read, write, compute, find
and process information), and the teaching thereof;
(b) Thinking skills (the ability to comprehend, synthesize, evaluate and apply
information), and the teaching thereof;
(c) Communication skills (the ability to communicate verbally and in writing; to
talk, listen and act on directions), and the teaching thereof;
(d) Observation and investigative skills (the ability to find and record information,
observe, review and assess), and the teaching thereof;
(e) Application and transferable skills (the ability to make things, demonstrate and
report thereof), and the teaching thereof;
(f) Social and ethical skills (the ability to understand, empathize, respond
appropriately and to make wise ethical decisions), and the teaching thereof;
(g) Entrepreneurial skills (the ability to take independent and productive action
based on an ability to review and evaluate that action), and the teaching
thereof:
(h) Teacher education curriculum which is both academic and value based should
be introduced to encourage intuitive and creative thinking, and the teaching
thereof.
(ii) The school curriculum should ensure that these skills and competences are
developed in an incremental way across all subjects, taking into consideration the
age of the learner, irrespective of how the curriculum is constructed and what
subjects are being taught.
(iii) In schemes of work and series of lessons, teachers should be able to assess the extent
to which activities included in lessons are designed to develop reading, listening,
comprehending, problem-solving, writing, communicating, speaking, investigating
(discovering), making, doing and practising.

245

(iv) The current teacher curriculum for primary school teachers has to be reviewed and
incorporate emotional, ethics, moral values, skills, attitude development and
expanded to three years of study.
(v) The link between teacher training colleges and higher education institutions,
especially universities, should be improved.
(vi) Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) graduate teachers posted by the TSC to teacher
training colleges should undertake a professional postgraduate course to enable them
to train teachers for primary schools and should undergo a mentoring programme
under an experienced teacher trainer for a period of three months.
(vii) TTC and fresh university B.Ed graduates should be subjected to six months‘
mentorship and pupillage under an experienced and effective teacher to properly
acquaint themselves with the teaching profession.
(viii) There should be adequate investments in facilities and resources used for teacher
preparation programmes.
(ix) Teacher education and training should be professionalised in Kenya.
(x) Terms and conditions of service for teachers should be regularly reviewed and
revised in line with inflation trends.
(xi) Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education applicants joining teacher training
colleges for primary school teacher training should indicate among other things their
interests and motivation.
(xii) The minimum entry grade for a student to primary teacher education which is ‗C
plain‘ should be subjected to a 3-year diploma certificate, two years on theory and
pedagogy and one year on attachment in a school but under the supervision of an
experienced and effective teacher (mentor) before graduation.
(xiii) Replace PI training with diploma training for primary school teachers.
(xiv)

Increase duration of teaching practice to be twenty five percent (25%) of the

training period for all teacher training programmes.
(xv) Introduce Continuous Professional Development (CPD) among practising teachers.
(xvi)

Safeguard the existing TTCs from being taken over by universities and replace

those already taken.
(xvii) Develop a procedure for identification of prospective teacher trainees.

246

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
16.0

PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP AND SPONSORSHIP IN
EDUCATION AND TRAINING

16.1 Introduction
Public-private partnership in education is a mutual collaboration between the government
and the private sector that could help reduce public spending, increase access, equality,
equity in the provision of education. In this case the private sector is instrumental in
supplementing government efforts in providing services in the education sector. For the
purpose of this report, private sector participation in the education services falls under the
following categories:
(i) Development partners
(ii) Private investors
(iii) Civil Society Organisations
(iv) Sponsorships
(v) Faith-based organisations
(vi) Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
including NGOs.

16.2 Developments Partners
The government in collaboration with development partners and other stakeholders has
been able to implement many education programmes in Kenya. For example through this
approach, the Ministry of Education has managed to consolidate the gains accruing from
the implementation of FPE, address the main sector issues and strengthen the
management and delivery of educational services to improve access, quality, equity and
relevance of education and training. There are various development partners who have
participated in provision of education in Kenya since independence. Some of these are
outlined in Table 16.1.

247

Table 16.1: Some Development Partners who have participated in Provision of
Education and Training
Category of Development Partner

Some of organisations or agencies

International and Multinational

2 Commonwealth Secretariat
3 Department for International Development
(DFID)
4 United States Agency for International
Development (USAID)
5 Swedish International Development Agency
(SIDA)
6 Canada International Development Agency
(CIDA)
7 Fast Track Initiative (FTI)
8 Japan International Co-operation Agency
(JICA)
9 United Nations Children‘s Fund (UNICEF)
10 United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
11 World Food Programme (WFP)
12 Organisation of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC)
13 Federation of African Women Educationists
of Kenya (FAWE-K)
14 Africa Development Bank (ADB)
15 Catholic Secretariat
16 Supreme Council of Kenya Muslims
(SUPKEM)
17 National Council of Christian Churches of
Kenya

Faith based Organization

International NGOs

Plan International, Action Aid, Care-Kenya,
World Vision

Local NGOs and Community Support Ahadi Kenya, Elimu Yetu Coalition, Uwezo
Organizations
Trust or Foundations

Ford, Rockefeller, Rattansi, Aga Khan

Business Companies

Del Monte, KCB, BBK, Safaricom, Magadi
Soda, Equity Bank, Coop. Bank

Source: MOE 2011

248

The Development Partners, have often targeted infrastructure development, provision of
scholarships and sponsorships, tuition grants, co-curricular activities, capacity building
and pro-poor programmes including school feeding, health, support to the most
vulnerable children, programmes for marginalized areas, education for children in nonformal and urban settlements, Special Needs and provision of sanitary towels, to name
but a few. This support has augmented government interventions, which are
mainstreamed in the education sector programmes.
16.2.1 Situational Analysis
Support from the above agencies is coordinated through two main forums:
(a) MOE/Donor Sector Consultative Group Meetings
This forum is chaired by the Permanent Secretary and meets on quarterly basis. It brings
together all the Development Partners supporting the education sector. Directors of
education, heads of departments and programme leaders are also members of this forum.
The Ministry sets the agenda, which must include the review of programme progress.
The forum reviews the implementation of programmes against the prevailing socioeconomic and political situation in the country. This affords them opportunity to assess
resource requirements and device strategies for further resource mobilization. During the
meetings, the Ministry is also appraised on developments in partner countries and how
this may affect resource flows and support.

(b) The Education Donor Consultative Group (EDCG)
This is a forum where Development Partners, International and Multinational agencies
meet and review the progress made in the education sector on their own. The Ministry
through the appropriate directorate is represented in the EDCG. The group meets on a
quarterly basis and also participates in the annual education programmes and budget
reviews in March and October every year.
From the cluster hearings, literature review and presentations, the Task Force summed up
the issues and challenges as follows:
249

(a) Lack of Structures for community participation and ownership.
(b) Some of the Development Partners, International and Multinational agencies
implement their programmes without involving the Ministry. Hence some partners‘
financial resource flows are not captured in the Ministry of Finance budgetary
process thus causing duplication and inequity in funding across the country.
(c) The flow of funds is unpredictable and sometimes comes at odd times around the
closure of financial year, thus complicating expenditure patterns.
(d) Increased administrativecost of some programmes leads to ‗spillage‘ of funds.
(e) Partial donor withdrawal due to alleged lack of transparency in accountability of the
funds.

(a) Structured sensitization of communities to support education programmes to be
deepened to achieve community ownership.
(b) All education interventions should be co-ordinated and approved by the Education
Ministry before rollout and frequent joint Monitoring and Evaluation missions need
to be carried out. The monitoring reports should be placed in the MoE website.
(c) To address challenges associated with project implementations, all partners
supporting education should channel their assistance through the agreed finance flow
procedures to agreed areas through consultation.
(d) For coordinated funding of programmes, levels of resource commitment should be
communicated to the Ministries of Finance, and Education, well in advance before
the budgeting process. Therefore, any resource assistance should be disbursed or
indicated before the fourth quarter of the financial year for prudent expenditure.
(e) Development Partners should use country systems for financial transactions and
reporting. As much as possible, Terms of Engagement should be adhered to for
smooth operations.
(f) The technical support should include local experts to reduce administrative cost and
enhance local capacity and sustainability.

250

16.3 Private Investors in Education and Training
Private investors in education and training are entrepreneurs who establish learning
institutions in the country. Such institutions are registered by MoE as education
institutions and registrar of companies as business entities. They include ECDE centres,
Primary schools, Secondary schools, Colleges and Universities.

In case of ECDE, Primary, Secondary schools the private investors register and operate
private institutions after meeting the following requirements and criteria:
(a) Inspection report from Public Health Department
(b) Inspection by Quality Assurance and Standards (MoE)
(c) Approval by the DEB
(d) Payment of registration fee to the MoE

The number of Private School and corresponding enrolment has grown consistently
within the last few years as shown in Tables 16.2 (a), 16.2 (b) and 16.2 (c).

Table 16.2 (a): Number of Private Schools compared to Public Schools - 2004 - 2010
Level

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Primary
Public
Private

17,804

17,806

17,946

18,116

18,130

18,542

19,059

1,841

1,946

2,283

8,021

8,076

8,124

8,430

Total

19,645

19,752

20,229

26,137

26,206

26,666

27,489

9.4

9.9

11.3

30.7

30.8

30.5

30.7

Public

3,621

3,466

3,525

3,612

4,454

5,019

5,296

Private

490

735

732

2,876

2,112

1,952

2,012

4,111

4,191

4,257

6,488

6,566

6,971

7,308

11.9

17.5

17.2

44.3

32.2

28.0

27.5

Private %
Secondary

Total
Private %

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Table 16.2 (b) : Enrolments in Public and Private Schools (2004 – 2010)
Level

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Primary
Public
Private

7,394,262

7,597,28
5

7,632,11
3

7,330,14
8

7,508,74
4

272,355

7,693,915

8,300,00
0

1,049,170
368,312

1,024,05
6

7,666,617

7,965,59
7

8,004,10
8

8,219,27
0

8,532,80
0

8,743,085

9,400,00
0

3.6

4.6

4.6

10.8

12.0

12.0

11.7

854,544

903,046

1,026,76
4

1,188,70
2

1,296,490

1,463,29
1

84,541

Private %

889,122

841,608

Total

371,995

1,100,00
0

88,605

127,034
153,503

193,509

Secondar
y

Public
Private
Total

Private %

211,056
238,210

926,149

934,149

1,030,08
0

1,186,26
7

1,382,21
1

1,507,546

1,701,50
1

9.1

9.5

12.3

12.9

14.0

14.0

14.0


Table 16.2 (c): Enrolment of private Training and Diploma Colleges by Gender,
2003-2007
2003
Diploma
teachers
1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year
Total

2004

2005

2006

2007

Male
Female Male Female Male
Female Male Female
Male Female
434
330
425
331
305
282
359
295
365
301
410
290
411
331
421
330
301
261
359
295
352
305
421
304
463
334
344
287
301
261
1,196
925 1,257
966 1,189
946 1,004
843 1,025
857

252

The Table below shows the number of registered Universities per category

Table 16.3: Number of Universities per Category

University Categories

No. of Institutions

Public Universities

7

Public University Colleges

15

Private Universities with Charters

13

Private Universities with Interim letters of

9

Authority

In Table 16.2 (a), it is noted that:


The number of private primary schools increased from 1,841 in 2004 to 8,430 in
2010. That is an increase of 358% over seven years. The share of private primary
schools has increased from 9.4% in 2004 to 30.7% in 2010.



In the same Table, private secondary schools over the same period increased from
490 to 2012, an increase of 311%. The share of private secondary schools
increased from 11.9% in 2004 to 27.5% in 2010.

In Table 16.2 (b) it is noted that:


Enrolment in private primary schools increased from 272,355 in 2004 to
1,100,000 in 2010. This is an increase of 304% over the seven years. The share of
enrolments in private primary schools increased from 3.6 % in 2004 to 11 % in
2010.



Enrolments in private secondary schools increased from 84,541 in 2004 to
238,210 in 2010. This is an increase of 182%, while their share increased from
9.1% to 14%.

253

The International Schools are also private institutions that are run by investors and offer
international curricula. The schools are also open for supervision and guidance from the
MoE as provided for in the Education Act (1968).

16.3.3 Issues and Gaps in Private Institutions Operations
(a) Registration of Institution takes a long time (unspecified) and the process is tedious.
It requires re-registration on every improvement and at a cost. This hinders investors
from accessing finance for expansion.
(b) The Ministry of Education does not have sufficient capacity to supervise and audit
the activities of these institutions.
(c) Liberalization of Education introduced commercialization of education, which
requires stringent supervision to ensure quality. This kind of supervision does not
exist, thereby compromising provision of quality education.
(d) There is no organized system through which the government communicates/interacts
with private institutions. Therefore, issues of pupils in private education institutions
are not adequately addressed under the current MoE organization structure.
(e) The Private sector in education has not been able to regulate itself.
(f) Lack of adequate incentives to private investors in education.
(g) There is a high concentration of private schools in urban centres due to a friendly
investment environment.
(h) A clear policy on Private institutions in education does not exist.
(i) Children in Private institutions do not benefit from free education grants.
(j) The process of appointing institutional managers is too long.
(k) The procedure of accreditation and validation of international schools is not defined
in the Education Act.
(l) Curriculum offered at international schools does not contain critical aspects of the
Kenyan curriculum.
(a) The Task Force recommends the following in order to enhance private investor
partnerships in education:

254

 Registration for schools
i) Review registration procedures and assign the function to County Education
Boards (CEBs).
ii) Operating certificates to be issued by the government.
(b)The government to facilitate creation of a revolving fund which would be borrowed
by members at a lower interest rate for both short-term and long-term interest in
education projects.
(c) Develop a Public-Private Partnership in education policy and entrench it in law.
(d) The government to recognize and partner with associations representing Private
investors in education.
(e) Provide adequate incentives to private investors in education so that they are able to
effectively contribute to improving access, quality, equity and relevance.
(f) The government to provide capitation grants to learners in private institutions on
agreed terms and conditions.
(g) Establish a directorate for Public Private Partnerships within which to carry out the
following functions in addition to all other activities of private sector/partners in
education:
(i) Advise Private Investors in education.
(ii) Promote Kenya as a regional hub of education excellence.
(iii)Promote relationship between government and private investors in education.
(iv) Provide policy guidelines for private investment in education and training.
(v) Advise the Director General on matters related to Private Investments in
(h) Introduce teaching of aspects of the Kenyan curriculum namely; citizenship and any
other as will be provided in the curriculum in international schools as per Articles 10
and 11 of the Constitution (2010).

16.4 Sponsored Schools
16.4.1 Definition of Sponsor
The term sponsor in regard to the education sector in Kenya refers to faith-based
organizations and/or other institutions that establish/found a learning institution on their
own land or on invitation by a local community on community land. In these schools, the
church was allowed to carry out her mission alongside the community interest of
255

education provision. Education services in these schools were for all members of that
community without any form of discrimination. The church operations in the education
sector were and continue to be developing a holistic person. This is the basis of character
formation which is desirable for maintaining social and communal values.

Formal education in Kenya was founded by the Churches. In the colonial era, the
Churches owned and ran most of the schools. Both the Colonial and Independent
governments of Kenya maintained a partnership with the Churches in regard to schools
and in matters of provision of education. The current church-state partnership in
education was negotiated from a historic background which had some common
understandings.

Prior to 1965, churches managed their schools fully. In recognition of the importance
service of education, the state used to provide some funds to the church schools, which
were referred to as ―Grant in Aid‖. (The term ―Grant‖ is used in public education
financing up to date.) In accordance with the 1965 Agreement, the Government stopped
Grant in Aid and assumed the role of the manager. Some agreed rights were left to the
church as the former managers. In this agreement ―Grant in Aid‖ was discontinued to the
church schools and the state took total financial responsibility. The churches were given
a new role as ―sponsors‖. Some indigenous churches were left out of this agreement.
They have continued agitating for return of their schools, which they refer to as
―indigenous church schools‖.

16.4.2 Indigenous Church Schools
In the 1930s, a major split between the missionary churches and the indigenous
communities emerged regarding some cultural practices which touched on matters of
faith. Communities established their indigenous churches and schools which allowed
them freedom to practice their cultural beliefs. Gradually, there emerged a perception
that indigenous churches and schools were anti-government and were using education in
their schools to ferment political pressure on the colonial government. The government
arbitrarily closed most of the perceived schools and handed over some others to the
missionary churches. The closed schools were later re-opened under ―District Education
Board‖ (DEB) management. To this day, some indigenous churches continue to petition
256

the government to reverse the arbitrary order to close their schools. They continue to
demand a hand-over of their schools, which were given to the DEB. These churches
believe that their schools were made secular, and their original vision and mission
changed.

16.4.3 The Vision and Mission of the Church in Education
The church believes in a holistic nurture of all people; a person who is moulded
physically, mentally and spiritually. Holistic nurture is the vision of Church carried out
by a sponsor in the education institution. It will involve the selection of the institution
leadership and a continued participation in the activities of that institution.
Religion and belief form major part of the foundation for character formation. Religious
education is the subject that carries this important function in education. Most of the
church-sponsored schools and those that the church lay a claim on, will be distinguished
by the conspicuous presence of school chapels and or the manifestation of strong
chaplaincy programmes. The church hopes to preserve this historic presence in the
education sector through her sponsorship role.
16.4.4 Gaps
(a) The term ―sponsor‖ is not given a clear definition in the current Education Act.
(b) The role of the sponsor has not been adequately spelt out in the current Education
Act.
(c) The Task Force was informed that some churches lost their sponsored schools to
District Education Boards (DEBs).

(a) Re-negotiate for a new agreement with the ―sponsors‖ (former managers) regarding
their then schools and those developed later under the said agreement; an exit clause
should be provided for, in case those institutions have failed to accommodate the
―sponsor‘s‖ initial vision.
(b) While partnership between the church and the government in provision of education
is desirable, a clear distinction of schools run by the churches and those run by other
private partners should be understood with regard to financing matters.

257

(c) A clear definition of the role of the sponsor should include the following provisions
found in the Education Act Cap. 211 of 1968, and the salient part of character
formation:
(i) Consultation with TSC on matters relating to staffing (section 8(3)).
(ii) Representation by 3 persons on the school management committees (section
9(1)(b)).
(iii) Representation by 4 persons on the Board of Governors of sponsored schools
(section 11(c)).
(iv) Appointment of the chairperson of the Board of Governors in consultation with
the Sponsor (section 10(4)(2)(a)).
(v) Preparation and recommendation of syllabus, books and other teaching aids
(section 8(3)(c)).
(vi) Supervisory and advisory services to ensure religious education is conducted in
accordance with the syllabus.
(vii) Maintenance of religious traditions in each of such schools (section 8(1)).
(d) The grievances from churches with a historical claim on any learning institution
should be addressed, as a way of preserving the vision and the mission of the church
in these schools. The resolution of these historical claims should be included in the
regulatory framework.

16.5 General Recommendations
16.5.1 Proposed Principles of Partnerships
The Task Force proposes that partnerships between the Government and other private
participants in provision of education be based on the following premise:
1.

Partnership should be well defined and have a clear and manageable focus:
(a)

The purpose of the partnership should be defined in terms of its long-term
vision, goals and activities and should have a clear and manageable focus.

(b)

Assuming mutual satisfaction and achievement of goals, a comprehensive
memorandum of understanding is critical at the start of the partnership.

2.

Good partnerships need good communication:
(a)

Good communication between the partners is critical for sustainable and
productive partnership.

(b) Partnership plans should be developed jointly from conception.
258

(c)
3.

There should be sharing of constraints on all sides.

Good partnerships place staff development and training of the private education
institutions at the centre of activities, and optimize the use of local resources,
expertise and budgets to ensure sustainability:
(a) Staff development of the private education institutions should be central to the
goals of partnership in order to build the much needed competence in business
skills and service delivery.

4.

Donor investment policies must be better co-ordinated, consistent with partnership
goals and maximize leadership by, and direct funding to private institutions.
(a)

Partnership should ensure that there is an increase in direct funding in private
education institutions. Such funds should be directed at building institutional
capacity and providing an enabling environment for education, training and
research.

5.

Private institutions should prepare their own internal environments to engage the
government and use them strategically:
(a) Partnerships should complement and strengthen existing institutional strategic
plans or assist in developing these, where there are none for education, research
and practice goals of the institutions.

6.

Partnerships should be monitored routinely and evaluated regularly using
appropriate indicators, yet they should have sufficient flexibility to respond to a
dynamic and rapidly changing environment. Monitoring and evaluation are
important ingredients of successful partnerships. They measure and document
progress and obstacles.

7.

Partnerships should support national and local strategies and seek to strengthen
existing institutions and professional associations.

16.5.2 Proposed Public Partnership Models
Currently, there are no defined models for public private partnership in education. The
following are proposed partnership models through which the government can partner
with the private sector in education.
(a) Capitation Grant Provision
The government provides capitation grants for learners in private institutions on
agreed conditions/framework between the Ministry of Education and the investor for
259

purposes of enhancing education for all. Parents may then be required to top up the
balance to meet the operations costs in the private education institutions.
(b) Provision of Teachers
The government can agree to provide teachers to private institutions and the private
sector will only charge fees to meet the operational costs. The government will agree
with the partner on the fees to be charged through an MOU.
(c) Provision of Teachers and Capitation Grants
The government provides teachers and capitation grants for all learners, but the
partner operates the institution and charges fees to recoup his investment on land and
building and for his role as the manager.
(d) Provision of Teachers, Land and Capitation Grants
The government provides land for the private partner to build learning facilities,
teachers and capitation grants. The partner to run the school and charge fees for the
investment and operation.
(e) Leasing of Built-up Facilities
The government can lease facilities from a private developer who has built school
premises on his land. The lease can be agreed between the government and the
developer on prevailing market rates of the region/locality.
(f) Leasing of Built-up Public Institutions to Private Partner
The Government may lease out existing public institutions to private partner at an
agreed consideration articulated in a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU).

16.5.3 MoE should mobilize more partners to enhance funding in education.

16.5.4 The Ministry should create a directorate of public/private partnerships to
coordinate private sector involvement in THE education system.

260

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
17.0

REGULATORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

17.1 Introduction
This Chapter outlines the current regulatory and legal framework governing the
education sector in Kenya and makes recommendations to realign it with the Constitution
of Kenya, 2010.

The Chapter discusses the various bodies, institutions and agencies that are currently
involved in the regulation of education standards in the country. These range from
ministries, directorates, SAGAs and professional/statutory bodies. It also analyses the
existing policy framework on matters relating to regulation of education. It points out the
gaps that are manifest in their operations and proposes recommendations.

The Chapter further makes recommendations for the establishment of a national
education standardization system. The system includes a national and overall education
standards body to preside over all aspects of regulation of education and training
standards in the country.

This Chapter also contains the findings, observations and recommendations based on the
review of selected Acts of Parliament, policy documents and stakeholders‘ perspectives
in relation to the regulation of the quality, relevance and standards of education and
training. The Chapter further analyses studies on education, previous working party
reports and their recommendations.

It attempts to point out the gaps and proposes attendant recommendations as outlined
below:
(a) Clear separation of the roles of regulators and providers of education and training;
(b) A national mechanism for setting standards and benchmarks for qualifications and
competences;
(c) Establishment of an institutional framework for quality assurance and standards and
relevance at all levels;
(d) An accreditation system for institutions, curricula and programmes;
261

(e) Creating a National Assessment System; and
(f) Enhanced collaboration and consultation between the providers on the one hand and
industry and professional bodies or organizations on the other.

Since independence in 1963, the Government of Kenya has committed itself to providing
an education system that guarantees the right of every learner to quality and relevant
education. In an effort to provide quality education, the Government has laid regulatory
mechanisms mainly within the Education Act Cap. 211 and other legal instruments,
although these have generally proved inadequate. The sector has faced the challenge of
achieving Education For All (EFA), Universal Primary Education (UPE) and the
Millennium Development Goals MDGs) by 2015.

Education in Kenya is regulated at different levels which are: National—(Ministry of
Education and the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology); Provincial—
(Provincial Education Board); District—(District Education Board); and Institutional—
(Boards of Governors, School Management Committees and Parents Teachers
Associations). Some of these regulatory bodies such as the Provincial Education Boards
and Parent Teachers Associations do not have legal basis.

At the same time the existing regulatory framework suffers irregularities arising from
policies developed by other line ministries such as Ministry of Health, ineffective
regulation, administrative conflicts and overlaps in roles and responsibilities between
various offices, and conflicting interests of the various ministries involved in education.
There is, therefore, need to address these issues and to harmonise the regulatory
framework.

The situation is further compounded by Vision 2030 and the 2010 Constitution,
particularly by providing for:
(a) Expeditious and quality delivery of service to the public. (Article 232)
(b) Fair administrative actions. (Article 47)
(c) Inclusive and participatory management of public affairs. (Article 118)
(d) Integrity in public offices. (Article 73)
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(e) Delivery of socio-economic rights and in particular the right to education. (Article
43)

17.3 Policy Documents
The Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on a Policy Framework for education, training and
research was developed as a national policy framework. Besides, the Government has
developed other policies to address emerging issues affecting the sector. These include:
(a) Gender in Education Policy (2007);
(b) National ECDE Policy in Kenya;
(c) Special Needs Education Policy;
(d) Policy on Marginalized and Vulnerable Children;
(e) National HIV and AIDS Policy;
(f) Policy Framework for Nomadic Education in Kenya;
(g) Policy framework on the Provision of Alternative Basic Education and Training
(APBET) 2010;
(h) Sessional Paper Number 6 of 1988 on cost sharing; and
(i) Roles of stakeholders in education (2009).

In addition to the above, the government has instituted other policy interventions that
include:
(a) Free Day Secondary Education launched in 2008;
(b) Free Primary Education launched in 2003.

17.4 Purpose of Regulation
Regulation of the education sector is meant to achieve a number of objectives. These are
to:
(a) ensure compliance with set standards;
(b) guide the implementation of policies;
(c) ensure accountability of players;
(d) provide mechanisms for accreditation and certification;
(e) ensure constant monitoring of education trends and thereby support reform
processes; and
(f) ensure efficient management of education resources.
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17.5 Government Ministries with Regulatory Functions in Education
17.5.1 Ministry of Education
The Ministry‘s overall sector objectives are to ensure equitable access, attendance,
retention, attainment and achievement in education, science, research and technology by
ensuring affordability of services. It also aims at mobilizing resources for sustainable and
efficient delivery of relevant educational, research, technological and other educational
services.

The Ministry is mandated to ensure co-ordination of the provision of education and
training for efficient delivery of services between government, donors, NGOs and
communities.

The Ministry‘s regulatory structures are spread at national, provincial, district and
institutional levels. The Ministry‘s Headquarters has the overall mandate over the
Ministry. The mandate is spread to the Provincial Education Officers, District Education
Officers and Area Education Officers.

At the institutional level, regulatory functions of the Ministry are delegated to School
Committees for primary schools, and PTAs and BOGs for secondary schools.

17.5.2 Ministry of Higher Education, Science & Technology
The Ministry's mandate includes Science Technology Innovation (STI) policy, research
development, research authorization and coordination of Technical Education (TE). The
Ministry currently operates with three technical directorates and three SAGAs, namely;
Directorate of Research and Development (DRD), Directorate of Technical Accreditation
and Quality Assurance (DTAQA), Directorate of Higher Education (DHE) and the
National Council for Science and Technology (NCST), Higher Education Loans Board
(HELB), Commission for Higher Education (CHE). Policy priorities include:
(a) Strengthening the National STI standing and its competitiveness
(b) Improving the quality, relevance, equity and access to higher education and technical
training
(c) Promoting evidence based policy making and national development
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(d) Encouraging private sector participation in STI and technical education
(e) Enhancing capacity of the national STI system towards being demand driven
(f) STI, quality higher education and technical education services
(g) Effective use of existing talents and facilities
(h) Promoting excellence, creativity, innovation and investment in STI, higher education
and technical education.
17.5.3 Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports
MOYAs functions include empowerment; co-ordination; training and mainstreaming of
youth affairs. The Ministry‘s core functions embrace:
(a) Formulating, implementing, coordinating, reviewing and monitoring of youth
development policies;
(b) Facilitating youth participation in the development processes;
(c) Coordinating and monitoring youth led initiatives;
(d) Advocating and promoting youth led initiatives;
(e) Developing youth resource centres; and
(f) Facilitating leadership, entrepreneurship and life skills training.

17.5.4 Findings and issues from the cluster hearings, submissions and literature
review on Ministries
The Task Force sought for information regarding regulation of education at the Ministry
level from literature review and the county cluster hearings. The following were the
emerging issues:
(a) The functions of the Ministries are highly centralised at the Ministry Headquarters
leading to bureaucracies and inadequate coordination.
(b) The role of PTA and SMCs and their regulatory structures are not provided for in the
Act, despite their importance to the regulatory system in education.
(c) There are two Ministries each with a top heavy structure attending to centralised
functions which at times overlap.
(d) There is no clear provision or mechanism to ensure coordination between the
Ministry of Education and other Ministries and government departments that are
stakeholders in the education sector.
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(e) At the district levels, Ministry representatives i.e. the DEOs‘ offices combine many
roles i.e. regulation, governance, M&E, financing, coordination and staffing.
(f) There are overlaps of regulatory functions between the Ministry of Education and
other Ministries that offer education and training.
(g) There is no regulatory coherence between the Ministry and CHE, which also has a
regulatory mandate over university education.

17.5.5 Recommendations on Ministries
(a) There should be a single Ministry of Education to address education matters in
response to Article 152 (1) (d) of the 2010 Constitution, which provides for 14-22
Cabinet Secretaries. There should be an inter-ministerial committee to coordinate all
the Ministries and non-line departments that have a stake in the regulation of
educational matters in their various capacities.
(b) A functional review of the MoE should be undertaken in order to rationalise the
number of directorates and staff in view of the devolution of responsibilities to
Counties. The Ministry of Education currently has seven directorates. It is proposed
that the directorates should be reorganised as follows:
(i)

Policy and Planning

(ii)


(iii) Research and Development
(iv) Higher and Teacher Education
(v)

Basic, Adult and Continuing Education

(vi) Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET)
(vii) Field and Co-curricular Services
(viii) Administration, Finance and Support Services.
(c) The Education Standards, Quality Assurance Commission (ESQAC) be established.
(d) The PTA should be enshrined in law.
(e) Boards of Management be constituted in all public schools and boards of directors in
all private schools.

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17.6 MOE Directorates with Regulatory Functions in Education
17.6.1 Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards
The Directorate‘s blueprint is contained in the Circular Ref DPM1/20A/VOL X/27 dated
5th June 2006.
Its mandate may be inferred from Section 18 (1) of the Education Act which provides
that:
‘the minister shall appoint officers with authority to enter and inspect any school, or any
place at which it is reasonably suspected that a school is being conducted at any time
with or without notice and report to him [the minister] with respect to the school or
aspect thereof’
Its policy objective is to provide Quality Assurance and Standards Assessment Services
to all education and training institutions. It is mandated to establish, maintain and
improve educational standards in the country.

17.6.2 Directorate of Secondary and Tertiary Education
It is a Directorate that oversees the management of secondary schools and tertiary
institutions by Board of Governors. In pursuance of its objects, the Directorate is
mandated to provide facilities such as funds and infrastructure. It also coordinates
diploma teacher training.

17.6.3 Directorate of Basic Education
The Directorate oversees the implementation of policies relating to ECDE and the
delivery of quality free primary education and primary teacher training.

17.6.4 Directorate of Adult and Continuing Education
The Directorate of Adult and Continuing Education operates under the legal framework
of the Board of Adult Education Act, Chapter 223 of the Laws of Kenya.
The Directorate is mandated to provide literacy and Continuing Education to out-ofschool youth and adults in order to create a well informed human resource capable of
participating in the country‘s socio-economic development.

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17.6.5 Findings and issues on Directorates from the cluster hearings, submissions
and literature review
(a) Lack of adequate tools to assess overall learner development in Basic and Tertiary
levels.
(b) The working relationship between the Directorate of Quality Assurance and the
Kenya Institute Education who are responsible for curriculum development is not
adequately set out or coordinated.
(c) The aim of reform from inspectorate services to Quality Assurance and Standards
was to alter the perception from that of a policing agent over education to a partner
to other players in the education sector. However, this has not been achieved.
(d) Inadequate school level supervisory capacity due to shortage of officers. It is
estimated that currently, the Directorate has a shortage of up to 3,359 officers.
(e) The Directorate lacks the capacity to adequately offer subject based in-servicing to
address shortcomings relating to revised curriculum, generic and assessment skills.
(f) There lacks support for quality assurance services and undertakings at school and
zonal level.
(g) The Directorate has not been able to regulate the fees charged by public secondary
schools.
(h) The inclusion of tertiary education within regulatory structures of this directorate
creates conflicts with MOHEST hence ineffective service delivery.
(i) The functions of the DSTE often overlap with those of the Directorate of Quality
Assurance and KIE. There are no clear structures to delineate the separation and
extent of the mandate of either Directorate.
(j) In the current structures where basic education has not been formally defined, the
role of the Directorate only includes ECDE and primary education and excludes
secondary education.
(k) There are overlaps over the regulatory functions of the Directorate and those of the
Teachers Service Commission.
(l) There is disconnect between the Directorate, SMCs and the Community in
regulatory affairs in schools.

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17.7 Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies with Regulatory Functions
17.7.1 Kenya Institute of Education
KIE was established by the Education Act at Section 23(1) and the Act initially assigned
it the mandate of co-ordination of institutions devoted to the training of teachers, the
conduct of examinations to enable persons to become qualified teachers, the conduct and
promotion of educational research, the preparation of educational materials and other
matters connected with the training of teachers and the development of education and
training.

The functions of KIE are:
(a) Research, development of curriculum and support materials for basic and tertiary
(b) Organisation of in-servicing, training and orientation programmes for education
personnel responsible for implementation and supervision of curriculum.
(c) Preparation and transmission of educational programmes through mass media.

17.7.2 Teachers Service Commission
Prior to the coming into effect of the 2010 Constitution, the Commission was a body
under the Teachers Service Commission Act. The TSC is now a Constitutional
Commission established under Article 237 of the Constitution. This new status is likely
to reduce many of the gaps and challenges that had hampered the operations of the
Commission as a statutory body. Issues and challenges regarding the TSC are raised
under 7.7.8.

17.7.3 Commission for Higher Education
19 functions of CHE are stipulated in the Universities Act. Under Section 6, the functions
of the Commission shall be:
(a) Promote the objectives of university education by providing knowledge for the
benefit of mankind;
(b) Advise the Minister on the establishment of public universities;
(c) Accredit universities;
(d) Co-ordinate the long-term planning, staff development, scholarship and physical
development of university education; and
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(e) Promote national unity and identity in universities.

The CHE is established under the Universities Act, Cap. 210B. The Act mandates CHE
to among other things promote establishment of private universities by charter. The
regulatory functions of the CHE are to be augmented by those of the individual
universities Senates and Councils as established by the individual Universities‘ Acts.

17.7.4 Kenya National Examinations Council
Section 10 of the Act provides for the functions of the Council as follows:
(a) Conduct such academic technical and other examinations within Kenya as it may
consider desirable in the public interest.
(b) Award certificates or diplomas to successful candidates in such examinations.
(c) Invite any body or bodies outside Kenya, as it may deem fit, to conduct academic,
technical and other examinations within Kenya.

KNEC is established under the Kenya National Examinations Council Act, Cap 225A. It
has a statutory mandate of administering and regulating the administration of public
examinations in institutions of learning. While the Council has made massive progress
towards efficiency in the administration of examinations, there still are a number of
concerns that need to be addressed in reforming the operations of the council to stem out
possibilities of cheating in order to maintain the credibility of examinations.

17.7.5 Kenya Institute of Special Education
Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) is a Semi-Autonomous Government Agency
of the Ministry of Education established through the Legal Notice No. 17 of February 14,
1986 to undertake the following functions:
(a) Conduct teacher training courses for teachers in various fields of the education of
children with special education needs;
(b) Conduct in-service courses for personnel working in all field of special education;
(c) Prepare and conduct correspondence courses for personnel in the field of special
education;
(d) Operate an educational and psychological assessment centre for the training of
teachers of children with special education needs;
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(e) Operate an orientation and mobility centre for training and demonstration purposes;
(f) Operate a model training unit for integration of handicapped children into regular
schools;
(g) Operate a pre-school department where training and the stimulation of young
handicapped children can be carried out for the purpose of teacher training;
(h) Function as a resource centre for the production and dissemination of information to
the general public on disabilities;
(i) Run a documentation and resource centre on handicaps;
(j) Conduct research in special education; and
(k) Maintain, repair, design, produce and assemble special materials and equipment.

KISE functions to spearhead the mainstreaming of special needs education into the
ordinary education structures and systems. The Institute works in close partnership with
the KIE and has made commendable progress in integrating special needs education in
learning institutions. However, there are still several gaps that need to be addressed
especially with the passing of the new Constitution, which at Article 54 lays much
emphasis on securing and protection of the rights of people with disabilities.

17.7.6 Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology in East Africa
(CEMASTEA)
The Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology in East Africa (CEMASTEA) was
established by the Ministry of Education in 2004 as a means of institutionalising Inservice Education and Training (INSET) for teachers of Mathematics and Science
(M&S) in Kenya. CEMASTEA was established as a college through Legal Notice No. 96
published in the Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 45 of 23rd June 2006.
CEMASTEA serves as the National INSET centre that trains Trainer of Trainers (TOTs)
who in turn reach out to teachers of M&S at District/Regional level. Currently, there are
108 District INSET centres and 18 Regional ones.
CEMASTEA conducts training for:
(a) Secondary school teachers of M&S
(b) Principals of secondary schools
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(c) Quality assurance and standards officers (QASOs)
(d) District Education Officers (DEOs)
(e) Tutors of M&S in PTTC
(f) Teachers from 34 African countries.

CEMASTEA is also the secretariat and regional training centre of teachers of M&S, and
educators from 34 Sub-Sahara African countries who are members of SMASE-WECSA
association. SMASE WECSA is a regional association of 34 African countries whose
goal is to improve the quality of mathematics and science education in Africa.
17.7.7 Kenya Education Staff Institute (KESI)
KESI was established in April 1981, based on the recommendations of the National
Committee on Education Policies (NCOEP) of 1976.
The purpose of establishing KESI was to build the capacity of education personnel to
enable them deliver education services efficiently and effectively. The Government of
Kenya (GoK), development partners and private sector had made a huge investment in
education and needed to see returns on this investment.
The KESI capacity building programme was built along similar programmes such as
MANTEP now ADEN in Tanzania (1978) and IADAB in Malaysia (1970). Initially,
KESI relied on the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Manchester for
capacity development of KESI trainings. From 1990, mentors such as the
UNESCO/BREDA, UNESCO IIEP and Commonwealth Secretariat helped in the
capacity development of KESI trainers. More recently, USAID and VVOB have helped
build the capacity of the institute.
KESI was initially located at Kenyatta University. It was relocated to the former
Highridge Teacher Training College in Parklands, in 2006.

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Currently, KESI:
(a) Is the recognized capacity building agency of the Ministry of Education mandated
under Legal Notice 19/2010 of the Education Act to undertake Management training,
research and consultancies.
(b) Has an important stake in building the capacities of educational personnel for not
only performance improvement but also career advancement.
(c) Has mounted promotional programmes for Education Officers and Quality
Assurance Officers who are employees of the Public Service Commission.
(d) Is already an accredited training institute for the Teacher Service Commission
(which is the employer of all teachers in the country) to undertake the promotional
programme titled the ‗Teacher Proficiency Course‘.
(e) As gauged by the Performance Contract of 2008/2009, the Institute offers high
quality training programmes. The institute was ranked 2nd among Tertiary Education
Institutions.

KIE
(a) Some of the functions assigned to the Kenya Institute of Education under Section 23
(1) of the Education Act are not in harmony with functions assigned to KIE by
subsidiary legislation Legal Notice No. 120 of 2010.
(b) There are no offences and penalties in the Act against persons who develop and
teach a curriculum which has not been accredited and approved for implementation
in Kenya.
(c) The Kenya Institute of Education has acquired additional functions which are not
incorporated in the Act.
(d) The status of the Kenya Institute of Education as provided in the Education Act is
not commensurate with its role and functions as a national curriculum development
centre.

KISE
(a) There is lack of clear policy guidelines and support to the implementation of an allinclusive education policy.
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(b) SNE has not been mainstreamed in all education sub-sectors and programmes.
(c) SNE learners contend with inappropriate infrastructure, inadequate facilities and lack
of equipment which makes it difficult to integrate special education in regular
programmes.
(d) There is inadequate supervision and monitoring of SNE programmes.
(e) There are no adequate teachers for SNE.
(f) Funding the implementation of the SNE policy has not been provided.

KNEC
(a) KNEC develops an assessment syllabus which tends to make teaching examination
oriented.
(b) KNEC has no independent mechanism to resolve disputes related to examinations
and certification processes.

TSC
(a) TSC should sufficiently decentralize its functions.
(b) The TSC should register all teachers as required under the Act, especially the
teachers practising in private institutions of learning.

CHE
(a) The functions of the CHE and the public universities under the legal framework on
universities are in conflict with regard to the provision of facilities, cooperation with
government in planning the development of university education and admission of
students.
(b) The legal framework mandates CHE to promote only the development and
establishment of private universities by charter while the public universities are
established under their various Acts of Parliament.
(c) The CHE is not mandated to undertake the long-term planning for the development
of university education.

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SEPU
The School Equipment Production Unit (SEPU) produces scientific equipment for public
learning institutions. It was found that the unit was no longer viable as it was facing stiff
competition from a liberalized market for scientific equipment.

17.7.9 Recommendations on SAGAs
(a) The mandate of CHE should be expanded to take responsibility for Standards and
Quality Assurance for all universities (public and private) and tertiary institutions.
(b) The name of Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) be changed to the Kenya Institute
of Curriculum Development (KICD) in line with its mandate. KICD shall be a body
corporate and shall decentralize some of its operations to enhance the inclusion of
local content in the curriculum.
(c) KESI to focus on training of Education managers in the same line with KIA, hence
its name to change to Kenya Education Management Institute (KEMI).
(d) The name of KNEC be changed to Kenya Education Assessment Council (KEAC).
(e) The name of KISE be changed to Kenya Institute of Special Needs Education
(KISNE).
(f) That pursuant to the provisions of Article 54 of the Constitution ,the government
moves by way of legislation to ensure that special needs education is integrated into
the education system. A starting point would be to restructure KISE under a statute
and named KISNE.
(g) More TIVET institutions be established and the existing ones be refurbished.
(h) Universities to open avenues for development and perfection of diverse talents.
(i) The mandate of CHE should be expanded to regulate all post-secondary institutions.
(j) KICD be established under a separate statute.
(k) SEPU assets to be disposed of and the proceeds contributed to the MoE AIA.

17.8 The Legal Framework Governing Education in Kenya
17.8.1 Introduction
Kenya is a signatory to various international conventions, treaties, protocols and
declarations, and has ratified various international instruments that relate to matters of
education, most of which enshrine education as a right to every person. Article 2(5) and
(6) of the Constitution of Kenya respectively recognize rules of international law on the
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one hand and any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya on the other, as parts of the laws
of Kenya.
Among the main international legal instruments with direct impact on education in
Kenya are:
(a) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948), which recognizes the
right of every human being to education and further states that it shall be free at least
in fundamental stages and that elementary education shall be compulsory;
(b) The Internal Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), which
recognizes the right of everyone to education;
(c) The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), which states that
a child has a right against all forms of discrimination or punishment and that in all
circumstances the interest of the child shall be a primary consideration;
(d) The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, which requires African
countries to enhance the protection of children‘s rights;
(e) Apart from the above instruments, the Kenya Government is committed and is
signatory to The World Conference on Education for All (EFA) at Jomtien, 1990,
and Dakar in 2000, whose major recommendation was the achievement of education
for all and the Beijing Declaration for Action 4th World Conference on Women
(1995) which recognizes education as a human right and essential tool for achieving
the goals of equality, development and peace.

17.8.2 The Constitution of Kenya
The Constitution of Kenya (1963) did not guarantee education as a right. The
Constitution of Kenya (2010) is the main focal point of the legal framework and
addresses a number of regulatory concerns in regard to education as pointed out
hereunder:
(a) The Constitution guarantees a right to education for every person as one of the socioeconomic rights under Article 43.
(b) Article 53 provides that every child has a right to free and compulsory basic
education.
(c) Article 53(1) (d) further provides that children are to be protected from abuse,
inhuman treatment and violence.

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(d) The State is mandated under Article 55 to take measures including affirmative
action to ensure that the youth access relevant education, training and employment.
(e) Article 53(2) stipulates that a child‘s best interests are of paramount importance in
every matter concerning the child.
(f) Article 54 provides persons with disabilities the right of access to educational
institutions and facilities; and that such persons are integrated into the society to the
extent that is compatible with their interests.
(g) Minority and marginalized groups are to be provided with special opportunities in
educational and economic fields under Article 56(b).
(h) Every person (including children) has a right to equality before the law and freedom
from discrimination under Article 27.

17.8.3 The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution of Kenya, 2010
(a) The Fourth Schedule addresses the distribution of functions between the national and
county governments. Paragraph 15 of Part 1 of the Schedule makes it a responsibility
of the national government to formulate educational policies, set standards, develop
curricula, oversee examinations and grant charters for universities.
(b) Paragraph 16 of the Schedule gives the national government the mandate over
universities, tertiary education and institutions and other institutions of research and
higher learning, primary schools, special education, secondary schools and special
education institutions. Paragraph 17 gives the national government the responsibility
of promotion of sports and sports education.

Part 2 of the Schedule establishes functions and confers powers to the county
governments over pre-primary education, village polytechnics, home craft centres and
child care facilities.
Paragraphs 16 and 17 of Part 1 of the 4th Schedule gives the national government a
function inter alia on Education policy, standards, curricula, examinations and granting
of university charters as well as functions on universities, tertiary educational institutions
and other institutions of research; higher learning and primary schools; and special
education institutions.

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Paragraph 4 mandates the national government with responsibility over education related
public amenities such as libraries, sports, and cultural activities.

17.9 Statutes Touching on Education and Training
The various statutes that deal with issues on education and training include inter alia:
Education Act Cap. 211, Children‘s Act No. 9 of 2001, KNEC Act Cap. 225A, The
Teachers Service Commission Act Cap. 212, Universities Act, Council of Legal
Education Act Cap. 16A, Nairobi University Act Cap. 210, Kenyatta University Act Cap.
210C, Kenya Medical Training College Act, 261, Industrial Training Act Cap. 237,
Egerton University Act Cap. 214, Borstal Institutions Act, Cap. 92, Clinical Officers
(Training and Licensing) Cap. 260. Act, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture Act 8
of 1994, Kenya National Library Services Board Act Cap. 225, Persons with Disabilities
Act No. 14 of 2003 and other subsidiary legislation.

17.9.1 The Education Act, Cap. 211
The Education Act is the main statute addressing education and mainly provides for the
regulation and progressive development of the sector. The Minister is responsible for the
education of the people of Kenya and further establishes an advisory council to advise
him/her on education matters. The Act can be summed up as below:
Part I deals with preliminary issues
Part II makes the Minister responsible for education of the people of Kenya and the
progressive development of institutions devoted to the promotion of education; mandates
the Minister to secure the effective co-operation of all public bodies concerned with
education in carrying out the national policy on education.
Part III addresses management of schools and provides for:
(a) The roles of sponsors especially in regard to the choice for primary schools
maintained by local authorities.
(b) Management and sponsorship of schools by churches.
(c) Establishment of school committees.
(d) Establishment of Board of Governors by the Minister.
(e) Constitution and functions of Boards of Governors.
(f) Conduct and affairs of the Board and members of the Board of Governors.
Part IV provides for:
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(a) The registration of unaided schools.
(b) The role to receive and determine application for registration of such schools by the
Minister.
(c) Powers of the Minister to close unaided schools and to make regulations with respect
to registration of unaided schools.
Part V deals with Inspection and Control of Schools and provides for:
(a) The appointment of school inspectors, their roles/powers in schools but does not
specify the level of schools or category of inspectors for different school levels.
(b) Conduct and management of schools and prescribe standards.
Part VI empowers the Minister on the issuance of certificates and diplomas:
(a) The Minister is empowered to provide for the conduct of public examination
certificates and diplomas.
(b) It makes it an offence for unauthorized person to issue certificates and diplomas.
(c) The Minister is empowered to make regulations as to certificates and diplomas.
Part VII provides for the establishment of the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) and
grants it the mandate of co-ordination of institutions devoted to the training of teachers,
the conduct of examinations to bring forth qualified teachers, the conduct and promotion
of educational research, the preparation of educational materials and other matters
connected with the training of teachers and the development of education and training.
Part VIII confers on the Minister further powers to prescribe areas to be served by
public schools; and medical examinations for persons applying for admissions in learning
institutions. It is the responsibility of parents to guide on the matters of religious
instruction in schools.
PART IX empowers the Minister on establishment, membership and conduct of affairs,
finances of the District Education Boards.
Part X deals with financial provisions especially the use of public funds under the Act
and prescribing of regulations as to use of public funds; and provides for offences and
penalties under the Act.

17.10 Children’s Act, Act No. 8 of 2001
(a) Section 2 of the Act defines the child as a person under the age of eighteen (18)
years, and education to include training;

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(b) Section 7(1) provides for the right of every child to education, the responsibility of
which shall be the Government‘s and the parents‘;
(c) Section 7(2) provides that every child is entitled to free and compulsory Basic
Education; and
(d) Section 22 enforces the child‘s right to Basic Education and provides for any person,
who alleges that the child‘s right to education has been, is being or is likely to be
contravened, to apply to the High Court for redress on behalf of the child.

17.11 The Persons with Disabilities Act, (Act No. 14) of 2003
The Act:
(a) Provides for the rights and rehabilitation of persons with disabilities and the
establishment of the National Council for Persons with Disabilities;
(b) Section 11 makes it mandatory for the Government to take steps with a view to
achieving full realization of the rights of persons with disabilities;
(c) Section 14 provides that persons with disabilities shall be eligible to be engaged as
apprentices or learners where their disability is not such as to impede their
performance;
(d) Section 18 provides for the education of persons with disabilities. Subsection 18(1)
provides that no person or learning institution shall deny admission to a person with
disability or any course of study by reason only of such disability, if the person has
the ability to acquire substantial learning in that course;
(e) Section 18(2) provides that learning institutions shall take into account the special
needs of persons with disabilities with respect to the entry requirements, pass marks,
curriculum, examinations, auxiliary services, use of school facilities, class schedules,
physical education requirements and similar considerations;
(f) Section 18(3) provides that special schools and institutions specially for the
challenged shall be established to cater for formal education, skills development and
self-reliance; and
(g) Section 21 provides that persons with disabilities are entitled to a barrier-free and
disability-friendly environment to enable them to have access to buildings, roads and
other social amenities and assistive devices and other equipment to promote their
mobility.

280

17.12 Borstal Institutions Act, Cap. 92
The Act establishes Borstal Institutions for ―youthful‖ offenders between the ages of 15
and 18 years, their detention therein and for connected purposes.

17.13 The Prisons Act, Cap. 90
The Act provides under Sections 66 and 67 for the establishment of corrective training
centres and the training of persons between the ages of 17 and 21 years.

17.14 The National Youth Service Act, Cap. 208
The Act:
(a) Provides for the establishment of the National Youth Service for the training of
young citizens to serve the nation and the employment of its members in tasks of
national importance in the service of the nation;
(b) Section 7 provides for voluntary enlistment of persons between the ages of 16 and 30
years;
(c) Section 17(1) of the Act permits the President, during a state of war, insurrection,
hostilities or public emergency, to order the Service or any of its parts to be
employed to service with the Armed Forces or otherwise in the defence of the
country; and
(d) Section 29 of the Act provides that notwithstanding any other written law, a member
of the Service shall be deemed to be a workman with the Government as his or her
employer for the purposes of the Workmen‘s Compensation Act.

17.15 The Industrial Training Act, Cap. 237
The Act provides for the training of persons engaged in industry. Section 8 permits a
person who has attained the age of 15 to enter into a contract of apprenticeship or
indentured learnership under an employer in industry.

17.16 Board of Adult Education Act, Cap. 233 (Revised 1967)
The Act establishes the Board of Adult Education to coordinate adult education for
persons over the age of 16 who are not in full-time attendance at any primary,
intermediate, secondary school or at the Kenya School of Law, or any university or
university college.
281

17.17 Universities Act, Cap. 210B
The Act is intended to make better provisions for the advancement of university
education in Kenya. It establishes a Commission for Higher Education with the overall
mandate of management of university Education. Its functions are:
(a) To promote the objectives and development of university education for the benefit of
mankind;
(b) To advise the Minister on the establishment of universities;
(c) To co-ordinate the long-term planning of, as well as staff development, scholarship
and physical development for university education;
(d) To liaise with Government departments, the public and private sectors in matters
relating to overall national human resource development and requirements;
(e) To co-operate with the Government in the planned development of university
education;
(f) To receive and consider applications from persons seeking to establish private
universities in Kenya and make recommendations thereof to the Minister for the
issuing of charters; and
(g) To make regulations in respect of admission of persons seeking to enroll in
universities and to provide a central admissions service to public universities.

17.17.1 Individual University Acts
The Acts contain similar provisions regarding the promotion and access to university
education including:
(a) The establishment of public universities by Acts of Parliament.
(b) Collaboration with other institutions of higher education and training for the
development of facilities for university education including technologies and
professional education and research.
(c) Co-operation with the Government in the planned development of university
education and in particular, to examine and approve proposals for new facilities, new
departments, new degree courses, or new subjects of study submitted to it by any
constituent college or other post-secondary institutions.

282

(a) There is no provision in law for BOG composition to be based on integrity as
provided for in Article 73(1)(a) (iv).
(b) There is no limitation of tenure of office for the BOG membership.
(c) The Act does not make provision for the roles of the PTAs despite their instrumental
role in the regulation of secondary school affairs.
(d) The Act does not define the sponsor and his/her role in education.
(e) The rule under the Universities Act requiring minimum 50 acres of land for
accreditation of a private university is restrictive and constraints the development of
universities.
(f) The legal framework on universities does not institutionalize gender parity, credit
transfer and entry and reentry to assure equity and to promote access to university
education.
(g) The Education Act does not extend management by BOGs to private schools to
enhance regulation of private schools.
(h) The Board of Adult Education Act provides for the education and training of young
persons aged 16-18 years old who otherwise ought to be accessing Basic Education
and training as per the Constitution of Kenya, 2010.
(i) The definition of Adult Education as provided in Section 2 of the Act gives the
Board a very broad mandate which may conflict with those of other institutions.
(j) The Education Act does not address continuing education for adults.
(k) The provisions of the Industrial Training Act are in conflict with the Children‘s Act
for allowing children between ages 15 and 18 years to be engaged in activities in
industry. Such children should be receiving Basic Education and training as per the
Children‘s Act.
(l) The Universities Act does not mandate CHE to accredit public universities or tertiary
education institutions.
(m) The Education Act mandates CHE to the promote establishment of private
universities by charter, but the Act is silent on inter-university transfers and credit
transfers.
(n) The Universities Act and the Individual Universities‘ Acts do not provide for
qualifications for appointment of persons to the university management bodies such
as Senate and Councils.

283

(o) The Act does not seek to ensure wide representations at the University Councils and
Senates thereby undermining wide participation by relevant stakeholders.
(p) The Education Act does not stipulate the qualifications of members of SMC.
(q) Some of the functions assigned to the Kenya Institute of Education under Section
23(1) of the Education Act are not in harmony with the functions assigned to KIE by
subsidiary legislation, Legal Notice No. 120 of 2010, under the State Corporations
Act.
(r) There are no offences and penalties in the Act against persons who develop and
teach a curriculum which has not been accredited and approved for implementation
in Kenya.
(s) The status of the Kenya Institute of Education as provided in the Education Act is
not commensurate with its role and functions as a national curriculum development
centre.
(t) Universities Acts are silent on inter-university transfers and credit transfers.
(u) The Universities Act does not seek to ensure wide representations at the University
Councils and Senates thereby undermining wide participation by relevant
stakeholders
(v) The Act has no provisions limiting the periods taken to deal with students‘
disciplinary cases by internal disciplinary bodies.

17.19 Major findings and issues from the cluster hearings, submissions and
literature review
(a) The Education Act does not explicitly provide for education as a right for all
Kenyans nor does it provide for free and compulsory Basic Education for all Kenyan
children or affirmative action for the girl-child, for persons with special needs, or for
marginalized regions.
(b) The Education Act does not require the Minister to take affirmative action to
promote equity in education and training.
(c) The definition of the word school should be broadened to include other institutions
of learning.
(d) The Act does not provide for the structure of education, which has been changed
from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4 without any proper legal or policy backing.

284

(e) The advisory council under Section 4 of the Act has not been established as it is left
to the Minister‘s discretion. The Act should make it mandatory for the Minister to
establish one.
(f) The Constitution, 2010, allocates education roles and responsibilities between the
National and County governments hence the role and responsibilities of the local
authorities in education matters should be reviewed to avoid conflict.
(g) The Act does not provide for the specific roles of sponsors in schools.
(h) Section 9 to be amended to provide for the qualification of members of school
committees and their term of office.
(i) The criteria for appointment and the qualification of BOG is not stipulated in the
Act.
(j) The role of PTA is not recognized in the Act.
(k) The Education Act does not provide for the registration of public or private schools,
procedures and guidelines for registration and standards but only addresses unaided
(Harambee) schools, which are no longer in existence.
(l) The Education Act does not stipulate criteria for appointment of members of the
district education boards, membership and tenure of office.
(m) The Education Act does not adequately devolve the functions of the Ministry in
order to reach the people at the grassroots level.
(n) The Education Act does not address inclusiveness in matters of education by failing
to entrench the inclusion of the private sector and persons with disabilities in
education management.
(o) The Education Act does not provide for ECDE.
(p) The provisions of the National Youth Service Act are in conflict with the
Constitution, which provides for Free and compulsory Basic Education for Children
as a right. The Act allows persons who are children, according to the Children‘s Act,
to be engaged in the Youth Service or to serve in the armed forces when they should
be accessing Basic Education and Training.
(q) The Education Act fails to provide for mechanisms to ensure compliance of the Act
hence limiting access rights and equity for persons with disabilities.
(r) The Children‘s Act does not clearly address the compulsory element of Basic
Education. It does not create the offence of failure to take a child to school and does
not provide for any penalties for non-compliance.
285

(s) There is no provision in the Prisons Act for prisons to offer Basic Education and
Training for persons between 17-18 years of age in the corrective centres.

(a) Universities to open avenues for development and perfection of diverse talents.
(b) In the Borstal institutions, the persons referred to as ―youthful‖ offenders are
children under 18 years who should be receiving Basic Education.
(c) Borstal institutions are not recognized as schools within the meaning of schools as
defined under the Education Act, for purposes of offering Basic Education and
Training to young offenders.
(d) Borstal institutions be recognised as schools within the Education Act and all
children in the institutions be provided with an ideal learning environment.
(e) The universities to align their programmes with the Vision 2030, the Kenya
Constitution, 2010 and the proposed changes in the education sector.
(f) The Education Act Cap. 211 be repealed and replaced.
(g) To realize the realignment of the education sector to the new Constitution, a number
of bills be drafted to address matters of education and training.
(h) One Act to cover university education.

17.21 The Proposed Bill
The proposed Bills ought to clearly set out inter alia the following concerns:
(a) Free and compulsory Basic Education pursuant to Article 53 of the Constitution.
(b) Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE).
(c) Incorporate Adult and Continuing Education, and provide for non-formal education
and special needs education.
(d) Affirmative action in education matters.
(e) Establish regulatory structures for coordinating institutions with regulatory functions
in education and training.
(f) Define clear roles of both the national and county governments in education in order
to operationalize the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution.
(g) Establishment and roles of students‘ councils and other leadership bodies from
primary level of education.
(h) A clear outline of the obligations of parents in the education of their children.
286

(i) Address in detail issues of Quality Assurance with a properly structured system.
(j) Address the private sector education issues.
(k) Address issues of persons with disabilities.
(l) The role of PTA should be recognized in the Education Act.
(m) Kenya National Education Appeals Tribunal be set up to address grievances arising
in the education sector including disputes arising from assessment.

287

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
18.0

18.1

GENERAL RECOMMENDATION ON THE IMPLEMENTATION

Introduction

The Task Force, a team of stakeholders and experts in education, has made
recommendations that are expected to drive the education sector to a higher level in line
with the Constitution 2010 and Vision 2030. In addition, the Task Force has addressed
the challenges that the education sector is facing currently. The critical issues addressed
include the structure, curriculum, assessment, access, standards and quality, human
capacity, governance and management, public-private partnership and financing of
education.

A transparent, continuous and consistent process of implementing the recommendations
need to be put in place with a proper strategy for identifying priority areas in what would
be expected to be a very dynamic environment. This will ensure that all the
recommendations are addressed and implemented in the most logical way possible for an
effective education sector that is all-inclusive.

18.2

Recommendations

1.

Implementation Framework.
(i)

Develop a detailed implementation framework;

(ii)

Develop a National Education Master Plan with the same lifespan as the
Vision 2030.

2.

Dissemination of the new policy guidelines and the revised Education Act—for
effective implementation of the recommendations, it is important that implementers
understand and own the proposed policy direction. This can be achieved through:
(a)

Training of ministry officials;

(b)

Sensitising national stakeholders;

(c)

Training stakeholders at national and county levels;

(d)

In-servicing teachers and heads of institutions.

288

3.

Implementation Management—there be established a national education reforms
implementation Committee to be known as Education Reform Implementation
Committee (EdRIC) on the following guidelines:
(a) Membership and Tenure
 The membership of the Committee shall be nine, comprised of three members
retained from the Task Force, and one of whom shall be the Chairperson. Three
members be competitively sourced.



Three Senior Ministry officials who would be ex-officials.
The non ex-official members hold office for three years with possible extension
for one year.

(b) The Secretariat
a.

A Secretariat shall be established for the Committee.

b.

One of the three Ministry officials shall be designated the Head of the
Secretariat.

c.

Additional staff shall be seconded to or hired for the Secretariat as deemed
necessary.

(c) Functions
The Primary mandate of the Committee shall be to drive the reform process and
to that end its functions shall include (but not restricted to):
(i)

Mounting sustained sensitization programme to secure ownership and
continued support to recommended reforms.

(ii)

Identifying and integrating activities targeting reforms into the Education
Master Plan.

(iii)

Defining and specifying success indicators for reform activities with
their timelines.

(iv)

Monitoring, facilitating and managing the development of operational
and administrative procedures that are required to implement the
recommended education reforms.

(v) Coordinating with senior Ministry officials in the dissemination of
procedures to other education stakeholders.
(vi) Identifying institutional and operational obstacles to the reform process.
(vii) Reporting regularly to the Cabinet Secretary on:
289



Progress in the implementation of the reform process.



Impediments to the reform process and how they should be resolved.

(viii) Work with all stakeholders to ensure that the letter and spirit of the
reforms are fully accepted and honoured.
(d) Mode of Operations


The Secretariat should operate on full-time basis in pursuit of the functions
of the Committee and as planned by it.



As approved by the Cabinet Secretary, the Committee shall meet frequently
in the initial stages to launch reform activities but may reduce the frequency
of meetings thereafter.



The Cabinet Secretary to set the honoraria and allowances for Committee
members .



The Cabinet Secretary to provide the offices of the Committee and
Secretariat.

290

Appendix I
Curriculum content for the various stages of Basic Education is guided by:
I

ECDE

(a) Communication skills
(b) Manipulative skills
Through Play
(c) Environmental Awareness

I
I

Lower
Primary
(P1 – P3)

(a) Foundation of Communication Skills
(a) Language of Catchment Area
(b) English
(c) Kiswahili
(b) Foundation of Technical and Innovation
- Mathematics
- Science
- ICT
- Entrepreneurship
- Agriculture
(c) Foundation of Moral and Ethical Education
(a) Religious Education
1. Christian
2. Islamic
3. Hindu
(b) Life Skills Education
(c) Citizenship
(d) Foundation of Talent Identification
(a) Physical Education
(b) Music
(c) Art and Craft

I
I
I

Upper
Primary
(P4 – P6)

(a) Enhancing Communication Skills
(a) Kiswahili
(b) English
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Enhancing Technology and Innovation
Mathematics
Science
ICT
Entrepreneurship
Agriculture

(c) Enhancing Moral and Ethical Values
1. Religious Education
4. CRE
291

5. HRE
6. IRE
2. Life Skills
3. Citizenship
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
I
V

Junior
Secondary
(J1 – J3)

Enhancing Talent Identification
Physical Education
Music
Art

(i)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Advanced Communication Skills
English
Kiswahili
French
German Options
Chinese

(ii)

(a) Physical Sciences
(a) Physics
(b) Chemistry
(c) Biology
(b) Mathematics
(c) ICT
(d) Entrepreneurship
(e) Agriculture
(iii)
Moral and Ethical Education
(a) Religious Education
7. CRE
8. IRE
9. HRE
(b) Citizenship Education
(c) Life Skills Education
(iv)
Talent Identification
a) Physical education
b) Music
c) Art

(v)

V

Senior

Social, Environmental Education
1. History
2. Geography
3. Business studies

(i) Core Curriculum
292

Secondary
(S1- S3)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(ii)

English
Kiswahili
Mathematics
Religious Education
Citizenship
Life Skills
ICT
Entrepreneurship
Physical Education
Electives

(a)

Technical:

(b)

Vocational:

(c)

General:

(d)

The elective will comprise the
technical courses that will lead to
pursuance of technological
degrees at the university or
advanced technological diplomas
at the middle level colleges.
The electives will comprise
vocational/trade courses that will
lead to world of work or diploma
trade courses at the middle level
courses.

Talent:

The electives will comprise of
academic courses that will lead to
pursuance of regular degree at
university or regular diplomas at
middle level colleges.

The electives will comprise
courses in the talent areas of
music, art, athletics and sports.
This will lead to pursuance of
degree/diplomas in the areas of
specialization or the world of
work.

293

Appendix II: Presentations from various Stakeholders
Wednesday 16th
February, 2011

1.

EFA progress report

2.

Free Universal Primary
Education & the challenges of
teacher GAP in Africanlessons learnt from Kenya
Progress made towards
achieving EFA since Jomtien

3.
Wednesday 23rd
February, 2011

1.
2.
3.

4.

Wednesday 2nd March,
2011

Wednesday 9th March,
2011

1.

Mr. Mburugu James
Technical Education
Catholic Church
Sports International
Nyakwaka – 0729
487229
Teacher Ihiga
Secondary School
Tel: 0722491722

Right to Basic
Education group

Dr. Peterson
Wang‘ombe

2.

Monday 14th March,
2011(Workshop)

1.

World Society for
the Protection of
Animals (WSPA)
Mr. Kimathi
M‘Nkanata

1.

Oral Presentation
Oral Presentation
Oral Presentation

Kenya Teachers Colleges
Principals‘ Association
Memorandum Presented to
The Task Force on Review of
Education System in Kenya
 Right to Basic Education
Bill: Philosophical
Considerations
 Draft Bill
Right to Free & Compulsory
Basic Education Bill, 2011
 Assessment of the
Relationship between
Curriculum Change and
Behavioural Trends of
Youth in Kenya
Comparative Analysis of the
Old and New Christian
Religious Education Syllabus
Concept in Animal welfare

Directorate of Field and Other
Services—position on the realignment of education to the
new Constitution
294

2.

Assistant Director
DSTE

3.

Miss Caroline
Mugwe (Head
HRM)
Mr. Lagatt E.K.
Director

4.

Directorate of Secondary &
Tertiary Education
Presentation
HRM Presentation to the Task
Force
Aligning KISE to Vision 2030
& Constitution

5.

Alignment of TSC Functions
and Structures as per the new
Constitutional Dispensation

6.
Tuesday 15th March,
2011(Workshop)

Mr. Kavisi

TSC Deputy
Secretary
Mr. Onesmus
Kiminza

Teacher Management Issues
and Challenges
Directorate of Policy,
Partnership & East African
Community Affairs
Directorate of Basic
Education
Directorate of Adult &
Continuing Education
Re-alignment of the KESI
Capacity Building Programme
to the New Constitution

1.

2.
3.

Assistant Director

4.

2011(Workshop)

Mrs. Leah Rotich

Director KESI

1.

Mr. Benjamin C.
Cheboi (CEO –
HELB)

2.

Mr. Njagi

3.
4.

CEMASTEA
Ministry of the East
African Community

Kenya National
Commission for
UNESCO
(KNATCOM-

Financing University
Education; HELB‘s Place in
Driving Vision 2030 &
Supporting Alignment to the
new Constitution
KIE Presentation to the Task
Force
CEMASTEA Presentation
Findings of the Study on
Inter-University Council of
Eastern Africa,
Harmonization of the
Curriculum, Examinations
and Assessment
UNESCO presentation to the
Task Force

295

rd

Wednesday 23 March,
2011

1.

2.

2011

1.

2.

3.

4.

UNESCO)
Ms. Eldah Onsomu
Policy Analyst,
KIPPRA
Central Planning
and Project
Monitoring Unit
(CPPMU),
Department
By Mr. Obiero
Rob Vos
Arjun Bedi
Paul Kimalu
Damiano Kulundu
Manda
Nancy Nafula
Mwangi Kimenyi
Eldah N. Onsomu
David Muthaka
Moses Ngware
George Kosimbei
Moses Ngware
Eldah Onsomu
Benson Kiriga
David Muthaka
Nancy N. Nafula
Eldah N. Onsomu
Damiano K. Manda
Paul K. Kimalu

5.

Moses Ngware
Eldah Onsomu
Damiano Manda

6.

Jane Nyokabi

7.

Arjun S. Bedi,
Paul Kieti Kimalu,
Damiano Kulundu
Manda,
Nancy Nelima

Aligning Education and
Training to National
Development
Education Management
Information System (EMIS),
Section presentation to the
Task Force

 Achieving Universal
Primary School
Education in Kenya

 Financing of Secondary
Education in
Kenya: Costs and
Options
 Free Secondary Education
in Kenya: Costs,
Financing Sources and
Implications
 Private Sector Investment
in Primary and Secondary
Education in Kenya:
Issues, Challenges and
Recommendations
 Impact of Primary School
Education Inputs and
Outputs in
Kenya: Empirical
Evidence
 Determinants of Primary
Schooling in Kenya
 The Decline in Primary
School Enrolment in
Kenya

296

th

Tuesday 5 April, 2011

1.
2.

Wednesday 6th April,
2011

3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.

3.
2011

2011

1.

Nafula
Education Secretary

Highlights on Canadian
Benchmarking Tour
Prof. Kiyiapi, CBS
Permanent Secretary‘s
Remarks
Dr. G. Cheserek
Committee I
Prof. Wangari Mwai Committee II
Mr. J. Ole Leshao
Committee III
Prof. B. Sihanya
Committee IV
Dr. Wango
Education in Kenya Under the
New Constitution
Committee 1
Financing, Investment and
Resource Mobilization for
Education
Committee 2
Regulatory Framework on
Education in Kenya
Group 1
Financing, Investment and
Resource Mobilization for
Education
Group 2
Regulatory Framework
Phase 1
Findings and Suggested
Recommendations
Group 3
Committee on Institutional
Management & Governance,
Curriculum Review and
Human Resource Capacity
Group 4
Quality Assurance, Standards,
Monitoring and Evaluation
Ministry of Higher
Directorate of Research
Education, Science
Management and
and Technology
Development

2.

USAID - Kenya

Decentralization of
Education- Which Way
Kenya?

3.

Hon. Njoki
Ndung‘u

Legal implications and
recommendations to realign
education sector with the New
Constitution of Kenya
(NB: No hard or soft copy
297

th

Wednesday 27 April,
2011

1.

2.

Wednesday 4th May,
2011

1.

2.

Kenya Private
Schools Association
(In Partnership with
the Government to
provide Education
for All)
KPSA

Audrey Mbugua
Ithibu
Programme Officer
Transgender
Education &
Advocacy
Mr. Kabui Mwai
(Chairman KPSA)

3.

Wednesday 18th May,
2011

Association of
African Universities
(AAU)

1.

Chairman of Kenya
Teachers Colleges
Principals‘
Association

2.

Presented by Mr.
Charles Kado
For KEPSHA at
KIE

3.

Mr. David Ongare
Deputy Director
Environmental
Education

submitted)
Views of Kenya Private
Schools Association to the
Task Force on the realignment of the education
sector to the Constitution.
Amended Bill of Kenya
Private Schools Association
to the Task Force on the realignment of education sector
to the Constitution.
Integrating
Transgenders/Transsexuals in
Kenya‘s Education System

Kenya Private Schools
Association
Proposed Bill,
2011
Association of African
Universities
Serving Higher Education in
Africa
Kenya Teachers Colleges
Principals‘ Association
Memorandum Presented to
the Task Force on Review of
Education System in Kenya
Memorandum to the Task
Force on education
on the strategy to strengthen
FPE policy from the eyes of
the head teachers in Nairobi.
Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD)
presentation

298

NEMA
Wednesday 25th May,
2011

1.

Rev. Canon Peter
Karanja, General
Secretary
(NCCK)

2.

Mr. Oyaya and team Creative and Performing Arts
(absent)
in Education
Vision 2030
 Vision 2030 Overview
 Think Big (movie)
 Shift Happens
 Uungwana Presentation
Muslim Education
Obstacles to the Education of
Council
Muslim Children
in conjunction with
Supreme Council of
Kenya Muslims
(SUPKEM) &
Young Muslim
Association
Mr. Simon Gicharu A concept paper on Higher
(National Chairman Education Reforms by the
of NAPUK)
National Association of
Private Universities
(NAPUK)
Daniel Mburu
Proposal for the need for
Mwangi (through
Braille Authority in Kenya
Kenyatta University (Hard copy)
Disabled Student
Association)
Mrs Winfred Moraa Kenya National Commission
on Human Rights‘ position on
the re-alignment of the
education sector to the new
Constitutiion
Commissioner, Mr. Constitution and the Right to
Lawrence Muti
Education
Committees‘
Presentations by the Four
presentation
Committees.

3.

4.

Thursday 2nd June,
2011

1.

Wednesday 15th June,
2011

1.

Wednesday 22nd June,
2011

1.

2.
Wednesday 29th June,
2011
Wednesday 6th July,

1.

Mr. Allan Penny

The National Council of
Churches of Kenya
Memorandum to the
Education Task Force.

Realignment Task Force
299

Draft Report
(Preliminary Comments)

2011

Wednesday 13th July,
2011

Anna P. Obura

1.

KNCHR Officer

2.

2011

Mr. John W. B.
Owigar

2.

2011

1.

Stella Ruto

1.

Document written
by:
 Harry Anthony
 Felipe barrera
 Julian Guaqueta

2.

3.

Wednesday 3rd August,
2011

1.

2.

Wednesday 10th August,

1.

By Okwach Abagi,
Julian Nzomo,
Wycliffe Oriento
Kenya Episcopal
Conference
(Catholic
Secretariat) by Rt.
Rev. Maurice
Crowley
M.C. Chepkonga,
OGW (under
Secretary)
By Diocese of

Situational analysis on the
status of Technical,
Vocational Education and
Training in Kenya
Equity and Effectiveness:
Prime Instruments for Realigning the Education Sector
with Kenya‘s new
Constitution
Follow up submission of
KNCHR‘S views to the Task
Force on education on the realignment of the education
sector to the new constitution.
Bill, 2011 (approved by the
technical team)
The Role and Impact of
Public-Private Partnership in
Education

UNESCO and Public Private
Partnership (Can and should
public-private partnerships
play a role in education?)
Private Higher Education in
Kenya
Teaching of CRE and PPI in
Primary Schools.

Memo on Establishment of
State Corporations
Presentation to the Task Force
300

Lodwar

2011
2.

1.

Prof. Olive M.
Mugenda, Ph.D,
EBS (Vice
Chancellor)

2.

Dr. G. P. Oluoch
Ed.D

3.

Wednesday 17th August,
2011

Vice Chairman (Dr.
Keiyoro)

Dr. G. P. Oluoch
Ed.D

Wednesday 21st
September, 2011

1.

Wednesday 28th
September, 2011

1.
2.
1.

(i) Mr. Patrick
Ngumi
(Director
PSEC,
NESC)
(ii) Elizabeth
Kimulu
(Director
Soc. Sector,
NESC)
(iii)Dr. Joseph
Siror
(Director
STI & C.,
NESC)

on the Review of Education,
Training and Research Sector.
Bachelor of Education Proposed Syllabus (Kukubo
Barasa Feb. 2006)
Report on the Additional
issues Raised after
Presentation by Kenyatta
University on the Alignment
of the Education Sector to the
New Constitution
KCPE killed the 8-4-4
curriculum and teaching in
2002
It is no longer a must to retain
the Kenyan 8-4-4 Educational
structure
 Concept Paper on Reform
on Technical, Industrial,
Vocational &
Entrepreneurship Training
(TIVET) in Kenya
(October 2003)
 Revised TIVET Syllabi
(September, 2011)
 TIVET Curriculum
Development Framework
 National Economic and
Social Council views on
reforms.

301

(iv) Dr.
Kanyenye
Gakombe
(Council
member,
NESC)

302

Appendix III
List of Policy Documents

1.

Wajibika Kuhakikisha Elimu Bora
Communications Strategy for the Implementation of (KESSP) April 2009

2.

Free Primary Education Support Project (FPESP) - End of Project Evaluation by
Liaison Development Consultants

3.

Education Facts and Figures 2002 – 2008 (MoE)

4.

Free Secondary Education in Kenya: Costs, Financing Sources and Implications –
KIPPRA

5.

Policy Advice During a Crisis, KIPPRA

6.

The National Cohesion and Integration Act, 2008

7.

Wajibika kwa Elimu Bora – Education Service Delivery in Kenya - Roles and
responsibilities of Duty Bearers and Stakeholders (MoE)

8.

Strategic Plan 2006 – 2011 (MoE)

9.

Gender Policy in Education

10.

Guidelines on Establishing A Students‘ Council (MoE)

11.

National School Health Guidelines: 2009, Ministry of Public Health and
Sanitation and MoE

12.

National Adult and Continuing Education Policy, June 2010, MoE

13.

Code of Regulations for Teachers (Revised 2005), TSC

14.

Education for Sustainable Development Policy (JKUAT)

15.

World Programme for Human Rights Education, UNESCO

16.

Procurement Procedures Manual for MoE Headquarters, Provincial and District
Offices, 2007

17.

Procurement Procedures Manual for Secondary Schools and Colleges, MoE, 2007
303

18.

Procurement Manual for Primary Schools, April 2007, MoE

19.

Procurement Procedures Manual for Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies
(SAGAs) and Polytechnics, MoE, 2007

20.

Guidelines for Monitoring Hate Speech (by National Cohesion and Integration
Commission)

21.

HIV and AIDS Prevention and Life Skills Training Manual, June 2009, (KESSP)

22.

Kenya Vision 2030, Sector Plan for Education and Training 2008 - 2012

23.

Kenya Vision 2030 (The Popular Version)

24.

Report of the National Conference on Education and Training held at KICC,
Nov. 27 - 29, 2003 (MoE)

25.

Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET) by Davy K. Koech,
August 1999 (Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of
Kenya)

26.

Economic Recovery Strategy (2003 – 2007), August 2007: Monitoring and
Evaluation Directorate, Ministry of Planning and National Development

27.

National Policy Framework for Education: Civil Society Position Paper by Elimu
Yetu Coalition, April 2011

28.

Report of the Sector Review and Development Direction, September 2003

29.

Report of the Task Force on Student Discipline and Unrest in Secondary Schools,
September, 2001

30.

Education for Sustainable Development (Implementation Strategy)

31.

Report of the Task Force on Implementation of Free Primary Education, February
2003

32.

School Infrastructure Technical Handbook, Version One 2007 (KESSP)

33.

Education Statistical Booklet 2003 - 2007

34.

Handbook for Inspection of Educational Institutions, October 2000 (Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology)
304

35.

Child Friendly Schools – Manual, 2010

36.

Reform Agenda for Education Sector in Kenya (Setting Beacons for Policy and
Legislative Framework)

37.

Guidelines for Strengthening HIV and AIDS Co-ordination at the District Level

38.

Secondary Education Strategy: 2007 - 2010

39.

The Education Act: Chapter 211

40.

Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Strategy

41.

Kenya Education Sector Support Programme 2005 - 2010

42.

The Kenya Gazette: 28th January, 2011

43.

Harmonization of the Legal Framework on Education, Training and Research (Dr.
James Mwangi Kamunge, EBS)

44.

Careers Guide Book for schools: 2007

45.

Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005

46.

Gender Policy in Education: 2007

47.

Policy for Alternative Provision of Basic Education and Training

48.

Policy Framework for Nomadic Education in Kenya

49.

Report of the National Conference on Education and Training

50.

The Constitution of Kenya - Revised Edition (1998) 1992

51.

The Constitution of Kenya, 2010

52.

Safety Standards Manual - for schools in Kenya

53.

National Reproductive Health Policy (Enhancing Reproductive Health Status for
all Kenyans), MoE 2007

305

Appendix IV
Table 6.9: University and University M1 University Enrolments, 1994 – 2008 and
Estimates through 2015

KCSE Year

Candidates

No. Qualified

Module I

Difference

Percent of

Registered

for Admission

Candidates

Qualified

(C+ and

Admitted

Admitted

above)
1994

143,157

23,122

8,649

14,473

37.4%

1995

140,503

21,900

7,953

13,947

36.3%

1996

155,020

28,119

8,428

19,691

30.0%

1997

156,591

31,295

9,017

22,278

28.8%

1998

169,357

30,243

8,150

22,093

26.9%

1999

173,792

30,666

8,899

21,767

29.0%

2000

178,608

40,491

11,147

29,344

27.5%

2001

194,788

42,158

10,966

31,192

26.0%

2002

198,076

42,721

10,923

31,798

25.6%

2003

207,730

49,870

10,263

39,607

20.6%

2004

222,519

58,239

10,632

47,607

18.3%

2005

260,643

68,040

12,479

55,561

18.3%

2006

243,318

62,853

16,151

46,702

25.7%

2007

276,193

74,299

16,629

57,670

22.4%

2008

304,995

72,590

20,073

52,517

27.7%

2009

322,467

74,643

21,223

53,420

28.4%

2010

340,939

78,919

22,439

56,480

28.4%

2011

360,470

83,440

23,724

59,716

28.4%

2012

381,120

88,219

25,083

63,136

28.4%

2013

402,952

93,273

26,520

66,753

28.4%

2014

426,036

98,616

28,039

70,577

28.4%

2015

450,441

104,266

29,645

74,620

28.4%

Source: Financing University Education in Kenya: A Report to the Ministry of Higher
Education, Science and Technology (2009).All numbers beyond 2008 are projections.
306

TASK FORCE ON THE RE-ALIGNMENT OF THE EDUCATION SECTOR TO THE CONSTITUTION OF KENYA 2010

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