Techniques and principles in language teaching

Techniques and PrinciplesTechniques and Principles
in Language Teachingin Language Teaching
Yueh-chiu Helen WangYueh-chiu Helen Wang

IntroductionIntroduction
 The actions are the techniquesThe actions are the techniques
and the thoughts are theand the thoughts are the
principles. It is important toprinciples. It is important to
recognize that methods linkrecognize that methods link
thoughts and actions becausethoughts and actions because
teaching is not entirely aboutteaching is not entirely about
one or the other.one or the other.

 You have thoughts about yourYou have thoughts about your
subject matter—what languagesubject matter—what language
is, what culture is—and aboutis, what culture is—and about
your students—who they are asyour students—who they are as
learners and how it is they learn.learners and how it is they learn.
You have also have thoughtsYou have also have thoughts
about yourself as a teacher andabout yourself as a teacher and
what you can do to help yourwhat you can do to help your
students learn.students learn.

 It is very important for you toIt is very important for you to
become aware of the thoughtsbecome aware of the thoughts
that guide your actions in thethat guide your actions in the
classroom.classroom.

 Everyone knows that being aEveryone knows that being a
good teacher means givinggood teacher means giving
positive feedback to studentspositive feedback to students
and being concerned about theirand being concerned about their
affective side on their feelings.affective side on their feelings.

 Learning to listen to themselvesLearning to listen to themselves
is part of lessening their relianceis part of lessening their reliance
on the teacher. The teacher willon the teacher. The teacher will
not always be there. Also, theynot always be there. Also, they
will be encouraged to formwill be encouraged to form
criteria for correcting theircriteria for correcting their
mistakes—for monitoring theirmistakes—for monitoring their
own progress.own progress.

 Observing a class will give youObserving a class will give you
a greater understanding of aa greater understanding of a
particular method and will giveparticular method and will give
you more of an opportunity toyou more of an opportunity to
reflect on your own practicereflect on your own practice
than if you were to simply read athan if you were to simply read a
description of it.description of it.

Ten questionsTen questions
 1. What are the goals of1. What are the goals of
teachers who use this method?teachers who use this method?
 2. What is the role of the2. What is the role of the
teacher? What is the role of theteacher? What is the role of the
students?students?
3. What are some3. What are some
characteristics of thecharacteristics of the
teaching/learning process?teaching/learning process?

 4. What is the nature of student-4. What is the nature of student-
teacher interaction? What is theteacher interaction? What is the
nature of student-studentnature of student-student
interaction?interaction?
 5. How are the feelings of the5. How are the feelings of the
students dealt with?students dealt with?
 6. How is language viewed?6. How is language viewed?
How is culture viewed?How is culture viewed?

 7. What areas of language are7. What areas of language are
emphasized? What languageemphasized? What language
skills are emphasized?skills are emphasized?
 8. What is the role of the8. What is the role of the
students’ native language?students’ native language?
 9. How is evaluation9. How is evaluation
accomplished?accomplished?

 10. How does the teacher10. How does the teacher
respond to student errors?respond to student errors?

The Grammar-TranslationThe Grammar-Translation
MethodMethod
 The Grammar-TranslationThe Grammar-Translation
Method was called the ClassicalMethod was called the Classical
Method since it was first used inMethod since it was first used in
the teaching of the classicalthe teaching of the classical
languages, Latin and Greeklanguages, Latin and Greek
(Chastian, 1988).(Chastian, 1988).

 This method was used for theThis method was used for the
purpose of helping studentspurpose of helping students
read and appreciate foreignread and appreciate foreign
language literature. Throughlanguage literature. Through
the study of the grammar of thethe study of the grammar of the
target language, students wouldtarget language, students would
become more familiar with thebecome more familiar with the
grammar of their nativegrammar of their native
language and that this familiaritylanguage and that this familiarity
with the grammar of their nativewith the grammar of their native

 language better. Finally, it waslanguage better. Finally, it was
thought that foreign languagethought that foreign language
learning would help studentslearning would help students
grow intellectually.grow intellectually.

PrinciplesPrinciples
 Learning a foreign language isLearning a foreign language is
to be able to read literatureto be able to read literature
written in it. Literary language iswritten in it. Literary language is
superior to spoken language. Ifsuperior to spoken language. If
students can translate from onestudents can translate from one
language into another, they arelanguage into another, they are
considered successful languageconsidered successful language
learners.learners.

 The ability to communicate inThe ability to communicate in
the target language is not a goalthe target language is not a goal
of foreign language instruction.of foreign language instruction.
 The primary skills to beThe primary skills to be
developed are reading anddeveloped are reading and
writing. Little attention is givenwriting. Little attention is given
to speaking and listening andto speaking and listening and
almost none to pronunciation.almost none to pronunciation.

 The teacher is the authority inThe teacher is the authority in
the classroom. It is verythe classroom. It is very
important that students get theimportant that students get the
correct answer.correct answer.
 Learning is facilitated throughLearning is facilitated through
attention to similarities betweenattention to similarities between
the target language and thethe target language and the
native language.native language.

 Deductive application of anDeductive application of an
explicit grammar rule is a usefulexplicit grammar rule is a useful
pedagogical technique.pedagogical technique.
 Language learning providesLanguage learning provides
good mental exercise.good mental exercise.

 Students should be conscious ofStudents should be conscious of
the grammatical rules of thethe grammatical rules of the
target language.target language.

 There is little student initiationThere is little student initiation
and little student-studentand little student-student
interaction.interaction.
 There are no principles of theThere are no principles of the
method which relate to students’method which relate to students’
feelings.feelings.

 Vocabulary and grammar areVocabulary and grammar are
emphasized. Reading andemphasized. Reading and
writing are the primary skills thatwriting are the primary skills that
the students work on.the students work on.

The role of the students’The role of the students’
native languagenative language
 The meaning of the targetThe meaning of the target
language is made clear bylanguage is made clear by
translating the students’ nativetranslating the students’ native
language. The language that islanguage. The language that is
used in class is mostly theused in class is mostly the
students’ native language.students’ native language.

How is evaluationHow is evaluation
 Written tests in which studentsWritten tests in which students
are asked to translate from theirare asked to translate from their
native language to the targetnative language to the target
language or vice versa are oftenlanguage or vice versa are often
used.used.

How does the teacherHow does the teacher
 Having the students get theHaving the students get the
correct answer is consideredcorrect answer is considered
very important.very important.

The Direct MethodThe Direct Method
 The Direct Method has one veryThe Direct Method has one very
basic rule: No translation isbasic rule: No translation is
allowed. Meaning is to beallowed. Meaning is to be
conveyed directly in the targetconveyed directly in the target
language through the use oflanguage through the use of
demonstration and visual aids.demonstration and visual aids.

 The reading skill will beThe reading skill will be
developed through practice withdeveloped through practice with
speaking. Language is primarilyspeaking. Language is primarily
speech. Culture consists ofspeech. Culture consists of
more than the fine arts(e.g. themore than the fine arts(e.g. the
students study geography andstudents study geography and
cultural attitudes).cultural attitudes).

 Objects (e.g. realia or pictures)Objects (e.g. realia or pictures)
present in the immediatepresent in the immediate
classroom environment shouldclassroom environment should
be used to help studentsbe used to help students
understand the meaning.understand the meaning.
 The native language should notThe native language should not
be used in the classroom.be used in the classroom.

 The teacher shouldThe teacher should
demonstrate, not explain ordemonstrate, not explain or
translate. It is desirable thattranslate. It is desirable that
students make a directstudents make a direct
association between the targetassociation between the target
language and meaning.language and meaning.

 Students should learn to think inStudents should learn to think in
the target language as soon asthe target language as soon as
possible. Vocabulary ispossible. Vocabulary is
acquired more naturally ifacquired more naturally if
students use it in full sentencesstudents use it in full sentences
rather than memorizing wordrather than memorizing word
lists.lists.

 The purpose of languageThe purpose of language
learning is communication.learning is communication.
 Pronunciation should be workedPronunciation should be worked
on right from the beginning ofon right from the beginning of
language instruction.language instruction.

 Self-correction facilitatesSelf-correction facilitates
language learning.language learning.
 Lessons should contain someLessons should contain some
conversational activity—someconversational activity—some
opportunity for students to useopportunity for students to use
language in real contexts.language in real contexts.
Students should be encouragedStudents should be encouraged
to speak as much as possible.to speak as much as possible.

 Grammar should be taughtGrammar should be taught
inductively. There may neverinductively. There may never
be an explicit grammar rulebe an explicit grammar rule
given.given.
 Writing is an important skill, toWriting is an important skill, to
be developed from thebe developed from the
beginning of languagebeginning of language
instruction.instruction.

 The syllabus is based onThe syllabus is based on
situations or topics, not usuallysituations or topics, not usually
on linguistic structures.on linguistic structures.
 Learning another language alsoLearning another language also
involves learning how speakersinvolves learning how speakers
of that language live.of that language live.

What are the goals of teachersWhat are the goals of teachers
who use the Direct Method?who use the Direct Method?
 Teachers who use the DirectTeachers who use the Direct
Method intend that studentsMethod intend that students
learn how to communicate in thelearn how to communicate in the
target language. In order to dotarget language. In order to do
this successfully, studentsthis successfully, students
should learn to think in theshould learn to think in the
target language.target language.

What is the role of teacher?What is the role of teacher?
 Although the teacher directs theAlthough the teacher directs the
class activities, the student roleclass activities, the student role
is less passive than in theis less passive than in the
Grammar-Translation Method.Grammar-Translation Method.
The teacher and the studentsThe teacher and the students
are more like partners in theare more like partners in the
teaching/learning process.teaching/learning process.

What are some characteristics ofWhat are some characteristics of
the teaching/learning process?the teaching/learning process?
 Teachers believe students needTeachers believe students need
to associate meaning and theto associate meaning and the
target language directly.target language directly.
Students speak in the targetStudents speak in the target
language a great deal andlanguage a great deal and
communicate as if they were incommunicate as if they were in
real situations. The syllabus isreal situations. The syllabus is
based upon situations or topics.based upon situations or topics.

What is the nature of student-What is the nature of student-
teacher interaction?teacher interaction?
 The initiation of the interactionThe initiation of the interaction
goes both ways, from teacher togoes both ways, from teacher to
students and from student tostudents and from student to
teacher, although the latter isteacher, although the latter is
often teacher-directed.often teacher-directed.

How are the feelings of theHow are the feelings of the
 There are no principles of theThere are no principles of the
methods which relate to thismethods which relate to this
area.area.

How is language viewed?How is language viewed?
 Language is primarily spoken,Language is primarily spoken,
not written.not written.

What areas of language areWhat areas of language are
emphasized?emphasized?
 Vocabulary is emphasized overVocabulary is emphasized over
grammar.grammar.

What is the role of theWhat is the role of the
 Students’ native languageStudents’ native language
should not be used in theshould not be used in the
classroom.classroom.

 The students might beThe students might be
interviewed orally by the teacherinterviewed orally by the teacher
or might be asked to write aor might be asked to write a
paragraph about something theyparagraph about something they
have studied.have studied.

 The teacher, employing variousThe teacher, employing various
techniques, tries to get studentstechniques, tries to get students
to self-correct wheneverto self-correct whenever
possible.possible.

The Audio-Lingual MethodThe Audio-Lingual Method
 The Audio-Lingual Method, likeThe Audio-Lingual Method, like
the Direct Method, is also anthe Direct Method, is also an
oral-based approach. However,oral-based approach. However,
it is very different in that theit is very different in that the
Audio-Lingual Method drillsAudio-Lingual Method drills
students in the use ofstudents in the use of
grammatical sentence patterns.grammatical sentence patterns.

 It also,unlike the Direct Method, hasIt also,unlike the Direct Method, has
a strong theoretical base ina strong theoretical base in
linguistics and psychology. It haslinguistics and psychology. It has
principles from behavioralprinciples from behavioral
psychology (Skinner, 1957)werepsychology (Skinner, 1957)were
incorporated. It was thought that theincorporated. It was thought that the
way to acquire the sentence patternsway to acquire the sentence patterns
of the target language was throughof the target language was through
conditioning—helping learners toconditioning—helping learners to
respond correctly to stimuli throughrespond correctly to stimuli through
shaping and reinforcement.shaping and reinforcement.

 Learners could overcome theLearners could overcome the
habits of their native languagehabits of their native language
and from the new habitsand from the new habits
required to be target languagerequired to be target language
speakers.speakers.

The Audiolingual MethodThe Audiolingual Method
 The Audio-lingual Method, likeThe Audio-lingual Method, like
the Direct Method, is also anthe Direct Method, is also an
oral-based approach. However,oral-based approach. However,
it is very different in that theit is very different in that the
Audio-Lingual Method drillsAudio-Lingual Method drills
students in the use ofstudents in the use of
grammatical sentence patterns.grammatical sentence patterns.

 It was thought that the way toIt was thought that the way to
acquire the sentence patterns of theacquire the sentence patterns of the
target language was throughtarget language was through
conditioning—helping learners toconditioning—helping learners to
respond correctly to stimuli throughrespond correctly to stimuli through
shaping and reinforcement.shaping and reinforcement.
Learners could overcome the habitsLearners could overcome the habits
of their native language and form theof their native language and form the
new habits required to be targetnew habits required to be target
language speakers.language speakers.

 Language forms do not occur byLanguage forms do not occur by
themselves; they occur mostthemselves; they occur most
naturally within a context.naturally within a context.

 The native language and theThe native language and the
target language have separatetarget language have separate
linguistic systems. They shouldlinguistic systems. They should
be kept apart so that thebe kept apart so that the
students’ native languagestudents’ native language
interferes as little as possibleinterferes as little as possible
with the students’ attempts towith the students’ attempts to
acquire the target language.acquire the target language.

The language teacher’s roleThe language teacher’s role
 One of the language teacher’sOne of the language teacher’s
major roles is that of a model ofmajor roles is that of a model of
the target language. Teachersthe target language. Teachers
should provide students with ashould provide students with a
good model. By listening to howgood model. By listening to how
it is supposed to sound,it is supposed to sound,
students should be able tostudents should be able to
mimic the model.mimic the model.

 Language learning is a processLanguage learning is a process
of habit formation. The moreof habit formation. The more
often something is repeated, theoften something is repeated, the
stronger the habit and thestronger the habit and the
greater the learning.greater the learning.

 It is important to preventIt is important to prevent
learners from making errors.learners from making errors.
Errors lead to the formation ofErrors lead to the formation of
bad habits. When errors dobad habits. When errors do
occur, they should beoccur, they should be
immediately corrected by theimmediately corrected by the
teacher.teacher.

 The purpose of languageThe purpose of language
learning is to learn how to uselearning is to learn how to use
the language to communicate.the language to communicate.

 Particular parts of speechParticular parts of speech
occupy particular ‘slots’ inoccupy particular ‘slots’ in
sentences. In order to createsentences. In order to create
new sentences, students mustnew sentences, students must
learn which part of speechlearn which part of speech
occupies which slot.occupies which slot.

 Positive reinforcement helps thePositive reinforcement helps the
students to develop correctstudents to develop correct
habits.habits.

 Students should learn toStudents should learn to
respond to both verbal andrespond to both verbal and
nonverbal stimuli.nonverbal stimuli.

 Pattern practice helps studentsPattern practice helps students
to form habits which enable theto form habits which enable the
students to use the patterns.students to use the patterns.

 Students should ‘overlearn’,Students should ‘overlearn’,
learn to answer automaticallylearn to answer automatically
without stopping to think.without stopping to think.

 The teacher should be like anThe teacher should be like an
orchestra leader—conducting,orchestra leader—conducting,
guiding, and controlling theguiding, and controlling the
students’ behavior in the targetstudents’ behavior in the target
language.language.

 The major objective of languageThe major objective of language
teaching should be for studentsteaching should be for students
to acquire the structuralto acquire the structural
patterns; students will learnpatterns; students will learn
vocabulary afterward.vocabulary afterward.

 The learning of a foreignThe learning of a foreign
language should be the samelanguage should be the same
as the acquisition of the nativeas the acquisition of the native
language. The rules necessarylanguage. The rules necessary
to use the target language willto use the target language will
be figured out or induced frombe figured out or induced from
examples.examples.

 The major challenge of foreignThe major challenge of foreign
language teaching is gettinglanguage teaching is getting
students to overcome the habitsstudents to overcome the habits
of their native language.of their native language.

 Speech is more basic toSpeech is more basic to
language than the written form.language than the written form.
The ‘natural order’ –the orderThe ‘natural order’ –the order
children follow when learningchildren follow when learning
their native language—of skilltheir native language—of skill
acquisition is: listening,acquisition is: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing.speaking, reading, and writing.

 Language cannot be separatedLanguage cannot be separated
from culture. Culture is not onlyfrom culture. Culture is not only
literature and the arts, but alsoliterature and the arts, but also
the everyday behavior of thethe everyday behavior of the
people who use the targetpeople who use the target
language. One of the teacher’slanguage. One of the teacher’s
responsibilities is to presentresponsibilities is to present
information about that culture.information about that culture.

The nature of student-teacherThe nature of student-teacher
interactioninteraction
 Most of the interactions isMost of the interactions is
between teacher and studentsbetween teacher and students
and is initiated by the teacher.and is initiated by the teacher.

 Everyday speech is emphasizedEveryday speech is emphasized
in the Audio-lingual Method.in the Audio-lingual Method.
The level of complexity of theThe level of complexity of the
speech is graded, so thatspeech is graded, so that
beginning students arebeginning students are
presented with only simplepresented with only simple
patterns. Culture consists of thepatterns. Culture consists of the
everyday behavior and lifestyleeveryday behavior and lifestyle
of the target language speakers.of the target language speakers.

 Vocabulary is kept to aVocabulary is kept to a
minimum while the students areminimum while the students are
mastering the wound systemmastering the wound system
and grammatical patterns.and grammatical patterns.

 The oral/aural skills receiveThe oral/aural skills receive
most of the attention.most of the attention.
Pronunciation is taught from thePronunciation is taught from the
beginning, often by studentsbeginning, often by students
working in language laboratoriesworking in language laboratories
on discriminating betweenon discriminating between
members of minimal pairs.members of minimal pairs.

The role of the students’The role of the students’
native languagenative language
 The target language is used inThe target language is used in
the classroom, not the students’the classroom, not the students’
native language.native language.

 Students might be asked toStudents might be asked to
distinguish between words in adistinguish between words in a
minimal pair, for example, or tominimal pair, for example, or to
supply an appropriate verb formsupply an appropriate verb form
in a sentence.in a sentence.

 Student errors are to be avoidedStudent errors are to be avoided
if at all possible through theif at all possible through the
teacher’s awareness of whereteacher’s awareness of where
the students will have difficultythe students will have difficulty
and restriction of what they areand restriction of what they are
taught to say.taught to say.

The role of instructionalThe role of instructional
materialsmaterials
 Instructional materials in theInstructional materials in the
Audiolingual Method assist theAudiolingual Method assist the
teacher to develop languageteacher to develop language
mastery in the learner. Theymastery in the learner. They
are primary teacher-oriented.are primary teacher-oriented.
 Tape recorders and audiovisualTape recorders and audiovisual
equipment often have centralequipment often have central
roles in an audiolingual course.roles in an audiolingual course.

The decline of AudioligualismThe decline of Audioligualism
 Audiolingualism reached itsAudiolingualism reached its
period of most widespread useperiod of most widespread use
in the 1960s and was appliedin the 1960s and was applied
both to the teaching of foreignboth to the teaching of foreign
language in the United Stateslanguage in the United States
and to the teaching of Englishand to the teaching of English
as a second or foreignas a second or foreign
language.language.

 Audiolingualism stresses theAudiolingualism stresses the
mechanistic aspects ofmechanistic aspects of
language learning and languagelanguage learning and language
use.use.

Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response
(TPR)(TPR)
 TPR is a language teachingTPR is a language teaching
method built around themethod built around the
coordination of speech andcoordination of speech and
action; it attempts to teachaction; it attempts to teach
language through physicallanguage through physical
motor activity. Developed bymotor activity. Developed by
James Asher, a professor ofJames Asher, a professor of
psychology at San Jose Statepsychology at San Jose State
University, California.University, California.

 He claims that speech directedHe claims that speech directed
to young children consiststo young children consists
primarily of commands, whichprimarily of commands, which
children respond to physicallychildren respond to physically
before they begin to producebefore they begin to produce
verbal responses.verbal responses.

 Asher shares with the school ofAsher shares with the school of
humanistic psychology ahumanistic psychology a
concern for the role of affectiveconcern for the role of affective
factors in language learning.factors in language learning.

 Asher has elaborated anAsher has elaborated an
account of what he feelsaccount of what he feels
facilitates or inhibits foreignfacilitates or inhibits foreign
language learning. For thislanguage learning. For this
dimension of his learning theorydimension of his learning theory
he draws on three influentialhe draws on three influential
learning hypotheses:learning hypotheses:

 1. There exists a specific innate1. There exists a specific innate
bio-program for languagebio-program for language
learning which defines anlearning which defines an
optimal path for first and secondoptimal path for first and second
language development.language development.
 2. Brain lateralization defines2. Brain lateralization defines
different learning functions indifferent learning functions in
the left-and-right brainthe left-and-right brain
hemispheres.hemispheres.

 3. Stress intervenes between3. Stress intervenes between
the act of learning and what is tothe act of learning and what is to
be learned; the lower the stress,be learned; the lower the stress,
the greater the learning.the greater the learning.

 Listening should beListening should be
accompanied by physicalaccompanied by physical
movement. Speech and othermovement. Speech and other
productive skills should comeproductive skills should come
later.later.

 Asher sees TPR as directed toAsher sees TPR as directed to
right-brain learning, whereasright-brain learning, whereas
most second language teachingmost second language teaching
methods are directed to left-methods are directed to left-
brain learning. Asher hold thatbrain learning. Asher hold that
the child language learnerthe child language learner
acquires language throughacquires language through
motor movement.motor movement.

 Similarly, the adult shouldSimilarly, the adult should
proceed to language masteryproceed to language mastery
through right hemisphere motorthrough right hemisphere motor
activities, while the leftactivities, while the left
hemisphere watches and learns.hemisphere watches and learns.

The objective of TPRThe objective of TPR
 The objective of TPR is to teachThe objective of TPR is to teach
oral proficiency at a beginningoral proficiency at a beginning
level. Comprehension is alevel. Comprehension is a
means to an end. The ultimatemeans to an end. The ultimate
aim is to teach basic speakingaim is to teach basic speaking
skills. TPR requires initialskills. TPR requires initial
attention to meaning rather thanattention to meaning rather than
to the form of items. Grammarto the form of items. Grammar
is thus taught inductively.is thus taught inductively.

 Learners in TPR have theLearners in TPR have the
primary roles of listener andprimary roles of listener and
performer. They listenperformer. They listen
attentively and respondattentively and respond
physically to commands givenphysically to commands given
by the teacher. Learners areby the teacher. Learners are
also expected to recognize andalso expected to recognize and
respond to novel combinationsrespond to novel combinations
of previously taught items.of previously taught items.

 Learners monitor and evaluateLearners monitor and evaluate
their own progress. They aretheir own progress. They are
encouraged to speak when theyencouraged to speak when they
feel ready to speak—that is,feel ready to speak—that is,
when a sufficient basis in thewhen a sufficient basis in the
language has been internalized.language has been internalized.
The teacher plays an activeThe teacher plays an active
and direct role in TPR.and direct role in TPR.

The Silent WayThe Silent Way
 The Silent Way is the name of aThe Silent Way is the name of a
method of a language teachingmethod of a language teaching
devised by Caleb Gattegno.devised by Caleb Gattegno.

 It is based on the premise thatIt is based on the premise that
the teacher should be silent asthe teacher should be silent as
much as possible in themuch as possible in the
classroom but the learnerclassroom but the learner
should be encouraged toshould be encouraged to
produce as much language asproduce as much language as
possible.possible.

 Elements of the Silent Way,Elements of the Silent Way,
particularly the use of colorparticularly the use of color
charts and the coloredcharts and the colored
Cuisenaire rods, grew out ofCuisenaire rods, grew out of
Gattegno’s previous experienceGattegno’s previous experience
as an educational designer ofas an educational designer of
reading and mathematicsreading and mathematics
programs.programs.

Learning hypothesesLearning hypotheses
 1. Learning is facilitated if the1. Learning is facilitated if the
learner discovers or createslearner discovers or creates
rather than remembers andrather than remembers and
repeats what is to be learned.repeats what is to be learned.
 Learning is facilitated byLearning is facilitated by
accompanying physical objects.accompanying physical objects.

 3. Learning is facilitated by3. Learning is facilitated by
problem solving involving theproblem solving involving the
material to be learned.material to be learned.

Theory of language andTheory of language and
learninglearning
 The sentence is the basic unit ofThe sentence is the basic unit of
teaching, and the teacherteaching, and the teacher
focuses on propositionalfocuses on propositional
meaning, rather thanmeaning, rather than
communicative value. Studentscommunicative value. Students
are presented with the structuralare presented with the structural
patterns of the target languagepatterns of the target language
and learn the grammatical rulesand learn the grammatical rules
of the language through largelyof the language through largely
inductive processes.inductive processes.

 Gattegno sees vocabulary as aGattegno sees vocabulary as a
central dimension of languagecentral dimension of language
learning and the choice oflearning and the choice of
vocabulary as crucial.vocabulary as crucial.

 Gattegno looked at languageGattegno looked at language
learning from the perspective oflearning from the perspective of
the learner by studying the waythe learner by studying the way
babies and young childrenbabies and young children
learn.learn.

 The teacher points to five blocksThe teacher points to five blocks
of color without saying anything.of color without saying anything.
The blocks of color representThe blocks of color represent
the sounds of five Englishthe sounds of five English
vowels close to the five simplevowels close to the five simple
vowels of Portuguese.vowels of Portuguese.

 The teacher should start withThe teacher should start with
something the students alreadysomething the students already
know and build from that to theknow and build from that to the
unknown. Languages share aunknown. Languages share a
number of features, soundsnumber of features, sounds
being the most basic.being the most basic.

 Language learners areLanguage learners are
intelligent and bring with themintelligent and bring with them
the experience of alreadythe experience of already
learning a language. Thelearning a language. The
teacher should give only whatteacher should give only what
help is necessary.help is necessary.

 Language is not learned byLanguage is not learned by
repeating after a model.repeating after a model.
Students need to develop theirStudents need to develop their
own ‘inner criteria’ forown ‘inner criteria’ for
correctness—to trust and to becorrectness—to trust and to be
responsible for their ownresponsible for their own
production in the targetproduction in the target
language.language.

 Students’ actions can tell theStudents’ actions can tell the
teacher whether or not theyteacher whether or not they
have learned.have learned.

 The teacher makes use of whatThe teacher makes use of what
students already know. Thestudents already know. The
more the teacher does for themore the teacher does for the
students what they can do forstudents what they can do for
themselves, the less they will dothemselves, the less they will do
for themselves.for themselves.

 Learning involves transferringLearning involves transferring
what one knows to newwhat one knows to new
contexts.contexts.
 Reading is worked on from theReading is worked on from the
beginning but follows from whatbeginning but follows from what
students have learned to say.students have learned to say.

 Silence is a tool. It helps toSilence is a tool. It helps to
foster autonomy, or the exercisefoster autonomy, or the exercise
of initiative. It also removes theof initiative. It also removes the
teacher from the center ofteacher from the center of
attention so he can listen to andattention so he can listen to and
work with students. The teacherwork with students. The teacher
speaks, but only whenspeaks, but only when
necessary.necessary.

 Meaning is made clear byMeaning is made clear by
focusing students’ perceptions,focusing students’ perceptions,
not through translation.not through translation.
 Students can learn from oneStudents can learn from one
another. The teacher’s silenceanother. The teacher’s silence
encourages group cooperation.encourages group cooperation.

 Student attention is a key toStudent attention is a key to
learning.learning.
 Students should engage in aStudents should engage in a
great deal of meaningfulgreat deal of meaningful
practice without repetition.practice without repetition.
 Language is for self-expression.Language is for self-expression.

 The teacher can gain valuableThe teacher can gain valuable
information from studentinformation from student
feedback.feedback.

who use the Silent Way?who use the Silent Way?
 Students should be able to useStudents should be able to use
the language for self-expressionthe language for self-expression
—to express their thought,—to express their thought,
perception, and feelings.perception, and feelings.

 The teacher is a technician orThe teacher is a technician or
engineer.engineer.
 The teacher should respect theThe teacher should respect the
autonomy of the learners in theirautonomy of the learners in their
attempts at relating andattempts at relating and
interacting with the newinteracting with the new
challenges.challenges.

students?students?
 The role of the students is toThe role of the students is to
make use of what they know, tomake use of what they know, to
free themselves of anyfree themselves of any
obstacles that would interfereobstacles that would interfere
with giving their utmost attentionwith giving their utmost attention
to the learning task.to the learning task.

 Students begin their study of theStudents begin their study of the
language through its basiclanguage through its basic
building blocks, its sounds.building blocks, its sounds.
 This provides valuableThis provides valuable
information for the teacher andinformation for the teacher and
encourages students to takeencourages students to take
responsibility for their ownresponsibility for their own
learning.learning.

 For much of the student-teacherFor much of the student-teacher
interaction, the teacher is silent.interaction, the teacher is silent.
 Student-student verbalStudent-student verbal
interaction is desirable (studentsinteraction is desirable (students
can learn from one another) andcan learn from one another) and
is therefore encouraged.is therefore encouraged.

 The teacher constantlyThe teacher constantly
observes the students. Whenobserves the students. When
their feelings interfere, thetheir feelings interfere, the
teacher tries to find ways for theteacher tries to find ways for the
students to overcome them.students to overcome them.

 Languages of the world share aLanguages of the world share a
number of features. However,number of features. However,
each language also has its owneach language also has its own
unique reality since it is theunique reality since it is the
expression of a particular groupexpression of a particular group
of people.of people.

 Their culture, as reflected inTheir culture, as reflected in
their own unique world view, istheir own unique world view, is
inseparable from their language.inseparable from their language.

 Since the sounds are basic toSince the sounds are basic to
any language, pronunciation isany language, pronunciation is
worked on from the beginning.worked on from the beginning.

What language skills areWhat language skills are
 All four skills are worked onAll four skills are worked on
from the beginning of thefrom the beginning of the
course, although there is acourse, although there is a
sequence in that students learnsequence in that students learn
to read and write what theyto read and write what they
already produced orally.already produced orally.

 Meaning is made clear byMeaning is made clear by
focusing the students’focusing the students’
perceptions, not by translation.perceptions, not by translation.

 The teacher’s silence frees himThe teacher’s silence frees him
to attend to his students and toto attend to his students and to
be aware of these needs.be aware of these needs.

 Student errors are seen as aStudent errors are seen as a
natural, indispensable part ofnatural, indispensable part of
the learning process. Errors arethe learning process. Errors are
inevitable since the students areinevitable since the students are
encouraged to explore theencouraged to explore the
language.language.

DesuggestopediaDesuggestopedia
 In order to make better use ofIn order to make better use of
our reserved capacity, theour reserved capacity, the
limitations we think we havelimitations we think we have
need to be ‘desuggested.’need to be ‘desuggested.’
 Desuggestopedia, theDesuggestopedia, the
application of the study ofapplication of the study of
suggestion to pedagogy, hassuggestion to pedagogy, has
been developed to helpbeen developed to help
studentsstudents

 eliminate the feeling that theyeliminate the feeling that they
cannot be successful or thecannot be successful or the
negative association they maynegative association they may
have toward studying and, thus,have toward studying and, thus,
to help them overcome theto help them overcome the
barriers to learning.barriers to learning.

 Learning is facilitated in aLearning is facilitated in a
cheerful environment. Thecheerful environment. The
classroom is bright and colorful.classroom is bright and colorful.
 Students can learn from what isStudents can learn from what is
present in the environment,present in the environment,
even if their attention is noteven if their attention is not
directed to it (‘Peripheraldirected to it (‘Peripheral
learning).learning).

 If students trust and respect theIf students trust and respect the
teacher’s authority, they willteacher’s authority, they will
accept and retain informationaccept and retain information
better. (The teacher speakerbetter. (The teacher speaker
confidently.)confidently.)

 The teacher gives the studentsThe teacher gives the students
the impression that learning thethe impression that learning the
target language will be easy andtarget language will be easy and
enjoyable.enjoyable.

 The students choose newThe students choose new
names and identities and feelnames and identities and feel
less inhibited since theirless inhibited since their
performance is really that of aperformance is really that of a
different person.different person.

 The dialogue that students learnThe dialogue that students learn
contains language they can usecontains language they can use
immediately. Songs are usefulimmediately. Songs are useful
for ‘freeing the speech muscles’for ‘freeing the speech muscles’
and evoking positive emotions.and evoking positive emotions.

 Fine art provides positiveFine art provides positive
suggestions for students.suggestions for students.
 One way that meaning is madeOne way that meaning is made
clear is through native languageclear is through native language
translation.translation.

 Communication takes place onCommunication takes place on
‘two planes’: on one the‘two planes’: on one the
linguistic message is encoded;linguistic message is encoded;
and on the other are factorsand on the other are factors
which influence the linguisticwhich influence the linguistic
message. On the consciousmessage. On the conscious
plane, the learner attends to theplane, the learner attends to the
language; on the subconsciouslanguage; on the subconscious
plane, the music suggests thatplane, the music suggests that
learning is easy and pleasant.learning is easy and pleasant.

 When there is a unity betweenWhen there is a unity between
conscious and subconscious,conscious and subconscious,
learning is enhanced.learning is enhanced.

 A calm state, such as oneA calm state, such as one
experiences when listening to aexperiences when listening to a
concert, is ideal for overcomingconcert, is ideal for overcoming
psychological barriers and forpsychological barriers and for
taking advantage of learningtaking advantage of learning
potential.potential.

 The fine arts (music, art, andThe fine arts (music, art, and
drama) enable suggestions todrama) enable suggestions to
reach the subconscious. Thereach the subconscious. The
arts should, therefore, bearts should, therefore, be
integrated as much as possibleintegrated as much as possible
into the teaching process.into the teaching process.

 The teacher should help theThe teacher should help the
students ‘activate’ the materialstudents ‘activate’ the material
to which they have beento which they have been
exposed. Novelty aidsexposed. Novelty aids
acquisition.acquisition.

 Music and movement reinforceMusic and movement reinforce
the linguistic material. If theythe linguistic material. If they
trust the teacher, they will reachtrust the teacher, they will reach
this state more easily.this state more easily.

 In an atmosphere of play, theIn an atmosphere of play, the
conscious attention of theconscious attention of the
learner does not focus onlearner does not focus on
linguistic forms, but rather onlinguistic forms, but rather on
using the language. Learningusing the language. Learning
can be fun.can be fun.

 Errors are corrected gently, notErrors are corrected gently, not
in a direct, confrontationalin a direct, confrontational
manner.manner.

who use Desuggestopedia?who use Desuggestopedia?
 Teachers hope to accelerate theTeachers hope to accelerate the
process by which students learnprocess by which students learn
to use a foreign language forto use a foreign language for
everyday communication. Ineveryday communication. In
order to do this, more of theorder to do this, more of the
students’ mental powers muststudents’ mental powers must
be tapped.be tapped.

 The teacher is the authority inThe teacher is the authority in
the classroom. In order for thethe classroom. In order for the
method to be successful, themethod to be successful, the
students must trust and respectstudents must trust and respect
her. Once the students trust theher. Once the students trust the
teacher, they can feel moreteacher, they can feel more
secure. If they feel secure, theysecure. If they feel secure, they
can be more spontaneous andcan be more spontaneous and
less inhibited.less inhibited.

 The posters are change everyThe posters are change every
few weeks to create a sense offew weeks to create a sense of
novelty in the environment.novelty in the environment.
Students select target languageStudents select target language
names and choose newnames and choose new
occupations. During the courseoccupations. During the course
they create whole biographies tothey create whole biographies to
go along with their newgo along with their new
identities.identities.

 The teacher initiates interactionsThe teacher initiates interactions
with the whole group of studentswith the whole group of students
and with individuals right fromand with individuals right from
the beginning of a languagethe beginning of a language
course.course.

 If students are relaxed andIf students are relaxed and
confident, they will not need toconfident, they will not need to
try hard to learn the language.try hard to learn the language.
It will just come naturally andIt will just come naturally and
easily.easily.

 Language is the first two planesLanguage is the first two planes
in the two-plane process ofin the two-plane process of
communication. In the secondcommunication. In the second
plane are the factors whichplane are the factors which
influence linguistic message.influence linguistic message.

 The culture which students learnThe culture which students learn
concerns the everyday life ofconcerns the everyday life of
people who speak the language.people who speak the language.
The use of fine arts is alsoThe use of fine arts is also
important in Desuggestopedicimportant in Desuggestopedic
classes.classes.

 Vocabulary is emphasized.Vocabulary is emphasized.
Grammar is dealt with explicitlyGrammar is dealt with explicitly
but minimally.but minimally.

 Speaking communicatively isSpeaking communicatively is
emphasized. Students alsoemphasized. Students also
read in the target language (forread in the target language (for
example, dialogs) and write (forexample, dialogs) and write (for
example, imaginativeexample, imaginative
compositions).compositions).

 Native-language translation isNative-language translation is
used to make the meaning ofused to make the meaning of
the dialog clear. The teacherthe dialog clear. The teacher
also uses the native language inalso uses the native language in
class when necessary.class when necessary.

 Evaluation usually is conductedEvaluation usually is conducted
on students’ normal in-classon students’ normal in-class
performance and not throughperformance and not through
formal tests, which wouldformal tests, which would
threaten the relaxedthreaten the relaxed
atmosphere consideredatmosphere considered
essential for acceleratedessential for accelerated
learning.learning.

 Errors are corrected gently, withErrors are corrected gently, with
the teacher using a soft voice.the teacher using a soft voice.

Community LanguageCommunity Language
Learning Method (CLL)Learning Method (CLL)
 It takes its principles from moreIt takes its principles from more
general Counseling-Learninggeneral Counseling-Learning
approach developed by Charlesapproach developed by Charles
A. Curran.A. Curran.
 Curran believed that a way toCurran believed that a way to
deal with the fears of students isdeal with the fears of students is
for teachers to becomefor teachers to become
‘language counselors.’‘language counselors.’

 By understanding students’By understanding students’
fears and being sensitive tofears and being sensitive to
them, he can help studentsthem, he can help students
overcome their negative feelingsovercome their negative feelings
and turn them into positiveand turn them into positive
energy to further their learning.energy to further their learning.

 Building a relationship with andBuilding a relationship with and
among students is veryamong students is very
important.important.
 Any new learning experienceAny new learning experience
can be threatening. Whencan be threatening. When
students have an idea of whatstudents have an idea of what
will happen in each activity, theywill happen in each activity, they
often feel more secure.often feel more secure.

 Language is for communication.Language is for communication.
 The superior knowledge andThe superior knowledge and
power of the teacher can bepower of the teacher can be
threatening. If the teacher doesthreatening. If the teacher does
not remain in the front of thenot remain in the front of the
classroom, the threat is reducedclassroom, the threat is reduced
and the students’ learning isand the students’ learning is
facilitated.facilitated.

 The teacher should be sensitiveThe teacher should be sensitive
to students’ level of confidenceto students’ level of confidence
and give them just what theyand give them just what they
need to be successful.need to be successful.
 Students feel more secure whenStudents feel more secure when
they know the limits of anthey know the limits of an
activity.activity.

 Teacher and students are wholeTeacher and students are whole
persons. Sharing about theirpersons. Sharing about their
learning experience allowslearning experience allows
learners to get to know onelearners to get to know one
another and to build community.another and to build community.

 Guided by the knowledge thatGuided by the knowledge that
each learner is unique, theeach learner is unique, the
teacher creates an acceptingteacher creates an accepting
atmosphere. Learners feel freeatmosphere. Learners feel free
to lower their defenses and theto lower their defenses and the
learning experience becomeslearning experience becomes
less threatening.less threatening.

 The teacher understands whatThe teacher understands what
the students say.the students say.
 The students’ native language isThe students’ native language is
used to make the meaning clearused to make the meaning clear
and to build a bridge from theand to build a bridge from the
known to the unknown.known to the unknown.
Students feel more secure whenStudents feel more secure when
they understand everything.they understand everything.

 The teacher asks the studentsThe teacher asks the students
to form a semicircle in front ofto form a semicircle in front of
the blackboard so they can seethe blackboard so they can see
easily.easily.
 Learning at the beginningLearning at the beginning
stages is facilitated if studentsstages is facilitated if students
attend to one task at a time.attend to one task at a time.

 The teacher encourages studentThe teacher encourages student
initiative and independence, butinitiative and independence, but
does not let student flounder indoes not let student flounder in
uncomfortable silences.uncomfortable silences.
 Students need quiet reflectionStudents need quiet reflection
time in order to learn.time in order to learn.

 In groups, students can begin toIn groups, students can begin to
feel a sense of community andfeel a sense of community and
can learn from each other ascan learn from each other as
well as the teacher.well as the teacher.
Cooperation, not competition, isCooperation, not competition, is
encouraged.encouraged.

 The teacher should work in aThe teacher should work in a
non-threatening way with whatnon-threatening way with what
the learner has produced.the learner has produced.
 Developing a community amongDeveloping a community among
the class members builds trustthe class members builds trust
and can help to reduce theand can help to reduce the
threat of the new learningthreat of the new learning
situation.situation.

 Retention will best take placeRetention will best take place
somewhere in between noveltysomewhere in between novelty
and familiarity.and familiarity.

who use CLL Methods?who use CLL Methods?
 Teachers who use theTeachers who use the
Community language LearningCommunity language Learning
Method want their students toMethod want their students to
learn how to use the targetlearn how to use the target
language communicatively.language communicatively.

teacher?teacher?
 The teacher’s initial role isThe teacher’s initial role is
primarily that of a counselor.primarily that of a counselor.
Rather, it means that theRather, it means that the
teacher recognizes howteacher recognizes how
threatening a new learningthreatening a new learning
situation can be for adultsituation can be for adult
learners.learners.

students?students?
 Initially the learners are veryInitially the learners are very
dependent upon the teacher. It isdependent upon the teacher. It is
recognized that as the learnersrecognized that as the learners
continue to study, they becomecontinue to study, they become
increasingly independent. CLTincreasingly independent. CLT
methodologists have identified fivemethodologists have identified five
stages in this movement fromstages in this movement from
dependency to mutualdependency to mutual
interdependency with the teacher.interdependency with the teacher.

 It should be noted that accuracyIt should be noted that accuracy
is always a focus even in theis always a focus even in the
first three stages; however, it isfirst three stages; however, it is
subordinated to fluency.subordinated to fluency.

 In a beginning class, which is whatIn a beginning class, which is what
we observed, students typically havewe observed, students typically have
a conversation using their nativea conversation using their native
language. The teacher helps themlanguage. The teacher helps them
express what they want to say byexpress what they want to say by
giving them the target languagegiving them the target language
translation in chunks. These chunkstranslation in chunks. These chunks
are recorded, and when they areare recorded, and when they are
replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluidreplayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid
conversation.conversation.

 During the course of the lesson,During the course of the lesson,
students are invited to say howstudents are invited to say how
they feel, and in return thethey feel, and in return the
teacher understands them.teacher understands them.

 According to Curran, there areAccording to Curran, there are
six elements necessary for non-six elements necessary for non-
defensive learning: security,defensive learning: security,
aggression, attention, reflection,aggression, attention, reflection,
and retention.and retention.

 The Community LanguageThe Community Language
Learning Method is neitherLearning Method is neither
student-centered, nor teacher-student-centered, nor teacher-
centered, but rather teacher-centered, but rather teacher-
student-centered. Teacher-student-centered. Teacher-
student-centered, with bothstudent-centered, with both
being decision-makers in thebeing decision-makers in the
class.class.

 Responding to the students’Responding to the students’
feelings is considered veryfeelings is considered very
important in Counseling-important in Counseling-
Learning. The teacher listensLearning. The teacher listens
and responds to each commentand responds to each comment
carefully. While security is acarefully. While security is a
basic element of the learningbasic element of the learning
process, the way in which it isprocess, the way in which it is
provided will change dependingprovided will change depending
upon the stage of learner.upon the stage of learner.

Curran writes that ‘learning isCurran writes that ‘learning is
persons, meaning that bothpersons, meaning that both
teacher and students work atteacher and students work at
building trust in one another andbuilding trust in one another and
the learning process.the learning process.

 Curran believes that in this kindCurran believes that in this kind
of supportive learning process,of supportive learning process,
language becomes the meanslanguage becomes the means
for developing creative andfor developing creative and
critical thinking. Culture is ancritical thinking. Culture is an
integral part of languageintegral part of language
learning.learning.

 The most important skills areThe most important skills are
understanding and speaking theunderstanding and speaking the
language at the beginning, withlanguage at the beginning, with
the reinforcement throughthe reinforcement through
reading and writing.reading and writing.

 Where possible, literal nativeWhere possible, literal native
language equivalents are givenlanguage equivalents are given
to the target language wordsto the target language words
that have been transcribed.that have been transcribed.

 Although no particular mode ofAlthough no particular mode of
evaluation is prescribed in the CLLevaluation is prescribed in the CLL
Method, whatever evaluation isMethod, whatever evaluation is
conducted should be in keeping withconducted should be in keeping with
the principles of the method. Finally,the principles of the method. Finally,
it is likely that teachers wouldit is likely that teachers would
encourage their students to self-encourage their students to self-
evaluate—to look at their ownevaluate—to look at their own
learning and to become aware oflearning and to become aware of
their own progress.their own progress.

How does the teacher respond toHow does the teacher respond to
student errors?student errors?
 Teachers should work with whatTeachers should work with what
the learner has produced in athe learner has produced in a
non-threatening way. One waynon-threatening way. One way
of doing this is for the teacher toof doing this is for the teacher to
repeat correctly what therepeat correctly what the
student has said incorrectly.student has said incorrectly.

 The two most basic principles whichThe two most basic principles which
underlie the kind of learning that canunderlie the kind of learning that can
take place in the CLL Method aretake place in the CLL Method are
summed up in the following phrases:summed up in the following phrases:
(1) ‘Learning is persons,’ which(1) ‘Learning is persons,’ which
means that whole-person learning ofmeans that whole-person learning of
another language takes place best inanother language takes place best in
a relationship of trust, support, anda relationship of trust, support, and
cooperation between teacher andcooperation between teacher and
students and among students. (2)students and among students. (2)

 ‘‘Learning is dynamic andLearning is dynamic and
creative,’ which means thatcreative,’ which means that
learning is a living andlearning is a living and
developmental process.developmental process.

Communicative LanguageCommunicative Language
TeachingTeaching
 It became clear that communicationIt became clear that communication
required that students performrequired that students perform
certain functions as well, such ascertain functions as well, such as
promising, inviting, and decliningpromising, inviting, and declining
invitations within a social contextinvitations within a social context
(Wilkins, 1976). In short, being able(Wilkins, 1976). In short, being able
to communicate required more thanto communicate required more than
linguistic competence; it requiredlinguistic competence; it required
communicative competence (Hymes,communicative competence (Hymes,
1971)—knowing when and how to1971)—knowing when and how to
say what to whom.say what to whom.

 Such observations contributedSuch observations contributed
to a shift in the field in the lateto a shift in the field in the late
1970s and early 1980s from a1970s and early 1980s from a
linguistic structure-centeredlinguistic structure-centered
approach to a Communicativeapproach to a Communicative
Approach (Widdowson, 1990).Approach (Widdowson, 1990).

 CLT aims broadly to apply theCLT aims broadly to apply the
theoretical perspective of thetheoretical perspective of the
Communicative Approach byCommunicative Approach by
making communicativemaking communicative
competence the goal ofcompetence the goal of
language teaching and bylanguage teaching and by
acknowledging theacknowledging the
interdependence of languageinterdependence of language
and communication.and communication.

 Whenever possible, ‘authenticWhenever possible, ‘authentic
language’ –language as it islanguage’ –language as it is
used in a real context—shouldused in a real context—should
be introduced.be introduced.
 Being able to figure out theBeing able to figure out the
speaker’s or writer’s intentionsspeaker’s or writer’s intentions
is part of being communicativelyis part of being communicatively
competent.competent.

 The target language is a vehicle forThe target language is a vehicle for
classroom communication, not justclassroom communication, not just
the object of study.the object of study.
 One function can have manyOne function can have many
different linguistic forms. Since thedifferent linguistic forms. Since the
focus of the course is on realfocus of the course is on real
language use, a variety of linguisticlanguage use, a variety of linguistic
forms are presented together. Theforms are presented together. The
emphasis is on the process ofemphasis is on the process of
communication rather than justcommunication rather than just
mastery of language forms.mastery of language forms.

 Students should work withStudents should work with
language at the discourse orlanguage at the discourse or
suprasentential (above thesuprasentential (above the
sentence) level. They mustsentence) level. They must
learn about cohesion andlearn about cohesion and
coherence, those properties ofcoherence, those properties of
language which bind thelanguage which bind the
sentences together.sentences together.

 Games are important becauseGames are important because
they have certain features inthey have certain features in
common with realcommon with real
communicative events—there iscommunicative events—there is
a purpose to the exchange.a purpose to the exchange.
Also, the speaker receivesAlso, the speaker receives
immediate feedback from theimmediate feedback from the
listener on whether or not he orlistener on whether or not he or
she has successfullyshe has successfully
communicated.communicated.

 Students should be given anStudents should be given an
opportunity to express their ideasopportunity to express their ideas
and opinions.and opinions.
 Errors are tolerated and seen as aErrors are tolerated and seen as a
natural outcome of the developmentnatural outcome of the development
of communication skills. Since thisof communication skills. Since this
activity was working on fluency, theactivity was working on fluency, the
teacher did not correct the student,teacher did not correct the student,
but simply noted the error, which hebut simply noted the error, which he
will return to at a later point.will return to at a later point.

 One pf the teacher’s majorOne pf the teacher’s major
responsibilities is to establishresponsibilities is to establish
situations likely to promotesituations likely to promote
communication.communication.
 Communicative interactionCommunicative interaction
encourages cooperativeencourages cooperative
relationships among students. Itrelationships among students. It
gives students an opportunity togives students an opportunity to
work on negotiating meaning.work on negotiating meaning.

 The social context of theThe social context of the
communicative event iscommunicative event is
essential in giving meaning toessential in giving meaning to
the utterances.the utterances.
 Learning to use language formsLearning to use language forms
appropriately is an importantappropriately is an important
part of communicativepart of communicative
competence.competence.

 The teacher acts as a facilitatorThe teacher acts as a facilitator
in setting up communicativein setting up communicative
activities and as an advisoractivities and as an advisor
during the activities.during the activities.
 In communicating, a speakerIn communicating, a speaker
has a choice not only abouthas a choice not only about
what to say, but also how to saywhat to say, but also how to say
it.it.

 The grammar and vocabularyThe grammar and vocabulary
that the students learn followthat the students learn follow
from the function, situationalfrom the function, situational
context, and the roles of thecontext, and the roles of the
interlocutors.interlocutors.

 Students should be givenStudents should be given
opportunities to listen toopportunities to listen to
language as it is used inlanguage as it is used in
authentic communication. Theyauthentic communication. They
may be coached on strategiesmay be coached on strategies
for how to improve theirfor how to improve their
comprehension.comprehension.

What are the goals ofWhat are the goals of
teachers who use CLT?teachers who use CLT?
 The goal is to enable studentsThe goal is to enable students
to communicate in the targetto communicate in the target
language. To do this studentslanguage. To do this students
need knowledge of linguisticneed knowledge of linguistic
forms, meanings, and functions.forms, meanings, and functions.
Communication is a process;Communication is a process;
knowledge of the forms ofknowledge of the forms of
language is insufficient.language is insufficient.

teacher?teacher?
 The teacher facilitates communication inThe teacher facilitates communication in
the classroom. In this role, one of histhe classroom. In this role, one of his
major responsibilities is to establishmajor responsibilities is to establish
situations likely to promote communication.situations likely to promote communication.
During the activities he acts as an adviser,During the activities he acts as an adviser,
answering students’ questions andanswering students’ questions and
monitoring their performance. He mightmonitoring their performance. He might
make note of their errors to be worked onmake note of their errors to be worked on
at a later time during more accuracy-basedat a later time during more accuracy-based
activities. At other times he might beactivities. At other times he might be

 A ‘co-communicator’ engagingA ‘co-communicator’ engaging
in the communicative activityin the communicative activity
along with students (Littlewood,along with students (Littlewood,
1981).1981).


students?students?
 Students are, above all,Students are, above all,
communicators. They are activelycommunicators. They are actively
engaged in negotiating meaning—inengaged in negotiating meaning—in
trying to make themselvestrying to make themselves
understood and in understandingunderstood and in understanding
others.others.
 Since the teacher’s role is lessSince the teacher’s role is less
dominant than in a teacher-centereddominant than in a teacher-centered
method, students are seen as moremethod, students are seen as more

 Responsible managers of theirResponsible managers of their
own learning.own learning.

 The most obviousThe most obvious
characteristics of CLT is thatcharacteristics of CLT is that
almost everything that is done isalmost everything that is done is
done with a communicativedone with a communicative
intent. Students use theintent. Students use the
language a great deal throughlanguage a great deal through
communicative activities suchcommunicative activities such
as games, role plays, andas games, role plays, and
problem-solving tasks.problem-solving tasks.

 According to Morrow (inAccording to Morrow (in
Johnson and Morrow, 1981),Johnson and Morrow, 1981),
activities that are trulyactivities that are truly
communicative have threecommunicative have three
features in common: informationfeatures in common: information
gap, choice, and feedback.gap, choice, and feedback.

 In communicative, the speakerIn communicative, the speaker
has a choice of what she willhas a choice of what she will
say and how she will say it.say and how she will say it.
True communication isTrue communication is
purposeful. A speaker can thuspurposeful. A speaker can thus
evaluate whether or not hisevaluate whether or not his
purpose has been achievedpurpose has been achieved
based upon the information shebased upon the information she
receives from his listener.receives from his listener.

 Another characteristic of CLT isAnother characteristic of CLT is
the use of authentic materials. Itthe use of authentic materials. It
is considered desirable to giveis considered desirable to give
students an opportunity tostudents an opportunity to
develop strategies fordevelop strategies for
understanding language as it isunderstanding language as it is
actually used.actually used.

 Finally, we noted that activitiesFinally, we noted that activities
in CLT are often carried out byin CLT are often carried out by
students in small groups. Smallstudents in small groups. Small
numbers of students interactingnumbers of students interacting
are favored in order to maximizeare favored in order to maximize
the time allotted to each studentthe time allotted to each student
for communicating.for communicating.

 The teacher may present someThe teacher may present some
part of the lesson, such as whenpart of the lesson, such as when
working with linguistic accuracy.working with linguistic accuracy.
At other times, he is theAt other times, he is the
facilitator of the activities, but hefacilitator of the activities, but he
does not always himself interactdoes not always himself interact
with the students.with the students.

 Students interact a great dealStudents interact a great deal
with one another. They do thiswith one another. They do this
in various configurations: pairs,in various configurations: pairs,
triads, small groups, and wholetriads, small groups, and whole
group.group.

 One of the basic assumptions ofOne of the basic assumptions of
CLT is that by learning toCLT is that by learning to
communicate students will becommunicate students will be
more motivated to study amore motivated to study a
foreign language since they willforeign language since they will
feel they are learning to dofeel they are learning to do
something useful with thesomething useful with the
language.language.

Linguistic competence, theLinguistic competence, the
knowledge of forms and theirknowledge of forms and their
meanings, is just one part ofmeanings, is just one part of
communicative competence.communicative competence.
Another aspect ofAnother aspect of
communicative competence iscommunicative competence is
knowledge of the functionsknowledge of the functions
language is used for.language is used for.

 Thus, learners need knowledgeThus, learners need knowledge
of forms and meanings andof forms and meanings and
functions. However, they mustfunctions. However, they must
also use this knowledge andalso use this knowledge and
take into consideration thetake into consideration the
social situation in order tosocial situation in order to
convey their intended meaningconvey their intended meaning
appropriately.appropriately.

 Culture is the everyday lifestyleCulture is the everyday lifestyle
of people who use theof people who use the
language. There are certainlanguage. There are certain
aspects of it that are especiallyaspects of it that are especially
important to communication—important to communication—
the use of nonverbal behaviorthe use of nonverbal behavior
which might receive greaterwhich might receive greater
attention in CLT.attention in CLT.

 Language functions might beLanguage functions might be
emphasized over forms. Typically,emphasized over forms. Typically,
a functional syllabus is used. Aa functional syllabus is used. A
variety of forms are introduced forvariety of forms are introduced for
each function. Only the simplereach function. Only the simpler
forms would be presented at first, butforms would be presented at first, but
as students get more proficient in theas students get more proficient in the
target language, the functions aretarget language, the functions are
reintroduced and more complexreintroduced and more complex
forms are learned.forms are learned.

 Students work on all four skillsStudents work on all four skills
from the beginning. Just as oralfrom the beginning. Just as oral
communication is seen to takecommunication is seen to take
place through negotiationplace through negotiation
between speaker and listener,between speaker and listener,
so too is meaning thought to beso too is meaning thought to be
derived from the written wordderived from the written word
through an interaction betweenthrough an interaction between
the reader and the writer.the reader and the writer.

 Judicious use of the students’Judicious use of the students’
native language is permitted innative language is permitted in
CLT. However, wheneverCLT. However, whenever
possible, the target languagepossible, the target language
should be used not only duringshould be used not only during
communicative activities, butcommunicative activities, but
also for explaining the activitiesalso for explaining the activities
to the students or in assigningto the students or in assigning
homework.homework.

 A teacher evaluates not only theA teacher evaluates not only the
students’ accuracy, but alsostudents’ accuracy, but also
their fluency.their fluency.
 A teacher can informallyA teacher can informally
evaluate his students’evaluate his students’
performance in his role as anperformance in his role as an
adviser or co-communicator.adviser or co-communicator.

 Errors of form are toleratedErrors of form are tolerated
during fluency-based activitiesduring fluency-based activities
and are seen as a naturaland are seen as a natural
outcome of the development ofoutcome of the development of
communication skills.communication skills.

Content-based ApproachContent-based Approach
 There are three moreThere are three more
approaches that makeapproaches that make
communication central: content-communication central: content-
based instruction, task-basedbased instruction, task-based
instruction, and participatoryinstruction, and participatory
approach. The difference is aapproach. The difference is a
matter of their focus.matter of their focus.

 CLT lessons centered on givingCLT lessons centered on giving
students opportunities to practicestudents opportunities to practice
using the communicative function ofusing the communicative function of
making predictions. In this chapter,making predictions. In this chapter,
the approaches we examine do notthe approaches we examine do not
begin with functions or any otherbegin with functions or any other
language items. Instead, they givelanguage items. Instead, they give
priority to process overpriority to process over
predetermined linguistic content.predetermined linguistic content.

 In these approaches rather thanIn these approaches rather than
‘learning to use English,‘learning to use English,
‘students use ‘English to learn it’‘students use ‘English to learn it’
(Howatt, 1984:279).(Howatt, 1984:279).

 Using content from otherUsing content from other
disciplines in language coursesdisciplines in language courses
is not a new idea. For years,is not a new idea. For years,
specialized language coursesspecialized language courses
have included content relevanthave included content relevant
to a particular profession orto a particular profession or
academic discipline.academic discipline.

 The special contribution ofThe special contribution of
content-based instruction is thatcontent-based instruction is that
it integrates the learning ofit integrates the learning of
language with the learning oflanguage with the learning of
some other content, oftensome other content, often
academic subject matter. It hasacademic subject matter. It has
been observed that academicbeen observed that academic
subjects provide natural contentsubjects provide natural content
for language instruction.for language instruction.

 Such observations motivated theSuch observations motivated the
‘language across the curriculum’‘language across the curriculum’
movement for native Englishmovement for native English
speakers in England, which wasspeakers in England, which was
launched in the 1970s to integratelaunched in the 1970s to integrate
the teaching of reading and writingthe teaching of reading and writing
into all other subject areas. Ofinto all other subject areas. Of
course, when students studycourse, when students study
academic subjects in a non-nativeacademic subjects in a non-native
language, they will need a great deallanguage, they will need a great deal

 of assistance in understandingof assistance in understanding
subject matter texts. Content-subject matter texts. Content-
based instruction fits in with thebased instruction fits in with the
other methods in this chapterother methods in this chapter
where the selection andwhere the selection and
sequence of language itemssequence of language items
arise from communicativearise from communicative
needs, not predetermined byneeds, not predetermined by
syllabi.syllabi.

 The subject matter content isThe subject matter content is
used for language teachingused for language teaching
purposes.purposes.
 Teaching should build onTeaching should build on
students’ previous experience.students’ previous experience.

 When learners perceive theWhen learners perceive the
relevance of their language use,relevance of their language use,
they are motivated to learn.they are motivated to learn.
They know that it is a means toThey know that it is a means to
an end, rather than an end inan end, rather than an end in
itself.itself.

 The teacher ‘scaffolds’ theThe teacher ‘scaffolds’ the
linguistic content, i.e. helpslinguistic content, i.e. helps
learners say what it is they wantlearners say what it is they want
to say by building together withto say by building together with
the students a completethe students a complete
utterance.utterance.

 Language is learned mostLanguage is learned most
effectively when it is used as aeffectively when it is used as a
medium to convey informationalmedium to convey informational
content of interest to thecontent of interest to the
students.students.

 Vocabulary is easier to acquireVocabulary is easier to acquire
when there are contextual clueswhen there are contextual clues
to help convey meaning.to help convey meaning.
 When they work with authenticWhen they work with authentic
subject matter, students needsubject matter, students need
language support.language support.

 Learners work with meaningful,Learners work with meaningful,
cognitively demanding languagecognitively demanding language
and content within the context ofand content within the context of
authentic material and tasks.authentic material and tasks.

 Communicative competenceCommunicative competence
involves more than usinginvolves more than using
language conversationally. Itlanguage conversationally. It
also includes the ability to read,also includes the ability to read,
discuss, and write about contentdiscuss, and write about content
from other fields.from other fields.

 Another content-basedAnother content-based
instruction ‘face,’ where contentinstruction ‘face,’ where content
and language instruction haveand language instruction have
been integrated, is the adjunctbeen integrated, is the adjunct
model. Students enroll in amodel. Students enroll in a
regular academic course. Inregular academic course. In
addition, they take a languageaddition, they take a language
course that is linked to thecourse that is linked to the
academic course.academic course.

 In sheltered–language instruction inIn sheltered–language instruction in
a second language environment,a second language environment,
both native speakers and non-nativeboth native speakers and non-native
speakers of a particular languagespeakers of a particular language
follow a regular academicfollow a regular academic
curriculum. For classes with non-curriculum. For classes with non-
native speakers, however, ‘sheltered’native speakers, however, ‘sheltered’
instruction is geared to students’instruction is geared to students’
developing second languagedeveloping second language
proficiency.proficiency.

 Sheltered-language instructorsSheltered-language instructors
support that their students throughsupport that their students through
the use of particular instructionalthe use of particular instructional
techniques and materials. It offerstechniques and materials. It offers
the significant advantage thatthe significant advantage that
second language students do notsecond language students do not
have to postpone their academichave to postpone their academic
study until their language controlstudy until their language control
reaches a high level.reaches a high level.

 In sum, what all modes of content-In sum, what all modes of content-
based instruction have in common isbased instruction have in common is
learning both specific content andlearning both specific content and
related language skills. In content-related language skills. In content-
based language teaching, the claimbased language teaching, the claim
in a sense is that students get “twoin a sense is that students get “two
for one”—both content knowledgefor one”—both content knowledge
and increased language proficiency’and increased language proficiency’
(Wesche, 1993).(Wesche, 1993).

Techniques and principles in language teaching

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