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P E T E R H A M M E R S T E I N , E D I T O R
D A H L E M W O R K S H O P R E P O R T S
GENETIC AND CULTURAL
EVOLUTION OF COOPERATION
The MIT Press • Massachusetts Institute of Technology • Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142 • http://mitpress.mit.edu
Tectonic faults are sites of localized motion, both at
the Earth’s surface and within its dynamic interior.
Faulting is directly linked to a wide range of global
phenomena, including long-term climate change and
the evolution of hominids, the opening and closure
of oceans, and the rise and fall of mountain ranges. In
Tectonic Faults, scientists from a variety of disciplines
explore the connections between faulting and the
processes of the Earth’s atmosphere, surface, and inte-
rior. They consider faults and faulting from many dif-
ferent vantage points—including those of surface
analysts, geochemists, material scientists, and physi-
cists—and in all scales, from seismic fault slip to
moving tectonic plates. They address basic issues,
including the imaging of faults from the Earth’s sur-
face to the base of the lithosphere and deeper, the
structure and rheology of fault rocks, and the role of
fluids and melt on the physical properties of deform-
ing rock. They suggest strategies for understanding
the interaction of faulting with topography and cli-
mate, predicting fault behavior, and interpreting the
impacts on the rock record and the human environ-
ment. Using an Earth Systems approach, Tectonic
Faults provides a new understanding of feedback
between faulting and Earth’s atmospheric, surface,
and interior processes, and recommends new
approaches for advancing knowledge of tectonic
faults as an integral part of our dynamic planet.
M A R K R . H A N D Y is Professor of Geology at Freie
Universität Berlin.
G R E G H I R T H is Associate Scientist in the Depart-
ment of Geology and Geophysics at the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution.
N I E L S H O V I U S is University Lecturer and Fel-
low of Churchill College, Department of Earth Sci-
ences, University of Cambridge.
Contributors
Lukas P. Baumgartner, Gregory C. Beroza, Bart Bos, Jean-Pierre Brun, W. Roger Buck,
Roland Bürgmann, Massimo Cocco, James A. D. Connolly, Patience A. Cowie,
Alexander L. Densmore, Anke M. Friedrich, Kevin Furlong, Jean-Pierre Gratier,
Frédéric Gueydan, Mark R. Handy, Greg Hirth, Niels Hovius, Rainer Kind, Geoffrey
C. P. King, Eric Kirby, Peter O. Koons, Sergei Medvedev, Stephen A. Miller, Walter D.
Mooney, Estelle Mortimer, Thorsten J. Nagel, Onno Oncken, Kenshiro Otsuki, Mark
Person, James R. Rice, Gerald P. Roberts, Claudio L. Rosenberg, Allan Rubin, Fritz
Schlunegger, Paul Segall, Sergei A. Shapiro, Manfred Strecker, Tuncay Taymaz, Chris-
tian Teyssier, Terry E. Tullis, Janos L. Urai, Alain Vauchez, Friedhelm von Blancken-
burg, Brian Wernicke, Christopher A. J. Wibberley, Bruce W. D. Yardley
Cover illustration: L’Atmosphère: Météorologie Populaire, Camille Flammarion,
Paris: Librairie Hachette et C, 1888, detail.
E D I T E D B Y P E T E R H A M M E R S T E I N
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D A H L E M W O R K S H O P R E P O R T S
E D I T E D B Y M A R K R . H A N D Y,
G R E G H I R T H , A N D N I E L S H O V I U S
TECTONIC FAULTS
A G E N T S O F C H A N G E O N A D Y N A M I C E A R T H
e d i t e d b y M a r k R . H a n d y ,
G r e g H i r t h , a n d N i e l s H o v i u s
Tectonic Faults
A G E N T S O F C H A N G E O N A
D Y N A M I C E A R T H
0-262-08362-0 978-0-262-08362-1
environment/science

Tectonic Faults
Agents of Change on a Dynamic Earth
Goals for this Dahlem Workshop:
To assess the intrinsic and extrinsic factors controlling fault evolution, from
nucleation through growth to maturity,
To evaluate the competing processes and feedback mechanisms of faulting on
different time and length scales, from the surface down to the asthenosphere,
To consider new strategies for predicting fault behavior and its impact on the
rock record and on the human environment.

Report of the 95th Dahlem Workshop on
The Dynamics of Fault Zones
Berlin, January 16–21, 2005
Held and published on behalf of the
President, Freie Universität Berlin: Dieter Lenzen
Scientific Advisory Board: H. Keupp and R. Tauber, Chairpersons
N. S. Baer, G. Braun, P. J. Crutzen,
E. Fischer-Lichte, F. Hucho, K. Labitzke,
R. Menzel, J. Renn, H.-H. Ropers,
E. Sandschneider, L. Wöste
Executive Director: W. de Vivanco
Assistant Editors: G. Custance, C. Rued-Engel
Funded by: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

Tectonic Faults
Edited by
Mark R. Handy, Greg Hirth, and Niels Hovius
Program Advisory Committee:
Mark R. Handy, Chairperson
Lukas P. Baumgartner, Anke M. Friedrich, Greg Hirth,
Walter D. Mooney, and James R. Rice
The MIT Press
Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, U.K.
in cooperation with the Freie Universität Berlin

© 2007 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Freie Universität Berlin
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by electronic or
mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and re-
trieval) without permission in writing from the publisher.
MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales
promotional use. For information, please email special_sales@mitpress.mit.edu or write
to Special Sales Department, The MIT Press, 55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, MA 02142.
This book was set in TimesNewRoman by Stasch · Verlagsservice, Bayreuth.
Printed and bound in China.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tectonic Faults : agents of change on a dynamic Earth / edited by Mark
R. Handy, Greg Hirth, and Niels Hovius.
p. cm. — (Dahlem workshop reports ; 95)
“Report of the 95th Dahlem Workshop on the dynamics of fault zones,
Berlin, January 16–21, 2005”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-262-08362-1 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Faults (Geology)—Congresses. 2. Geodynamics—Congresses. I. Handy,
Mark R. II. Hirth, Greg. III. Hovius, Niels.
QE606.T44 2007
551.8'72—dc22
2006033362
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents
Dahlem Konferenzen®
vii
List of Participants ix
1 Tectonic Faults: Agents of Change on a Dynamic Earth 1
2 Fault Zones from Top to Bottom: A Geophysical Perspective 9
Walter D. Mooney, Gregory C. Beroza, and Rainer Kind
3 Strain Localization within Fault Arrays over Timescales
of 100–107 Years: Observations, Explanations, and Debates 47
Patience A. Cowie, Gerald P. Roberts, and Estelle Mortimer
4 Group Report: Nucleation and Growth of Fault Systems 79
Kevin Furlong, Rapporteur
Gregory C. Beroza, Jean-Pierre Brun, Patience A. Cowie,
Mark R. Handy, Walter D. Mooney, Tuncay Taymaz,
Christian Teyssier, Alain Vauchez, and Brian Wernicke
5 Seismic Fault Rheology and Earthquake Dynamics 99
James R. Rice and Massimo Cocco
6 Continental Fault Structure and Rheology
from the Frictional-to-Viscous Transition Downward 139
Mark R. Handy, Greg Hirth, and Roland Bürgmann
7 Group Report: Rheology of Fault Rocks
and Their Surroundings 183
Terry E. Tullis, Rapporteur
Roland Bürgmann, Massimo Cocco, Greg Hirth, Geoffrey C. P. King,
Onno Oncken, Kenshiro Otsuki, James R. Rice, Allan Rubin,
Paul Segall, Sergei A. Shapiro, and Christopher A. J. Wibberley

vi
8 Topography, Denudation, and Deformation:
The Role of Surface Processes in Fault Evolution 205
Peter O. Koons and Eric Kirby
9 Constraining the Denudational Response to Faulting 231
Niels Hovius and Friedhelm von Blanckenburg
10 Group Report: Surface Environmental Effects
on and of Faulting 273
W. Roger Buck, Rapporteur
Alexander L. Densmore, Anke M. Friedrich, Niels Hovius, Eric Kirby,
Peter O. Koons, Thorsten J. Nagel, Fritz Schlunegger,
Manfred R. Strecker, and Friedhelm von Blanckenburg
11 Fluid Processes in Deep Crustal Fault Zones 295
Bruce W. D. Yardley and Lukas P. Baumgartner
12 Deformation in the Presence of Fluids and Mineral Reactions:
Effect of Fracturing and Fluid–Rock Interaction
on Seismic Cycles 319
Jean-Pierre Gratier and Frédéric Gueydan
13 Effects of Melting on Faulting and
Continental Deformation 357
Claudio L. Rosenberg, Sergei Medvedev, and Mark R. Handy
14 Group Report: Fluids, Geochemical Cycles, and
Mass Transport in Fault Zones 403
Mark Person, Rapporteur
Lukas P. Baumgartner, Bart Bos, James A. D. Connolly,
Jean-Pierre Gratier, Frédéric Gueydan, Stephen A. Miller,
Claudio L. Rosenberg, Janos L. Urai, and Bruce W. D. Yardley
Author Index 427
Subject Index 429
Contents

Prof. Dr. WERNER REUTTER, Scientific Director
Arnimallee 22, 14195 Berlin-Dahlem, Germany
Purpose
The Dahlem Konferenzen are held to promote the exchange of scientific ideas
and information, to stimulate cooperation between scientists, and to define av-
enues of future research.
Concept
Progress in understanding complex systems—whether in science or in soci-
ety—requires interdisciplinary research. Yet, specialists must understand each
other across disciplinary lines if they want to collaborate.
The Dahlem Konferenzen offer a unique possibility for researchers from
various disciplines to approach topics from their own perspective while com-
bining their experience. The aim of the Konferenzen is not necessarily to reach
a consensus, but to identify gaps in knowledge, to find new ways of approach-
ing contentious points, and to indicate the direction of future research.
Themes
Leading scientists submit workshop proposals on themes that
are directed toward innovative, interdisciplinary research
are of high-priority interest to the disciplines involved.
The proposals are submitted to the ScientificAdvisory Board of the Konferenzen
for consideration.
® Dahlem Konferenzen is a registered trademark in the EU.

viii
Program Advisory Committee
A Program Advisory Committee is formed for each workshop based on the
recommendations of the Workshop initiator(s). Approximately one year before
the workshop, this committee convenes to decide on the scientific program,
define the goals of the workshop, and select the themes for debate. Approxi-
mately 40 participants are invited on the basis of their expertise and interna-
tional reputation in the relevant research topics. In addition, a young German
scientist can be invited who has demonstrated outstanding potential in field(s)
related to the Workshop theme.
The Dahlem Workshop Model
The Dahlem Konferenzen employ a unique format for scientific deliberation
(the Dahlem Workshop Model) in which the invited participants meet in four
interdisciplinary working groups to illuminate the workshop theme from a va-
riety of perspectives. The basis for the group discussions are background pa-
pers written by selected participants before the workshop. These papers review
particular areas of the workshop theme and pose fundamental questions for the
future of research on that theme. During the workshop, each group prepares a
report summarizing the results of its deliberations. Two to three workshops a
year are held with this format.
Dahlem Workshop Reports
The group reports are published together with the revised background papers as
a Dahlem Workshop Report. The reports are published as books by MIT Press.
History
In 1974, the Dahlem Konferenzen were established by the Stifterverband for
die DeutscheWissenschaft in cooperation with the Deutsche Forschungsgemein-
schaft to promote communication and cooperation between scientific disciplines
and individual scientists. Since 1990, the Dahlem Konferenzen have been a part
of the Freie Universität Berlin. To date, ninety-five Dahlem Workshops have
been organized with over 4000 participants. Basic costs are covered by the Freie
Universität Berlin.
Name
Dahlem Konferenzen are named after the Berlin district of Dahlem, which has
a rich tradition as a scientific location. Today, several Max Planck Institutes, the
Freie Universität Berlin, and the Wissenschaftskolleg are located there.

List of Participants
LUKAS P. BAUMGARTNER Institut de Minéralogie et Geochimie, Université
de Lausanne, BFSH 2, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
Metamorphic petrology, fluid–rock interaction, kinetics of mineral reactions,
texture development
GREGORY C. BEROZA Department of Geophysics, Stanford University,
397 Panama Mall, Stanford, CA 94305–2215, U.S.A.
Earthquake and engineering seismology: precise earthquake locations, tomography,
dynamic rupture modeling
BART BOS Materials Technology, TNO Science and Industry, P.O. Box 595,
Eindhoven 5600 AN, The Netherlands
Deformation mechanics, fracture mechanics, fluid–rock interaction, experimental
rock deformation
JEAN-PIERRE BRUN Geoscience Rennes, University of Rennes 1, Campus
de Beaulieu, Bat. 15, Avenue du Général Leclerc, 35042 Rennes cedex,
France
Continental tectonics, thrusting and extension; mechanics of brittle-ductile
systems; lithosphere deformation
W. ROGER BUCK Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,
Oceanography 108A, Rt. 9W, Palisades, NY 10964, U.S.A.
Continental rifting and the generation of parallel sets of normal faults; dike
intrusion in rifts and along mid-ocean ridges
ROLAND BÜRGMANN Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University
of California, Berkeley, 389 McCone Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, U.S.A.
Active tectonics, crustal deformation, and space geodesy
MASSIMO COCCO Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia,
Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Rome, Italy
Earthquake and fault mechanics; rheology of fault zones; frictional models and
dynamic simulations of earthquake ruptures; frictional heating and fluid flow

x
JAMES A. D. CONNOLLY Institute for Mineralogy and Petrology, ETH
Zürich, Clausiusstrasse 25, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
Fluid flow in deformable media; metamorphic/igneous petrology
PATIENCE A. COWIE School of GeoSciences, Grant Institute of Earth
Sciences, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh
EH9 3JW, Scotland, U.K.
Strain localization and variations in fault slip rates in space and time
ALEXANDER L. DENSMORE Department of Geography, Durham University,
South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, U.K.
Development of topography above active structures; evolution of
catchment-fan systems; patterns of erosion associated with fault growth
ANKE M. FRIEDRICH Institut für Geologie, Universität Hannover,
Callinstr. 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany
Surface deformation and kinematics of active continental plate boundary
regions; geologic context of geodetic data and landscape evolution
KEVIN FURLONG Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State
University, 542 Deike Building, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A.
Lithospheric geodynamics and modeling thermal-deformational processes
along plate boundaries
JEAN-PIERRE GRATIER L.G.I.T. CNRS-Observatoire, Geosciences,
Université Joseph Fourier, Rue de la Piscine, 38041 Grenoble cedex 9,
France
Mechanisms of deformation in the presence of fluids; creep and compaction
by pressure solution; experimental approach and observations of natural
deformation; faulting and folding compatibility; 3D restoration and
balancing methods
FRÉDÉRIC GUEYDAN Géosciences Rennes, Université Rennes 1, Bat 15,
Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes cedex, France
Field geology (ductile shear zones); ductile rheology (strain localization and
mineral reaction); numerical modeling (lithospheric extension)
MARK R. HANDY Geowissenschaften, Freie Universität Berlin,
Malteserstr. 74–100, 12249 Berlin, Germany
Tectonics, structural geology, rock mechanics, faulting
GREG HIRTH Department of Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution, MS#8, WH01, Woods Hole, MA 02543,
U.S.A.
Rock mechanics, structural geology, geophysics

xi
NIELS HOVIUS Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge,
Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, U.K.
Feedbacks between tectonics, climate, and erosion; controls on erosional
landscape evolution, onshore and offshore; erosional fluxes from continents
to the oceans; mechanisms of hillslope mass wasting and fluvial bedrock incision
GEOFFREY C. P. KING Laboratoire de Tectonique, Mecanique de la
Lithosphère, Institut de Physique du Globe, 4, place Jussieu, 75252 Paris
cedex 05, France
The mechanics of lithospheric deformation
ERIC KIRBY Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University,
336 Deike Bldg., University Park PA 16802, U.S.A.
Interaction between surface processes and tectonics; landscape response to
differential rock uplift; tectonics in Asia
PETER O. KOONS Department of Earth Sciences, University of Maine,
Bryand Global Science Center, Orono, ME 04469–5790, U.S.A.
Mechanics of atmospheric/tectonic cooperation
STEPHEN A. MILLER Geodynamics/Geophysics, University of Bonn,
Nussallee 8, 53115 Bonn, Germany
Earthquake mechanics; crustal fluid flow; fracture networks; fault zone
processes
WALTER D. MOONEY U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Rd., MS 977,
Menlo Park, CA 94025, U.S.A.
Structure, composition and evolution of the continental crust; internal physical
properties of fault zones; continental tectonics; intraplate earthquakes;
lithospheric structure
THORSTEN J. NAGEL Geologisches Institut Bonn, Nussallee 8, 53115 Bonn,
Germany
Structural geology and tectonics
ONNO ONCKEN GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Telegrafenberg A17,
14473 Potsdam, Germany
Structural analysis of orogens, analogue modeling, subduction zones, deforma-
tion partitioning and quantification
KENSHIRO OTSUKI Department of Geoenvironmental Sciences, Graduate
School of Sciences, Tohoku University, Aobayama, Aramaki, Aoba-ku,
Sendai 980–8578, Japan
Fault rocks and fault dynamics, fractal geometry of fault zones and fault
populations, water–rock interaction, earthquake prediction

xii
MARK PERSON Department of Geological Sciences, Indiana University,
1001 East 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405–1405, U.S.A.
Numerical modeling of hydrothermal fluid flow in continental rift basins and
fault permeability evolution
JAMES R. RICE Harvard University, 224 Pierce Hall, DEAS–EPS,
29 Oxford St., Cambridge, MA 02138, U.S.A.
Mechanics and physics of fault processes
CLAUDIO L. ROSENBERG Geowissenschaften, Freie Universität Berlin,
Malteserstr. 74–100, 12249 Berlin, Germany
Faults and magmatism, rheology of partially melted crust, alpine tectonics,
indentation tectonics
ALLAN RUBIN Department of Geosciences, Princeton University,
319 Guyot Hall, Princeton, NJ 08544, U.S.A.
Earthquake mechanics, using both observation and theory; dike propagation
FRITZ SCHLUNEGGER Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern,
Baltzerstraße 1, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
Surface processes, tectonic geomorphology, climate and surface erosion, process
sedimentology, Andes, Alps
PAUL SEGALL Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Mitchell Earth
Sciences Building, 397 Panama Mall, Stanford, CA 94305–2215, U.S.A.
Active crustal deformation, physics of faulting and magma transport
SERGEI A. SHAPIRO Geophysik, Freie Universität Berlin, Malteserstr. 74–100,
12249 Berlin, Germany
Seismogenic processes, fluid-induced faulting, rock physics, seismic imaging,
and forward and inverse scattering
MANFRED R. STRECKER Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität
Potsdam, Postfach 601553, Potsdam 14415, Germany
Neotectonics, relationship between tectonics and climate
TUNCAY TAYMAZ Department of Geophysical Engineering, Seismology
Section, Faculty of Mines, Istanbul Technical University (ITU),
Maslak-TR 34390, Istanbul, Turkey
Active tectonics, regional tectonics, geodynamics, seismotectonic processes, rheology
of fault zones, earthquake and fault mechanisms, and source rupture histories
CHRISTIAN TEYSSIER Institut de Géologie et de Paléontologie, Université de
Lausanne, Anthropole, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
Role of partial melting in evolution of orogens; rheology of lithosphere (crust–
mantle coupling); deformation at obliquely convergent/divergent plate margins

xiii
TERRY E. TULLIS Department of Geological Sciences, Brown University,
324 Brook Street, Box 1846, Providence, RI 02912–1846, U.S.A
Experimental rock deformation, rock friction, earthquake mechanics, numerical
modeling
JANOS L. URAI RWTH Aachen University, Geologie–Endogene Dynamik,
Lochnerstrasse 4–20, 52056 Aachen, Germany
Deformation mechanisms, fluid–rock interaction, rock rheology, patterns of
deformation at different scales
ALAIN VAUCHEZ Geosciences Montpellier, Université de Montpellier II et
CNRS, Place E. Bataillon – cc049, 34095 Montpellier cedex 05, France
Geodynamics; strain localization/distribution in middle/lower crust and mantle;
crust mantle coupling/uncoupling; deformation, texture and physical properties
of mantle rocks; seismic, mechanical anisotropy in the lithosphere
FRIEDHELM VON BLANCKENBURG Institut für Mineralogie, Universität
Hannover, Callinstraße 3, 30167 Hannover, Germany
Geochemistry, geochemical and isotopic expressions of Earth surface processes
BRIAN WERNICKE Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences,
California Institute of Technology, MC 170–25, 1200 E. California Blvd.,
Pasadena, CA 91125, U.S.A.
Continental rifting, active tectonics of intraplate fault zones
CHRISTOPHER A. J. WIBBERLEY Laboratoire Géosciences Azur CNRS,
Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, 250, rue A. Einstein,
06560 Valbonne, France
Fault zone structure and hydromechanical properties; mechanics of fault growth
and array evolution; interdependence of fluid–rock interactions and fault zone
rheology
BRUCE W. D. YARDLEY School of Earth and Environment, Earth Sciences,
University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K.
Fluid–rock interactions in the crust, including metamorphic and ore-forming
processes

1
Tectonic Faults
MARK R. HANDY1, GREG HIRTH2, and NIELS HOVIUS3
1Department of Earth Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin, Malteserstr. 74–100,
12249 Berlin, Germany
2Department of Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
MS#8, WH01, Woods Hole, MA 02543, U.S.A.
3Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street,
Cambridge CB2 3EQ, U.K.
WHAT ARE FAULTS AND WHY SHOULD WE STUDY THEM?
Movements within the Earth and at its surface are accommodated in domains
of localized displacement referred to as faults or shear zones. Since the advent
of the plate tectonic paradigm, faults have been recognized as primary agents
of change at the Earth’s surface. Faults delimit tectonic plate boundaries, ac-
commodate plate motion, and guide stress and strain to plate interiors. In ex-
tending and contracting lithosphere, faults are the locus of burial and exhuma-
tion of large rock bodies.
Active faults are zones of enhanced seismicity with associated surface
rupture, ground shaking, and mass wasting. The risk associated with seismic
hazard is particularly high in densely populated areas with complex infra-
structure. Because faults create morphologies that are in many ways favorable
for human settlement (e.g., valleys, harbors), many large population centers
are situated near active faults. Prediction of the magnitude, timing, and
location of earthquakes is important to the safety and development of these
centers.
Faults are also channels for the advection of fluids within the lithosphere.
As such, they link the biosphere and atmosphere with the asthenosphere. In
particular, faults are conduits for water, which is essential for maintaining life.

2
They are sites of enhanced dissolution and precipitation, and therefore often
contain hydrothermal deposits rich in metal oxides, sulfides, and other miner-
als of value to industrial society. In addition, faults bound sedimentary basins
that contain hydrocarbon resources.
Faults affect the composition of the hydrosphere and atmosphere by expos-
ing fresh rock to weathering. In this sense, faults are a potential factor in long-
term climate change. The topography created by faulting provides ecological
niches that favor the evolution and migration of mammals, notably hominids.
Human evolution has been facilitated by faulting.
Faults are high-permeability pathways for molten rock that ascends from
source regions at depth to sinks higher in the lithosphere. Faults are also sites
of melt extraction, magma–wall rock interaction, and differentiation. These
processes modify both the thermal structure and composition of the Earth’s
crust and mantle.
Clearly, understanding faults and their underlying processes is a scientific
challenge with lasting social and economic relevance. Driven by extensive
research in all of these areas, our understanding of faults and faulting has de-
veloped rapidly over the past thirty years. Yet many of the factors and feed-
back mechanisms involved in faulting have still to be constrained. Other no-
tions of fault evolution that have long been accepted are now being called into
question. Traditional avenues of research have lost their potential to yield sur-
prising insights. New concepts and initiatives are necessary if we are to aug-
ment our knowledge of faulting and harness this knowledge to develop models
with predictive capability. This book reports on the findings of the 95th Dahlem
Workshop that was devoted to this endeavor.
THE WORKSHOP
The week-long Dahlem Workshop brought together 41 scientists with back-
grounds in the natural and engineering sciences, all engaged in various aspects
of basic and applied research on fault systems. Prior to the meeting, the pro-
gram advisory committee had agreed on three main goals for advancing fault
research:
to assess the intrinsic and extrinsic factors controlling fault evolution, from
nucleation through growth to maturity and termination;
to evaluate processes and feedback mechanisms of faulting on different time
and length scales, from the surface down to the asthenosphere;
to advance strategies for predicting fault behavior, for understanding the
interaction of faulting with topography and climate, and for interpreting its
impact on the rock record.
In accordance with the Dahlem Workshop format, participants were divided
into four discussion groups charged with developing the following themes:

3
1. Nucleation and growth of fault systems
2. Rheology of fault rocks and their surroundings
3. Climatic and surficial controls on and of faulting
4. Fluids, geochemical cycles and mass transport in fault zones.
These themes encompass numerous challenges for basic research in the Earth
Sciences, many of them with implications for assessing hazard and mitigating
fault-induced risk. To be met, these challenges demand a broad approach in
which specialized research is combined with cross-disciplinary studies to de-
velop a new generation of models with predictive capability. The groups’delib-
erations were facilitated by background papers that had been written on se-
lected aspects of these themes in the months leading up to the meeting. These
papers were made available to all participants before the meeting and constitute
the bulk of this book. They are complemented by the reports of the four work-
shop groups, which were drafted by designated rapporteurs by the end of the
meeting. In the ensuing months, the authors and other participants were able to
revise their papers and reports in light of the discussions and reviews of col-
leagues who are acknowledged below. This book is therefore the result of a
week of well-informed, intensive debate and learning.
WHAT WAS LEARNED?
To answer this question, it helps to begin with some general, long-standing obser-
vations. The structure of faults in the Earth’s lithosphere varies with depth and
displacement: In shallow levels, initial displacement over short times (10–2–100 s)
on a complex system of fault segments (10–2–103 m) eventually concentrates or
localizes on one or more long faults (103–106 m), which remain active intermit-
tently over extended periods of time (105–107 yr). Superposed on this long-term
evolution is short-term transient behavior, exemplified by the recurrence of earth-
quakes (102–105 yr). The dynamic range of length and timescales of fault-related
processes far exceeds the human dimension (see Figure 4.1 in Furlong et al., Chap-
ter 4). The localization of motion on faults implies a weakening of faulted rock
with respect to its surrounding host rocks. Accordingly, motion on fault surfaces
and systems can be partitioned in different directions relative to the trend of a fault
system. Taken together, these general characteristics reflect the interaction of fault
motion history (kinematics) with fault mechanics (rheology), the ambient physi-
cal conditions of faulting (e.g., temperature, pressure, fluid properties), the physi-
cal and chemical properties of rock (mineralogy, porosity, permeability), and the
rates and amounts of denudation at Earth’s surface. Understanding the processes
and feedbacks that govern the impact of faults at Earth’s surface is destined to
advance along many parallel and intertwined lines of investigation.
The geometry and internal structure of fault zones has been imaged from the
surface down to the base of the lithosphere with a variety of geological and
Tectonic Faults: Agents of Change on a Dynamic Earth

4
geophysical methods, as reviewed by Mooney et al. (Chapter 2). At shallow
levels in the Earth’s crust, active faults are discrete features, with microseis-
micity (ML 1–3) concentrated on strands no more than several tens of meters
wide. Damage zones on either side of this core show time-dependent changes
in seismic velocity, presumably due to mineral dissolution–precipitation on
the grain scale in the fractured rock. The role of fluids in healing and sealing
upper crustal fault systems is considered in the context of the earthquake cycle
by Gratier and Gueydan (Chapter 12). The lower depth limit of the damage
zone is not well known, and reflects the need to develop imaging methods
with better resolution at depth (see Furlong et al., Chapter 4, and Tullis et al.,
Chapter 7).
Inroads in understanding the full three-dimensional evolution of upper crustal
fault systems have come from the study of rifted margins with fault activity
documented by sediments in fault-bounded basins (Cowie et al., Chapter 3).
The temporal resolution of fault motion at Earth’s surface is obviously limited
by gaps in the stratigraphic record and the inherent difficulty of discerning all
length and timescales of fault activity in a large faulted domain (Buck et al.,
Chapter 10). Fortunately, recent advances in geochronology (e.g., surface ex-
posure dating with cosmogenic nuclides) already allow us to constrain more
precisely not only the age of sediments, but also time- and area-integrated rates
of denudation (Hovius and von Blanckenburg, Chapter 9). This has facilitated
the calculation of short-term slip rates on faults active over the last ca. 105 yr.
Many of these new techniques await application, especially in regions where
numerical modeling predicts that surface mass flux can perturb the mechanical
stability of rocks at depth (Koons and Kirby, Chapter 8). Erosion potentially
triggers a positive feedback between rock uplift (exhumation), further denuda-
tion, and the generation of topography on timescales of the earthquake cycle.
Much knowledge of fault processes at depths beneath 5 km comes from in-
active (fossil), exhumed fault systems, for example, in mountain belts. Marked
changes in structure are noted at the transition from brittle, frictional sliding
and frictional granular flow (cataclasis) to thermally activated, viscous creep
(mylonitization), as reviewed by Handy et al. in Chapter 6. The authors illus-
trate the dynamic nature of this transition and emphasize its significance for
decoupling within the lithosphere as well as for short-term, episodic changes in
fluid flux and strength. These changes are triggered by frictional or viscous
instabilities and may be measurable as transient motion of the Earth’s surface,
especially after large earthquakes. Geophysical images and geo-electric stud-
ies support the idea of high pore-fluid pressures along thrusts and low-angle
normal faults; they also indicate that faults can act as fluid conduits, barriers or
both depending on the evolving properties of the fault rocks (see Mooney et al.,
Chapter 2). Yardley and Baumgarter (Chapter 11) underscore the impact of fluid
and fluid composition, both on the structural style and on rheology of the crust.
This pertains especially to the escape of volatiles during burial and prograde

5
metamorphism, which is expected to dry out and strengthen the crust. On the
other hand, the presence of fluids can weaken fault rocks in several ways; in the
case of melt, even modest quantities (5–7 vol.-%) can reduce viscosity by an
order of magnitude, possibly more (Rosenberg et al., Chapter 13). Melt-induced
weakening within the base of the continental crust can induce lateral crustal
flow, a key process for supporting broad topographic loads like the orogenic
plateaus of Tibet and the Andean Altiplano. Faults in the Earth’s upper mantle,
imaged by measurements of seismic anisotropy, are interpreted to be planar
zones of distributed shear some 20–100 km wide (Mooney et al., Chapter 2),
although more localized shearing is likely based on rare observations in ex-
humed mantle shear zones. Looking even deeper, the lithosphere–asthenosphere
boundary is also a major shear zone that accommodates tectonic plate motion
with respect to the convecting asthenosphere. The future ability to image fault
structure at these depths is contingent on improving spatial resolution even
beyond that achieved by recently developed seismic receiver function methods
(Furlong et al., Chapter 4).
The mechanical behavior of fault rocks is considered from different per-
spectives, depending on the depth interval and conditions of faulting. Regarding
the seismic response of upper crustal fault zones, Rice and Cocco (Chapter 5)
point out that while rate and state friction laws are adequate descriptions of
fault rock behavior at earthquake nucleation and at slow, interseismic rates,
new concepts are needed to understand why faults weaken so rapidly during the
rupture (growth) stage of large earthquakes. Together with these authors, Tullis
et al. (Chapter 7) and Person et al. (Chapter 14) propose several testable hy-
potheses for fault weakening that call for a new generation of seismic and labo-
ratory experiments, as well as observations of natural fault rocks. In particular,
Person et al. (Chapter 14) examine the role of metamorphic reactions and reac-
tion rates in the context of upwardly and downwardly mobile fluids as a pos-
sible key for the rheology of upper crustal faults during the earthquake cycle.
Osmotic effects of clay minerals in faults are expected to affect pore fluid pres-
sure and frictional properties of fault zones. In contrast, the viscous lower crust
contains mechanical anisotropies (e.g., foliations, minerals), which play a prin-
cipal role in localizing strain within shear zones on all length scales (Handy
et al., Chapter 6). Scaling these inherited structures is a necessary step toward
incorporating the effect of mechanical anisotropy into constitutive rheological
models. This may help to constrain the response time of fault geometry and
structure to changes in regional deformation rate associated with changing plate-
scale kinematics.
The Earth’s dynamic surface, especially in faulted areas, is the product
of coupled climatic, erosional, and tectonic processes. Progress in understand-
ing this coupling has been made, but quantitative, predictive models for the
environmental effects on and of faulting are still far from mature. The models
of Koons and Kirby (Chapter 8) demonstrate the viability of feedbacks between

6
dynamic topography, stress distribution, and uplift rates. However, identi-
fying limits on the time and length scales at which different surface
processes can influence faulting (and vice versa) remains a principal chal-
lenge, as discussed by Buck et al. (Chapter 10). These limits are expected
to depend on a host of climatic factors, as well as on the erodibility of rocks
in the faulted area. Hovius and von Blanckenburg (Chapter 9) review the
available geomorphological and geochemical techniques for measuring ero-
sion and weathering on timescales relevant to faulting. These are shown to be
key to understanding feedbacks between tectonics and climate, especially iso-
static effects related to shifting topographic loads and climatic effects associ-
ated with CO2 drawdown in freshly eroded areas of active faulting. The au-
thors argue that although climatic variability and change are evident in the
pattern of erosion and weathering, this pattern almost always reflects a stron-
ger tectonic signal.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Rather than summarize the wealth of ideas generated by the four group reports,
we end this introduction with an attempt to formulate the participants’ consen-
sus opinion on recommendations for future work in fault studies.
There was broad agreement that research should develop along both inter-
disciplinary and multidisciplinary lines. Faults have immediate impacts on
society, but understanding them to the point where we can improve predictions
of fault behavior is only possible if the underlying processes can be studied on
all relevant time and length scales.
Studies should focus on natural laboratories and on interacting processes.
Natural laboratories are regions of the Earth where geological and climatic
processes can be characterized and quantified in a geo-historical context. For
fault studies, ideal natural laboratories contain both active and fossil (exhumed)
fault systems in a well-defined plate tectonic setting (orogenesis, continental
transform faulting, back-arc spreading, intraplate faulting). The fault images—
whether mapped from space by satellite, at the surface by eye, or resolved
at great depth by geophysical methods—can yield insight into coupled pro-
cesses during prolonged periods of faulting. Several natural laboratories were
mentioned at the conference (e.g., Furlong et al., Chapter 4): the European
Alps, the Southern Alps of New Zealand, the Aegean trench-backarc system,
the North Anatolian and San Andreas faults, the Cordilleran orogens, and the
Himalayan–Tibetan orogen–plateau system. The laboratory chosen obviously
depends on the nature of the process(es) studied, so comparing the role of
a specific process in more than one setting yields better insight into feedbacks.
The best natural laboratories would have an in-depth geological, geophysical,
and climatological information base. New natural laboratories can only be

7
developed if funding agencies are willing to support prolonged campaigns whose
primary objective is to collect, interpret, and assimilate large and diverse datasets.
Much of this basic work is perforce interdisciplinary. Some of the technologies
applied are new.
Experimental laboratory studies are needed to understand processes under
controlled conditions. Specific examples of experiments pertain to fault weak-
ening and the role of gels and fluids, as outlined, respectively, by Tullis et al.
(Chapter 7) and Person et al. (Chapter 14). In some cases, these studies will
require the development of new deformation apparati to better approach natu-
ral conditions in the laboratory. Improved data acquisition and processing
techniques are needed to augment the resolution of structures and material
flux in Earth and at its surface. The improvement of seismic imaging methods
remains a high-priority goal of the geophysical community. Advances are also
desirable in geochemical techniques, for example, to improve the precision of
surface exposure ages obtained by analyzing trace amounts of cosmogenic
nuclides.
Modeling is necessary to test hypotheses and to make predictions in coupled
Earth systems that are too complex to understand intuitively. This effort in-
cludes both physical modeling (i.e., scaled models using analogue, Earth-like
materials) and numerical/analytical modeling. Although both forms of model-
ing are not new to the Earth Science community, the solid Earth community
should take more advantage of recent advances in computing technology to
study coupled, fault-related processes. For example, fault studies should em-
ploy high-power computing facilities (supercomputing, massive parallel ar-
rays) to test theoretical concepts on the nucleation and growth of slip surfaces
at the onset of large earthquakes (Tullis et al., Chapter 7). Likewise, climate
models could be adapted to test the long-term effects of faulting and weather-
ing on atmospheric and oceanic CO2 budgets, and therefore on climate. As in
any study of complex phenomena, true progress will come from a pragmatic
combination of new and existing approaches and technologies.
Outreach, i.e., public information, is not a form of research, but sharing
specialized knowledge is a public duty of the scientific community. Under the
fresh impression of the devastating Mw 9.3 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and
tsunami of December 26, 2004, the members of Group 3 formulated a strategy
of how Earth scientists could better prepare the public for such events and how
public officials might be informed of the risks associated with active faulting
(Buck et al., Chapter 10). The mechanisms by which information flows in so-
cieties under existential stress and duress of time (e.g., in advance of short-
term predictions of natural calamities, like large earthquakes) may be a field
of interdisciplinary research with potential for another Dahlem Workshop.
In this Introduction, we are only able to provide a glimpse of the wealth of
new ideas generated at the workshop. It is left to readers to engage each contri-
bution in this book on its own terms.

8
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Prime thanks are due to the Dahlem staff, which did a fine job of ensuring that every
phase of the conference, from the months of planning to the logistical support of the
workshops, ran smoothly. Their efforts made possible a productive atmosphere in which
science always came first. We wish to thank especially the core members of the staff
(Julia Lupp, Caroline Rued-Engel, Gloria Custance, and Angela Daberkow) for their
spirited support, especially in the face of unexpected personnel changes made by the
Freie Universität just prior to the meeting. They were aided by Barbara Borek and Myriam
Nauerz, who did an admirable job of filling in temporarily for Julia Lupp, the director of
the Dahlem Conferences, who was unfortunately hindered from attending.
The editors would like to thank the following colleagues for their thoughtful reviews
of the background papers: Brian Wernicke, Michael Weber, Charles Sammis, Mark Behn,
Paul Segall, Christian Teyssier, Martyn Drury, Torgeir Andersen, Alexander Densmore,
Jean-Phillipe Avouac, Guy Simpson, Arjun Heimsath, Chris Wibberley, Chris Spiers,
James Connolly, Rainer Abart, Mike Brown, and two anonymous reviewers.
Finally, we acknowledge the Freie Universität and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
for their financial support of this conference, which covered the conference costs, as
well as the travel costs and creature comforts of all participants. The participants join
the editors in hoping that the Freie Universität will continue to honor its commitment to
the scientific integrity of the Dahlem Conferences.

2
Fault Zones from Top to Bottom
A Geophysical Perspective
WALTER D. MOONEY1, GREGORY C. BEROZA2, and RAINER KIND3
1U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, MS 977,
Menlo Park, CA 94025, U.S.A.
2Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Mitchell Building,
Stanford, CA, 94305–2215, U.S.A.
3GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
ABSTRACT
We review recent geophysical insights into the physical properties of fault zones at all
depths in the crust and subcrustal lithosphere. The fault core zone, where slip occurs,
is thin (tens of centimeters) and can mainly be studied in trenches and in borehole well
logs. The fault damage zone is wider (tens to hundred of meters) and can be measured
by the analysis of fault zone-trapped waves. Such studies indicate that the damage
zone extends to a depth of at least 3–5 km, but there is no agreement on the maximum
depth limit. The damage zone exhibits a seismic velocity reduction (with respect to
the neighboring country rock) as high as 20–50%. Significantly, this velocity reduc-
tion appears to have a temporal component, with a maximum reduction after a large
rupture. The fault damage zone then undergoes a slow healing process that appears to
be related to fluid–rock interactions that leads to dissolution of grain contacts and
recrystallization. Deep seismic reflection profiles and teleseismic receiver functions
provide excellent images of faults throughout the crust. In extensional environments
these profiles show normal faulting in the upper crust and ductile extension in the
lower crust. In compressional environments, large-scale low-angle nappes are evident.
These are commonly multiply faulted. The very thin damage zones for these low angle
faults are indicative of high pore-fluid pressures that appear to counteract the normal
stresses, thereby facilitating thrusting. The presence of fluids within fault zones is also
evidenced by geo-electrical studies in such diverse environments as the Himalayan
and Andean orogens, the San Andreas fault, and the Dead Sea Transform. Such studies
show that the fault can act as a fluid conduit, barrier, or combined conduit–barrier

10
system depending on the physical properties of the fault core zone and damage zone.
The geometry of active fault zones at depth is revealed by precise microearthquake
hypocentral locations. There is considerable geometric diversity, with some strike-slip
faults showing a very thin (less then 75 m wide) fault plane and others showing wider,
segmented planes and/or parallel strands of faulting. A new discovery is slip-parallel,
subhorizontal streaks of seismicity that have been identified on some faults. Such streaks
may be due to boundaries between locked and slipping parts of the fault or lithologic
variations on the fault surface. Measurements of seismic anisotropy across strike-slip
faults are consistent with localized fault-parallel shear deformation in the uppermost
mantle, with a width that varies between 20 and 100 km. In addition to shear deforma-
tion zones, seismic reflection profiles have imaged discrete faults in the uppermost
mantle, mainly associated with paleo-continent/continent collisions. Looking deeper,
the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary may be considered as a major shear zone,
considering the horizontal movement of lithospheric plates. This shear zone can be
imaged with newly developed seismic receiver function methods.
INTRODUCTION
Geophysical studies of Earth’s crust, including its fault zones, have developed
steadily over the past 80 years. At present, an impressive array of seismic
and nonseismic techniques is available to investigate the crust and uppermost
mantle. These techniques include active-source refraction and reflection
profiles, seismic tomography, measurements of seismic anisotropy and tele-
seismic converted waves, seismicity patterns and fault zone-guided waves,
borehole surveys, Global Position System (GPS) measurements of crustal
deformation, and geo-electrical, magnetic, and gravity methods. In this paper,
we briefly review recent geophysical progress in the study of the structure
and internal properties of faults zones, from their surface exposures to
their lower limit. We focus on the structure of faults within continental crys-
talline and competent sedimentary rock, rather than within the overlying,
poorly consolidated sedimentary rocks (cf. Catchings et al. 1998; Stephenson
et al. 2002). A significant body of literature exists for oceanic fracture zones
(e.g., Whitmarsh and Calvert 1986; Minshull et al. 1991). Due to space
limitations, this review is restricted to faults within and at the margins of the
continents.
GEOLOGIC AND BOREHOLE OBSERVATIONS OF FAULTS
Geological studies show that faults are characterized by two dominant features,
the core zone and the damage zone (Figure 2.1). The core zone is a thin (tens of
cm) plane on which the majority of displacement along a fault is accommo-
dated. It is defined by Chester et al. (1993) as a foliated central ultra-cataclastite
layer. Examples are the 10–20 cm thick core zone of the Punchbowl and San
Gabriel faults in Southern California (Chester et al. 1993) and the 5 cm thick

11
Figure 2.1 (a) Conceptual model of a fault zone showing the core zone and the broader
damage zone. Geologic mapping and borehole data can identify the core zone, but most
surficial geophysical methods only detect the wider damage zone. Deformation is domi-
nated by strain weakening such that the overall evolution progresses towards geometric
simplicity. Modified from Ben-Zion and Sammis (2003). (b) Empirically determined
relationship between fault length and fault zone width (damage zone). Modified from
Janssen et al. (2002).
Fault Zones from Top to Bottom: A Geophysical Perspective

12
core zone of the Chelungpu fault of the 1999, Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake.
Observations made in underground mines have identified a principal slip zone,
or core zone, that is 1 cm thick or less, traceable to hundreds of meters depth,
suggesting that the core zone extends much deeper (Holdsworth et al. 2001b;
Sibson 2003). The thickness of the core zone varies greatly along each fault,
and individual studies describe particular outcrops rather than the characteris-
tics of the entire fault.
The core zone is bounded on either side by a zone of damaged host rock that
may be hundreds of meters thick for faults with large displacements (Figure 2.1a;
Chester et al. 1993; Schultz and Evans 2000; Ben-Zion and Sammis 2003).
The damage zone is interpreted by Ben-Zion and Sammis (2003) as the rem-
nants of failed or abandoned fault surfaces.
Several studies indicate that the width of the damaged zone is roughly pro-
portional to the fault length and/or the magnitude of displacement along a fault,
and is controlled by several characteristics of the fault zone at depth, i.e., rheol-
ogy, lithology, and stress level (Figure 2.1b; Janssen et al. 2002; Faulkner et al.
2003; Sibson 2003; Collettini and Holdsworth 2004; Famin et al. 2004). In
contrast with strike-slip faults, many brittle foreland thrust faults, with up to
100 km of displacement, display a sharp “knife-edge” fault contact, with a dam-
age zone of less than a meter or so. This remarkable slip localization is attrib-
uted to the presence of fluid at near-lithostatic pressure. This fluid pressure
counteracts the normal stress on the fault surface, thereby lowering the shear
strength (Sibson 2003).
Although the width of the damage zone for major strike-slip faults can amount
to hundreds of meters or more (Holdsworth et al. 2001a; Braathen et al. 2004),
trench investigations of strike-slip faults around the world have shown that,
overwhelmingly, the bulk of the displacement occurs through successive rup-
tures localized within a core zone that is only a few centimeters thick (Sibson
2003). For example, this is observed along the slipping portions of the Hay-
ward fault, where the width of surficial deformation averages tens of meters
within sediments, but becomes only centimeters wide within deeper basement
rocks (Sibson 2003). Determining the width and extent of the fault, as well as
the degree to which fluids can penetrate along the fault plane, is extremely
important for sites such as proposed nuclear repositories (e.g., Yucca Moun-
tain, Nevada; Potter et al. 2004).
The thin core zone of the fault can be identified in boreholes, but most sur-
face-based geophysical measurements generally cannot identify crustal features
that are this thin (i.e., measured in cm). In contrast, the much wider damage
zone can easily be identified with surface geophysical measurements because it
is characterized by a strong (20–30%) reduction in P- and S-wave seismic ve-
locities (i.e., a seismic low-velocity zone) and reduced electrical resistivity.
Below, we discuss these measurements and their implications for the physical
properties of fault zones.

13
FAULT STRUCTURE WITHIN THE SEISMOGENIC ZONE:
FAULT ZONE-GUIDED WAVES
As noted above, the existence of a damage zone along the fault leads to strong
variations in material properties within and across the fault. The variations have
strong effects on seismic wave propagation. Waves that are trapped in the seis-
mic low-velocity zone, which is typically one to several hundred meters wide
in active fault zones, are known as fault zone-guided waves (Figure 2.2). Fault
zone-guided waves are said to be “trapped” because they propagate within the
confines of the low-velocity damaged zone, much like an organ pipe guides
sound waves, or like the “SOFAR” channel in the ocean guides long-distance
sound waves (Ewing and Worzel 1948). These can also be thought of as analo-
gous to Love waves in vertically layered media in that they consist of critically
reflected waves within the low-velocity material. Fault zone-guided waves have
been observed in settings as diverse as the subduction zone in Japan (Fukao
Figure 2.2 Two examples of seismograms showing fault zone-guided waves for after-
shocks of the Duzce, Turkey, earthquake. In each case, the seismogram above (station VO)
was recorded within the fault zone (higher amplitudes) whereas the seismogram below
(station FP) was recorded outside of the fault zone (lower amplitudes). The fault zone-
guided waves are the reverberations directly after the large amplitude S waves (time = 2 s).

14
et al. 1983), a normal fault in the Sierra Nevada foothills near Oroville, Cali-
fornia (Leary et al. 1987), and, most commonly, in continental strike-slip envi-
ronments (e.g., Li et al. 1990; Ben-Zion 1998; Ben-Zion et al. 2003; Haberland
et al. 2003; Fohrmann et al. 2004). Waves that refract horizontally due to the
large contrast in seismic velocity across a fault zone are known as fault zone
head waves. These have also been observed in diverse environments, including
both subduction zones, where low-velocity crust descends into the upper mantle
(Fukao et al. 1983;Abers 2000), and continental strike-slip faults (e.g., McNally
and McEvilly 1977). These two types of waves are naturally very sensitive to
the detailed structure (i.e., width, depth, lateral continuity, and seismic veloc-
ity) of fault zones, and hence have the potential to reveal the properties of faults
at length scales on the order of tens of meters.
The excitation and propagation of fault zone-guided waves depends criti-
cally on the geometry and extent of the seismic low-velocity zone that acts to
trap the waves. If the fault zone structure contains discontinuities, then such waves
will not propagate. Thus, fault zone-trapped waves have tremendous potential to
define fault segmentation (Li et al. 2003). One of the outstanding questions not
yet fully addressed by studies of fault zone-guided waves is how deep the low-
velocity zone extends. There is some evidence (Li et al. 2000) that the low-
velocity zone may extend throughout the entire depth of the seismogenic zone,
defined as extending from the surface to the maximum depth of microearthquakes
(10–14 km in California). However, recent results from aftershocks of the 1999
Duzce, Turkey, earthquake indicate that a significant low-velocity zone only
extends to ~3 km depth (Ben-Zion et al. 2003). Similar results for the Landers,
California, aftershocks suggest that the low-velocity zone extends to a depth of
2–4 km, with velocity reductions on the order of 30–40% (Peng et al. 2003).
Seismic measurements show that the lateral dimensions of some seismic
low-velocity zones responsible for fault zone-guided waves are on the order of
one hundred meters. This is comparable to the width of the damage zone ob-
served on exhumed faults. However, Haberland et al. (2003) report a seismic
low-velocity zone width of only 3–12 m for the Dead Sea Transform fault,
Jordan, despite the more than 100 km of lateral offset on this fault. Thus, both
the width and depth of the low-velocity zone are highly variable.
Another interesting issue concerning fault zone-guided waves is to what
extent the seismic low velocity zone is a permanent feature, and how much it
changes during the earthquake cycle. Field data obtained following the 1992
Landers, California, earthquake suggests that at least some of the decrease in
fault zone velocity arises from damage to shallow materials induced by the
mainshock (Li et al. 1998). The slow temporal increase in seismic velocity and
fault strength after a mainshock is referred to as fault zone healing and is dis-
cussed in detailed by Gratier and Gueydan (Chapter 12). This process is difficult
to define using seismic data but may consist of crack closure by dissolution of
grain contacts and filling of voids by re-crystallization. Fluid–rock interactions

15
are therefore very important in this process. The M 7.1, 1999 Hector Mine
earthquake disrupted healing of the nearby Landers fault zone (Vidale and Li
2003), suggesting that strong ground motion from nearby faults can delay the
healing process. Finally, the link between the observed low-velocity zone and
the mechanical properties of the fault is interesting. InSar (satellite radar) (Fialko
et al. 2002) imaging of faults near the Hector Mine earthquake indicate that a
kilometer-wide zone reacted compliantly to the static stress change induced by
that earthquake. This indicates that the rigidity of the faults is significantly
lower than that of the surrounding crust.
Fault zone-guided waves provide important insight into the internal proper-
ties of fault zones with depth. Although fault zone-guided waves illuminate the
internal structure of the upper few kilometers of fault zones, the internal fault
properties throughout the crust, and in particular the lower depth limit of the
damage zone, are not yet well known.
SEISMIC REFLECTION AND REFRACTION IMAGING
OF FAULTS
Surface-based seismic methods are highly effective at imaging near-horizontal
layers within the Earth. However, seismic imaging of steep structures is more
difficult (Mooney and Ginzburg 1986; Storti et al. 2003; Weber et al. 2004). Like-
wise, due to the attenuation of high-frequency seismic energy with depth, the im-
aging of very thin structures, such as the core zones of faults, is best achieved with
borehole geophysical methods rather than surface seismic methods. However, it is
possible to extract evidence regarding near-vertical faults from observations such
as travel time and amplitude delays, time offset of crustal reflectors, the obser-
vation of scattered waves from faults (Maercklin et al. 2004), and a change in
the strength and coherence of crustal reflectivity (e.g., Weber et al. 2004).
Deep reflection profiles recorded around the British Isles provide excellent
images of crustal and subcrustal faults and shear zones (Matthews 1986;
Klemperer and Hobbs 1991). This region has undergone rifting, and these pro-
files show normal faulting in the upper crust and ductile extension in the lower
crust, as expressed by a dense zone of reflections (Figure 2.3). Upper mantle
faults have also been imaged, albeit only on a few deep seismic reflection pro-
files. One of the clearest examples is the Flannan reflector, offshore Scotland,
which is believed to be a Caledonian thrust reactivated as an extensional shear
zone (Brewer and Smythe 1986; Figure 2.3). This mantle reflector has a dip of
about 30° and can be followed to a depth of 80 km. Snyder and Flack (1990)
suggest that the Flannan reflector may consist of sheared mafic rocks or eclogite,
or may contain hydrous minerals, such as serpentine. Layered seismic anisot-
ropy of sheared peridotite cannot, by itself, explain the strength of the Flannan
reflector (Warner and McGeary 1987). The discovery of the Flannan reflector

16
Figure 2.3 Deep seismic reflection imaging of crustal and upper mantle fault zones.
(a) Location map for the British Isles with marine seismic reflection profile lines indicated
(modified from Matthews et al. 1990). (b) Seismic profile DRUM located off the north
coast of Scotland; see inset panel in (a). This profile shows brittle normal faults within the
upper crust that merge into a zone of diffuse ductile deformation in the lower crust. The Moho
is labeled at a two-way time of 10 s (30 km depth). The uppermost mantle shows two zones
ofreflections,labeledFlannanand W. TheFlannanreflectionsareinterpretedasaCaledonian
suture that was reactivated as a lithospheric extensional fault (Flack and Warner 1990).

17
appeared to confirm the “jelly sandwich” model for lithospheric rheology, in
which the ductile lower crust is tectonically decoupled from the brittle upper
crust and uppermost mantle (e.g., Ranalli and Murphy 1987).
The European Alps provide some of the most important data regarding deep
fault geometries and provide a rare opportunity to compare detailed images of
crustal structure with well-determined focal depths. Seismic images of the crust
are available from numerous profiles, as summarized by Pfiffner et al. (1997),
Waldhauser et al. (1998), and Schmid and Kissling (2000). The NRP-20 profile
across the western part of the central European Alps (Figure 2.4a) illustrates sev-
eral important features: south-directed subduction of the European lithosphere
resulted in the formation of large-scale nappes that are multiply folded and are the
site of a high level of seismic activity (Figure 2.4b). Intra-crustal decoupling ap-
pears to have occurred at the base of the hydrous, quartz-rich intermediate crust
rather than within the mafic lower crust (Schmid et al. 1996). The thickness of the
seismogenic zone varies widely from over 40 km beneath the Penninic realm to
less than 20 km beneath the central Alps (Figure 2.4b), where present-day seis-
micity is restricted to the nappe pile and is rare in the subducted crust and mantle
at depth. As summarized by Schmid and Kissling (2000), the coincidence of the
lower limit of seismicity with the 500° isotherm (Okaya et al. 1996) suggests that
temperature is the dominant parameter controlling the brittle–ductile transition.
Three possible heat sources have been considered to explain the anomalous tem-
perature field: (a) frictional heating; (b) radiogenic heat production within accreted
upper crustal material; and (c) ascent of asthenospheric magmas due to slab break-
off (Okaya et al. 1996; Bousquet et al. 1997; von Blanckenburg and Davis 1995;
Wortel and Spakman 2000). The third of these sources is significant in that it
would also contribute fluids and melts, as observed along the Oligo–Miocene
Periadriatic fault system in the Alps.
Handy and Brun (2004) provide a critical review of lithospheric structure
(as imaged in seismic reflection profiles), lithospheric strength, grain-scale
deformation mechanisms, and crustal seismicity. These authors draw a dis-
tinction between the long-term (106–107 yr) rheology of the lithosphere and
short-term seismicity patterns imaged today. The latter are an ambiguous indi-
cator of long-term strength because most earthquakes are most reasonably
viewed as manifestations of transient instability within shear zones. Seismic-
ity patterns are therefore more an indication of the location of current zones of
episodic decoupling than an indication of lithospheric strength.
The San Andreas fault is one of the most studied faults in the world. Shallow,
high-resolution seismic surveys have produced very accurate definition of the sedi-
mentary section and upper crust of the fault zone. Refraction/wide-angle reflec-
tion profiles show that the major strike-slip faults associated with the San Andreas
fault zone are at a near-vertical orientation and cut through the entire crust, in
places even offsetting the Moho (Figure 2.5; Beaudoin et al. 1996; Hole et al.
1998; Henstock and Levander 2000). The vertical Moho offsets are observed in a

18
highly reflective mafic layer above the Moho that is interpreted to be the remnant
subducted Juan de Fuca oceanic slab (Figure 2.5). These results strongly support
theconceptthatCalifornianstrike-slipfaultspenetratetheentirecrust(Figure 2.6a).
Active low-angle faults associated with the San Andreas fault system have also
been imaged in seismic data. For example, the Los Angeles Area Regional Seis-
mic Experiment (LARSE) data yielded impressive images of the hidden faults
Figure 2.4 Synthesis of the deep structure and seismicity of the western part of the
central Alps along the transect NRP-20 West (Schmid and Kissling 2000). (a) Location
map showing the trace of the seismic profile. (b) Crustal cross section showing base-
ment nappes, seismicity, and deep structure. Surficial faults are rooted in the middle
crust. Seismicity (open circles) decreases dramatically below a depth of 10–15 km, but
some earthquakes are located in the lower crust and even in the upper mantle.

19
Figure 2.5 Seismic velocity structure across the California Coast Ranges, arranged from
north to south (from Hole et al. 1998). The dates indicate the time of passage of the north-
ward migrating Mendocino Triple Junction (MTJ). Seismic velocities are given in km s–1.
Highly reflective mafic rocks are shown in gray; the surface locations of faults are shown.
Scale of vertical exaggeration is 2: 1. SAF: San Andreas Fault; MF: Moho Fault; BSF:
Barlett Spring Fault; FRF: Farallon Ridge Fault; SGF: San Gregorio Fault; HaF: Hayward
Fault; CF: Calaveras Fault; SLE: Santa Lucia Embankment; SLBF: Santa Lucia Bank Fault;
HoF: Hosgri Fault; NF: Nacimiento Fault; BASIX: (San Francisco) Bay Area Seismic
Experiment; PGE-3: Pacific Gas and Electric (Seismic Line) 3.

20
Figure 2.6 Summary of velocity structure within and adjacent to two strike-slip zones
(modified from Stern and McBride 1998). (a) Refraction and reflection profiles cross
the SanAndreas fault in central California near the city of San Luis Obispo (after Mooney
and Brocher 1987). (b) Seismic constraints on crustal structure and composition across
the Alpine fault of New Zealand (Stern and McBride 1998).

21
within the Los Angeles basin and beneath the San Gabriel Mountains (Fuis et al.
2001, 2003). There, the high-angle Sierra Madre fault zone (within the Los Ange-
les basin located west of the San Andreas fault) appears to sole into a master
décollement that terminates at the SanAndreas fault. The SanAndreas fault at this
location is near-vertical and appears to extend at least to the Moho, if not deeper
(Zhu 2000). This result is consistent with other examples of regional-scale strike-
slip faults that appear to cut through the entire crust (often offsetting the Moho)
and penetrate deep into the mantle (Storti et al. 2003). Examples include the Dead
Sea Transform (ten Brink et al. 1990; Weber et al. 2004), the Great Glen fault
(McBride 1995), and the Alpine (New Zealand) fault (Stern and McBride 1998;
Figure 2.6b). Moho offsets are also reported in southern Tibet (Hirn et al.
1984a, b) and in northern and western Tibet (Wittlinger et al. 1998, 2001; Zhu
and Helmberger 1998). However, recently obtained seismic refraction profiles
have failed to confirm these results in northern Tibet (Wang et al. 2006; Zhao
et al. 2006), and the size, frequency, and precise geometry of Moho offsets in
Tibet should be viewed as an open question.
The geometry of faulting beneath the Himalayan orogen in central Nepal is
shown in Figure 2.7 (Zhao et al. 1993; Brown et al. 1996). This is a zone of active
convergence, with the Indian crust and mantle lithosphere underthrusting theAsian
crust. Seismic reflection data clearly image low-angle faults to depths as great as
30 km. Thrust faults within the crust sole into a main detachment fault that ap-
pears to coincide with the top of the Indian Plate. Within the Asian crust (above a
Figure 2.7 Geophysical constraints on the crustal structure across northern India and cen-
tral Nepal (Avouac 2003). The conductivity section was obtained from a magnetotelluric
experiment carried out across central Nepal (Lemonnier et al. 1999). High seismicity cor-
relates with enhanced conductivity. Also shown are the seismic data from the INDEPTH
Project located about 300 km east of this section (Zhao et al. 1993; Brown et al. 1996;
Nelson et al. 1996). All of the thrust faults are inferred to terminate within prominent
midcrustal reflectors, interpreted to be a subhorizontal ductile shear zone. MFT: Main
Frontal Thrust; MDT: Main Detachment Fault; MCT: Main Central Thrust.

22
depth of 20–30 km), the image shows complex, interactive low-angle faulting.
This seismic image confirms geological field studies indicating that syn- and post-
orogenic normal faults are ubiquitous in collisional mountain belts (Chen and Chen
2004; Victor et al. 2004). It is also noteworthy that enhanced seismicity correlates
with a zone of high conductivity that may contain fluids (Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.8 Resistivity (inverse conductivity) results for (a) Chile and (b) the central San
Andreas fault, California. (a) Magnetotelluric data from two profiles crossing the West
Fissure Zone in northern Chile. The conductivity model shown is without vertical exag-
geration. Along the West Fissure fault zone surface trace (C1 and C2), a shallow conduc-
tive anomaly is visible down to 50–200 m, flanked by two resistive zones (R). At a greater
depth beneath Limon Verde (LV) (e), the LV zone is underlain by a resistive zone (R1);
modified from Janssen et al. (2002). (b) Resistivity structure of the San Andreas fault near
Parkfield, California (Unsworth et al. 1997). High conductivity (here shown as low resis-
tivity) correlates with the fault zone and has a width consistent with the expected width of
the damage zone (500–800 m at this location). Solid red dots are earthquake hypocenters.
Tcr: Tertiary cover; Kg: Cretaceous granite; DZ: Damage Zone; Tgv: Tertiary gravel;
Kjf: Cretaceous Franciscan Assemblage.

23
GEO-ELECTRICAL IMAGING OF FAULTS
Magnetotelluric (MT) studies of the electrical resistivity (or, equivalently, conduc-
tivity) have been used to determine subsurface structure of shallow fracture and
damage zones, as well as deeper fault zones. Geo-electrical data have identified
fissure zones within the Chilean Precordilleran fault system where resistivity is
reduced by fluid transport within fractured rock (Janssen et al. 2002). As seen in
Figure 2.8a, the fault zone is interpreted to correlate with a shallow low-resistivity
zone (200 Ωm). Elsewhere, Bai and Meju (2003) found low resistivity corre-
lated with normal faults that define the edges of the Ruili Basin, eastern China.
Figure 2.8 (continued)

24
A classic geo-electrical image is that of the shallow San Andreas fault at the
deep drill hole site (SAFOD) near Parkfield, California. This image shows a near-
vertical zone of low resistivity that is 500–800 m wide at the top of the seismogenic
zone at a depth of 3–4 km (Unsworth et al. 1997; Figure 2.8b). A thinner zone of
low resistivity may exist below 4 km but is not resolveable with surface MT mea-
surements. Thurber et al. (2003, 2004) report that the low-resistivity zone coin-
cideswithaseismiclow-velocityzonedeterminedfromseismictomographicanaly-
sis. Unsworth et al. (1997) conclude that the low-resistivity zone consists of clay
and saline fluids and that elevated levels of seismicity along this section of the
San Andreas fault are correlated with the presence of fluids. As noted above, a
similar correlation between elevated seismicity rates and low resistivity is evi-
dent beneath central Nepal (Figure 2.7). However, the Dead Sea Transform
fault, Jordan, shows a resistivity structure that is remarkably different from the
San Andreas fault. Ritter et al. (2003) report that the Dead Sea Transform fault
acts as an impermeable barrier to fluid flow rather than acting as a fluid con-
duit. These contrasting results indicate that a fault can act as a conduit, barrier,
or combined conduit–barrier system depending on the physical properties of
the fault’s core zone and damage zone (Caine et al. 1996; Ritter et al. 2003).
FAULTS AS ILLUMINATED BY SEISMICITY
The geometry of active fault zones at depth is revealed primarily by seismicity.
Recently, precise earthquake location methods (e.g., Waldhauser and Ellsworth
2000), coupled with the use of waveform cross-correlation to reduce measure-
ment error (e.g., Schaff et al. 2004), have greatly increased our ability to re-
solve the fine structure of fault zones, at least to the extent that they are illumi-
nated by seismicity (Figure 2.9). Faults are often idealized as being planar, but
geologically mapped surface fault traces are more complex than a simple plane.
Since complexities in fault structure may exert a strong control on earthquake
behavior, an important question is whether or not the structural complexities ob-
served in fault zones at the Earth’s surface extend through the seismogenic crust.
The 1992 Landers, California, earthquake provides a clear example of com-
plex faulting. This event ruptured along three major fault segments: the Johnson
Valley fault, the Homestead Valley fault, and the Emerson fault. Felzer and
Beroza (1999) studied the complexity of the Homestead Valley–Emerson fault
intersection using precise earthquake locations and concluded that the fault at
depth was at least as complicated as it was along the surface rupture. More
generally, earthquake relocations using the double-difference method and wave-
form cross-correlation (Schaff et al. 2004) suggest considerable complexity
throughout the entire depth of the Landers rupture.
Schaff et al. (2002) studied the depth distribution of earthquakes on the
Calaveras fault, central California, and found the fault zone to be extremely
thin (75 m or less). They also found that the complex left-step in the surface

25
trace of the fault is geometrically simpler at depth than the surface mapping
would indicate. There is, however, some evidence that the base of the
seismogenic zone may have some geometrical complexity. Shearer (2002) used
precise earthquake relocations to discern parallel strands of seismicity at 9 km
depth near the base of the Imperial fault, southern California (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.9 Map view of microearthquake catalog locations (left panels) and precise relo-
cations (right panels) obtained from a combination of waveform cross-correlation arrival
time measurements and the double-difference location method: (a) Results for a part of the
1992 Big Bear sequence; (b) results from the 1992 Joshua Tree earthquake; (c) results for
the north end of the 1992 Landers earthquake. In each case, the “cloud” of earthquakes on
the left was resolved into more compact, often planar, structures (after Zanzerkia 2003).

26
The different strands span an approximately 2 km wide zone near the base of
the seismogenic zone, indicating that the width of the actively deforming zone
is considerable (Figure 2.10).
One of the more striking aspects of twentieth-century seismicity of Califor-
nia is the degree to which the vast stretches of the San Andreas fault that rup-
tured in the 1857 Fort Tejon and 1906 San Francisco earthquakes have been
Figure 2.10 Map view of relocated earthquakes (left) and schematic interpretation (right)
of the geometry of seismicity strands near the base of the seismogenic zone on the
Imperial fault, California (after Shearer 2002). These strands are interpreted to define a
2 km wide shear zone.

27
devoid of earthquake activity—not only of large events, but down to the detect-
ability threshold of local seismic networks. On a smaller scale, many studies
have found a similar anti-correlation of large earthquake slip and small earth-
quake occurrence (Hill et al. 1990; Ellsworth 1990). For example, Oppenheimer
et al. (1990) found a strong correspondence between the areas that slipped in
moderate earthquakes on the Calaveras fault (central California) and areas that
were relatively devoid of microearthquake activity. They also found that small
earthquakes had a very similar spatial distribution before and after moderate
earthquakes. They proposed that the areas devoid of seismicity were locked
Figure 2.11 Catalog locations of microearthquakes on a vertical cross-section along the
San Andreas fault near San Juan Bautista, central California (upper panel). Lower panel
shows the same events after relocation. These events define subhorizontal streaks that were
previously obscured by location errors. Red circles in upper panel represent large events that
were not relocated and therefore do not appear in the lower panel (after Rubin et al. 1999).

28
portions of the fault and used this assumption to identify two likely source
zones for future moderate earthquakes on the Calaveras fault.
The discovery of slip-parallel, subhorizontal “streaks” of seismicity (Rubin
et al. 1999; Figure 2.11) is one of the more interesting results to come from
precise earthquake relocation in recent years. These streaks have been observed
on faults associated with the Southeast Rift Zone at Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii,
as well as on the San Andreas, Calaveras, and Hayward faults in California.
Waldhauser et al. (2004) examined several such streaks along the Parkfield
segment of the San Andreas fault and concluded that in one case they appear to
demarcate the boundary between locked and slipping parts of the fault, whereas
Figure 2.12 Top panel shows rotated map view of the relocated Landers aftershock
sequence. Horizontal axis is distance along the fault in km. The middle panel shows the
time-dependent depth of the deepest 5% of aftershocks for 1-year time intervals (key
indicating color for each year at bottom: 1992 (black), 1993 (blue), 1995 (green), and
1998 (red)). There is a clear tendency for the depth of the deepest earthquakes to be-
come more shallow with time (i.e., from black to red line), as expected for a strain rate-
dependent seismic–aseismic transition.

29
in another case they are more easily explained as occurring at a lithologic dis-
continuity. An alternative model is that the seismicity streaks reflect temporal
migration of slip; that is, the locus of dislocation may migrate up or down the fault.
The depth distribution of seismicity appears to be time dependent. Schaff
et al. (2002) noted a temporary increase in the depth of the deepest earthquakes
on the Calaveras fault in the year immediately following the 1984 Morgan Hill
earthquake. This time dependence is consistent with the depth of the deepest earth-
quakes being governed by the transition from frictional failure to strain rate-de-
pendent viscous creep. Similar behavior, even much more extensive and dra-
matic, was observed after the 1992 Landers earthquake, California (Figure 2.12).
SEISMIC ANISOTROPY AND DEFORMATION
WITHIN THE MANTLE
Nearly all rock-forming minerals are seismically anisotropic (Babuska 1981;
Gebrande 1982). Consequently, all rocks exhibiting a certain degree of textural
ordering can be expected to be anisotropic. Chastel et al. (1993) show that pure
shear and simple shear regimes can cause different patterns of mineral align-
ment within ultramafic rocks. Thus, seismic anisotropy is a powerful tool for
investigating mechanisms of crustal and upper mantle deformation, particu-
larly in the vicinity of fault zones (Kind et al. 1985; Vinnik et al. 1992; Silver
and Chan 1991; Savage and Silver 1993; Rabbel and Mooney 1996; Meissner
et al. 2002; Savage 2003; Grocott et al. 2004; Savage et al. 2004). Seismic
anisotropy is manifested by the splitting of teleseismic shear wave (S-wave)
arrivals. The polarized (split) S-wave arrivals correspond to fast and slow di-
rections of seismic velocity, respectively.
A model in which fault zone deformation is laterally distributed within the
plastically deforming upper mantle is illustrated in Figure 2.13 (Teyssier and
Tikoff 1998). This model shows the tectonic fabric (flow plane and direction)
of the upper mantle curving into parallelism with a strike-slip shear zone
(Vauchez et al. 1998; Storti et al. 2003; Vauchez and Tommasi 2003).
The seismic anisotropy of the upper mantle beneath California in the vicin-
ity of the San Andreas fault has been studied using shear-wave splitting by
several investigators (Savage and Silver 1993; Hearne 1996; Polet and Kanamori
2002; Savage 2003). The fast directions in the uppermost mantle are generally
subparallel to the trend of the fault and orthogonal to the maximum horizontal
compressive stress directions, as determined from shallow crustal stress indica-
tors (i.e., the World Stress Map; Zoback 1992). For seismic stations located
very close to the San Andreas fault, an optimal model of the anisotropy consists
of a thin (10–20 km) sub-Moho layer with the fast direction parallel to the San
Andreas fault, underlain by a layer with an fast EW-oriented direction that is
parallel to North American Plate motion (Polet and Kanamori 2002). Such a
model is consistent with localized, fault-parallel shear deformation within the

30
uppermost mantle adjacent to the SanAndreas fault. This implies that the mantle
shear depicted in Figure 2.13 is too uniform: the actual deformation may be
both more localized and two-layered, as described above.
Seismic anisotropy measured across the Dead Sea Transform fault (Ruempker
et al. 2003) shows a ~20 km wide zone in the subcrustal mantle. This is inter-
preted to indicate that the fault plane becomes a broad zone of distributed shear
deformation within the lower crust and mantle lithosphere. There are also re-
flectors in the lowermost crust (25–32 km) that dip away from the fault zone,
interpreted as contributing to an anisotropic fabric (Figure 2.13). The seismic
anisotropy measurements and asymmetric topography on the Moho disconti-
nuity also indicate that the Dead Sea Transform fault cuts through the entire
crust (Tikoff et al. 2004; Weber et al. 2004).
In New Zealand, the relative motion of the Australian and Pacific Plates
produces mantle anisotropy that reveals shear deformation not only within a
localized inverted flower structure, but in a zone a hundred km wide within the
upper mantle (Figure 2.14; Klosko et al. 1999; Savage et al. 2004). Similar
interpretations of anisotropy have been correlated to crust–mantle coupling for
other transcurrent faults (Vauchez and Tommasi 2003).
Figure 2.13 (a) Illustration showing how major continental interplate strike-slip defor-
mation belts may ultimately root within the asthenosphere (after Teyssier and Tikoff
1998). Strike-slip faults in the upper crust pass down into increasingly broad shear zones
in the lower crust and lithospheric mantle.

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“U
The History of the Hals
THE FATHER OF THE TURF IN TENNESSEE.
CHAPTER VI.
By John Trotwood Moore
ncle Berry,” continued Mr. Peyton, “I find, arrived in
Tennessee in the month of February, 1806. In the spring of
that year he made a match of mile heats, $500 a side, over the
Hartsville course, with Henrietta against Cotton’s Cygnet, which he
won.
“The old men of the neighborhood manifested great sympathy for
the young stranger, and predicted that Lazarus Cotton would ruin
him.
“This was his first race in Tennessee, and I witnessed his last,
which was run over the Albion course at Gallatin, in 1862.
“Shortly after the race at Hartsville, Uncle Berry trained a famous
quarter race mare called Sallie Friar, by Jolly Friar, and made a
match for $500 a side, which was run on Goose Creek, near the
Poison Knob. Sallie was the winner, and she was afterwards
purchased by Patton Anderson, who ran her with great success.
“In the fall of 1806 Uncle Berry won with Post Boy the Jockey Club
purse, three mile heats, at Gallatin, beating General Jackson’s Escape
and others. Escape was the favorite, and the General and Mrs.
Jackson, who were present, backed him freely. Before this race he
sold Post Boy to Messrs. Richard and William L. Alexander for
$1,000 in the event of his winning the race, after which he was
withdrawn from the turf. Here he first met General Jackson and
made a match with him on Henrietta against Bibb’s mare for $1,000

a side, two mile heats, equal weights, though the General’s mare was
two years older than Henrietta, to come off in the spring of 1807 at
Clover Bottom. The result proved that Uncle Berry underrated the
horses and trainers of the Tennessee turf, as the General’s mare, a
thoroughbred daughter of imported Diomed, won the race.
“The General, though deprived of the pleasure of being present on
that interesting occasion (having been summoned as a witness in the
trial of Aaron Burr at Richmond) showed that his heart was in the
race, as appears from a letter to his friend, Patton Anderson, dated
June 16, and published in Parton’s ‘Life of Jackson,’ from which I
quote:
“‘At the race I hope you will see Mrs. Jackson; tell her not to be
uneasy. I will be home as soon as my obedience to the precept of my
country will permit. I have only to add as to the race, that the mare of
Williams’ is thought here to be a first-rate animal of her size; but if
she can be put up to it, she will fail in one heat. It will be then proper
to put her up to all she knows at once.’
“This is Jacksonian. Not many men would take the responsibility
of giving orders of how to run a race at the distance of five hundred
miles. This error of underrating an adversary, especially such an
adversary, was a heavy blow to Uncle Berry, from which he did not
fully recover until he started Haynie’s Maria, mounted by Monkey
Simon, against him.
“Not long after this defeat he set out to search for a horse with
which to beat General Jackson, and purchased from General Wade
Hampton, of South Carolina, a gelding called Omar, bringing him to
Tennessee. After recruiting his horse at Captain Alexander’s, near
Hartsville, he went to Nashville and offered General Jackson a match
for $1,000 a side, three mile heats, according to rule. This the
General declined, offering instead the same terms as to weight, as in
the former race, in which he was allowed two years’ advantage, a
proposition which, of course, was not accepted.
“Unable to get a race in Tennessee, Uncle Berry took his horse to
Natchez, Miss., traveling through the swamps of the Chickasaw and
Choctaw Nations, and entered him in a stake, three mile heats, $200
entrance; but his bad luck pursued him, and just before the race his
horse snagged his foot, and he paid forfeit. He remained near
Natchez twelve months and nursed his horse as no other man could

have done, until he was perfectly restored to health and in condition
for the approaching fall races of 1808. Writing to Col. George Elliott,
he urged him to come to Natchez and bring fifteen or twenty horses
to bet on Omar, and also to bring Monkey Simon to ride him, which
Colonel Elliott did.
“Simon’s appearance on the field alarmed the trainer of the other
horse, who had known him in South Carolina, and, suspecting that
Omar was a bite, he paid forfeit.
“As Simon was a distinguished character, and made a conspicuous
figure on the turf of Tennessee for many years, it may be well to give
some account of him. His sobriquet of ‘Monkey Simon’ conveys a
forcible idea of his appearance. He was a native African, and was
brought with his parents when quite young to South Carolina, before
the prohibition of the slave trade took effect. In height he was four
feet six inches, and weighed one hundred pounds. He was a
hunchback with very short body and remarkably long arms and legs.
His color and hair were African, but his features were not. He had a
long head and face, a high and delicate nose, a narrow but prominent
forehead, and a mouth indicative of humor and firmness. It was
rumored that Simon was a prince in his native country. I asked Uncle
Berry the other day if he thought it was true. He replied, ‘I don’t
know; they said so, and if the princes there had more sense than the
rest he must have been one of ’em, for he was the smartest negro I
ever saw.’ Colonel Elliott, speaking of Simon after his death, said he
was the coolest, bravest, wisest rider he ever saw mount a horse, in
which opinion Uncle Berry fully concurs.
“Simon was an inimitable banjo player and improvised his songs,
making humorous hits at everybody; even General Jackson did not
escape him. Indeed, no man was his superior in repartee.
“On one occasion Colonel Elliott and James Jackson, with a view
to a match race for $1,000 a side, a dash on two miles, on Paddy
Carey against Colonel Step’s mare, consented to lend Simon to ride
this mare.
“Colonel Step not only gave Simon $100 in the race, but stimulated
his pride by saying they thought they could win races without him,
whereas he knew their success was owing to Simon’s riding.
Somewhat offended at the idea of being lent out, and by no means
indifferent to the money, Simon resolved to win the race, if possible;

and nodding his head, said: ‘I’ll show ’em.’ The mare had the speed
of Paddy and took the track, and Simon, by his consummate skill and
by intimidating the other rider, managed to run him far out on the
turns, while he rested his mare for a brush on the stretches.
“On reaching the last turn Simon found the mare pretty tired, and
Paddy, a game four miler, locked with her, and he boldly swung out
so far as to leave Paddy in the fence corner. The boy came up and
attempted to pass on the inside, but Simon headed him off, and
growled at him all the way down the quarter stretch, beating him out
by a neck. Simon could come within a hair’s breadth of foul riding
and yet escape the penalty. Colonel Elliott lost his temper, which he
rarely did, and abused Simon, saying, ‘not satisfied with making
Paddy run forty feet further than the mare on every turn, he must
ride foul all the way down the quarter stretch.’
“The Colonel repeated these charges until at length Simon
answered him with, ‘Well, Colonel Elliott (as he always called him),
I’ve won many a race that way for you, and it is the first time I ever
heard you object to it.’”
Much has been said and written of the tenderness and care
bestowed by the Arabs on their favorite horses, but I doubt whether
any Arabian since the time of the Prophet ever showed such devotion
to his favorite steed as Uncle Berry to the thoroughbreds under his
care. In fact, his kindly nature embraced all domestic animals. For
many years he resided on a rich, productive farm near Gallatin,
where he trained Betsy Malone, Sarah Bladen and many other
distinguished race horses; raised fine stock and fine crops and
proved himself to be one of the best farmers in the neighborhood. He
had pets of all kinds—huge hogs that would come and sprawl
themselves to be rubbed, and game chickens that would feed from
his hand, and followed him if he left home on foot, often obliging
him to return and shut them up.
He raised many celebrated racers for himself and others, and so
judicious was his system that, at the age of two, they had almost the
maturity of three-year-olds. His last thoroughbred was a chestnut
filly, foaled in 1859, by Lexington, dam Sally Roper (the dam of
Berry), which was entered in a stake for three-year-olds, $500
entrance, two mile heats, to come off over the Albion course, near

Gallatin, in the fall of 1862. This filly was, of course, a great favorite
with Uncle Berry. She never associated with any quadruped after she
was weaned, her master being her only companion. At two years old
she was large and muscular and very promising, and in the summer
of 1861 I urged Uncle Berry to send her to the race course (where I
had Fannie McAlister, dam of Muggins, and several other animals in
training), that she might be gentled and broken to ride. His reply
was: “I have been thinking of your kind offer—I know she ought to be
broke, but, poor thing! she don’t know anything; she has never been
anywhere, and has never even been mounted. I am afraid she will
tear herself all to pieces.” But he finally consented for my colored
trainer, Jack Richlieu, to take her to the track. On meeting Mrs.
Williams a few days afterwards, I inquired for Uncle Berry. Her reply
was: “He is well enough as to health, but he is mighty lonesome since
the filly went away.”
But of all the horses he ever owned, Walk-in-the-Water was his
especial favorite. In the language of Burns, he “lo’ed him like a vera
brither.” He was a large chestnut gelding, foaled in 1813, by Sir
Archie, dam by Gondola, a thoroughbred son of Mark Anthony, and
these two were the only pure crosses in his pedigree, yet he was
distinguished on the turf until fifteen years old, more especially in
races of three and four mile heats.
I was present when Walk, at nineteen years of age, ran his last
race, of four mile heats, over the Nashville course, against Polly
Powell.
Uncle Berry, several years before, had presented him to Thomas
Foxall, with a positive agreement that he would neither train nor run
him again; having a two-year-old in training, Mr. Foxall took up the
old horse merely to gallop in company with him, a few weeks before
the Nashville meeting.
It became well known that the mare would start for the four mile
purse, and she was so great a favorite that no one would enter
against her.
The proprietor, to prevent a “walkover,” induced Foxall to allow
him to announce Walk-in-the-Water, whose name would be sure to
draw a crowd. There was a large attendance, and the game old horse
made a wonderful race, considering his age, running a heat and
evidently losing in consequence of his want of condition. When the

horses were brought out I missed Uncle Berry, and went in search of
him. I found him in the grove alone, sitting on a log and looking very
sad. “Are you not going up to see old Walk run?” I inquired. “No, I
would as soon see a fight between my grandfather and a boy of
twenty,” he replied.
In the year 1827, when Walk was fourteen years old, Uncle Berry
took him and several colts that were entered in stakes to Natchez,
Miss., traveling by land through the terrible swamps of the
Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations. The colts had made very
satisfactory trial runs in Tennessee, but suffered so severely from the
journey that they either paid forfeits or lost their stakes, so that
Walk-in-the-Water was the only hope for winning expenses. He was
entered in the four mile race of the Jockey Club, and his only
competitor was the b. gelding Archie Blucher, fifteen years old, a
horse of great fame as a “four miler” in Mississippi.
On the evening before the race the Jockey Club met and changed
the rule, reducing the weight on all horses of fifteen years or upward
to one hundred pounds, leaving all others their full weight, or one
hundred and twenty-four pounds, three pounds less for mares and
geldings.
This extraordinary proceeding would not have been tolerated by
the gentlemen who, at a later day, composed that Club, but Uncle
Berry protested in vain against the injustice done him. He, however,
concluded to run Walk, giving his half brother twenty-one pounds
advantage in weight. Walk had the speed of Blucher, and when the
drum tapped, took the track, with Blucher at his side, and these two
game Archies ran locked through the heat, Walk winning by half a
length. The second heat was a repetition of the first, and never was a
more tremendous struggle witnessed on a race course—a blanket
would have covered the horses from the tap of the drum to the close
of the race.
Any man who has watched a favorite horse winning a race, out of
the fire and blue blazes at that, can appreciate Uncle Berry’s feelings
during that terrible struggle. The horses swung into the quarter
stretch, the eighth and last mile, and Uncle Berry, seeing the sorrel
face of his old favorite ahead, cried out at the top of his voice, “Come
home, Walk, come home! Your master wants money, and that badly.”
After the race he expressed his opinion of the Club in no measured

terms. Though habitually polite and respectful, particularly toward
the authorities of a Jockey Club, he was a man of undaunted courage
and ready to resist oppression, irrespective of consequences, but his
friends interposed and persuaded him to let the matter pass.
When he reached the stables the horses were being prepared for
their night’s rest, and he made them each an address. “Jo,” he said to
a Pacolet colt, named Jo Doan, that had lost his stake in slow time,
“you won’t do to tie to; I’ve always done a good part by you. I salted
you out of my hand while you sucked your mammy; you know what
you promised me before you left home (alluding to a trial run), and
now you have thrown me off among strangers,” and he passed on,
complaining of the other colts. The groom was washing old Walk-in-
the-Water’s legs while he stood calm and majestic, with his game,
intelligent head, large, brilliant eyes, inclined shoulders and
immense windpipe, looking every inch a hero. When Uncle Berry
came to him he threw his arms around his neck and said, bursting
into tears, “Here’s a poor old man’s friend in a distant land.”
Walk-in-the-Water won more long races than any horse of his day.
If I can procure the early volumes of the American Turf Register, I
will in a future number give some account of his performances.
Haney’s Maria was a most extraordinary race nag at all distances,
probably not inferior to any which has appeared in America since her
day. She was bred by Bennet Goodrum, of Virginia, who moved to
North Carolina, where she was foaled in the spring of 1808; from
there he removed to Tennessee, and, in the fall of 1809, sold Maria to
Capt. Jesse Haney, of Sumner County. She was by imported Diomed,
one of the last of his get when thirty years of age. Her first dam was
by Taylor’s Bel-Air (the best son of imported Medley), second dam by
Symmes’ Wild Air, third dam by imported Othello, out of an
imported mare.
She was a dark chestnut, exactly fifteen hands high, possessing
great strength, muscular power, and symmetry, the perfect model of
a race horse. Maria commenced her turf career at three, and ran all
distances from a quarter of a mile to four mile heats, without losing a
race or heat until she was nine years old. In the fall of 1811 she ran a
sweepstake over the Nashville course, entrance $100, two mile heats,
beating General Jackson’s colt, Decatur, by Truxton; Col. Robert
Bell’s filly, by imported Diomed, and four others; all distanced the

first heat, except Bell’s filly. This defeat aroused the fire and
combative spirit of General Jackson almost as much as did his defeat
by Mr. Adams for the Presidency, and he swore “by the Eternal” he
would beat her if a horse could be found in the United States able to
do so. But, although the General conquered the Indians, defeated
Packenham, beat Adams and Clay, crushed the monster bank under
the heel of his military boot, he could not beat Maria, in the hands of
Uncle Berry.
In the fall of 1812, over the same course, she won a sweepstake,
$500 entrance, four mile heats, beating Colonel Bell’s Diomed mare,
a horse called Clifden, and Col. Ed Bradley’s “Dungannon.” (General
Jackson was interested in Dungannon.) This was a most exciting and
interesting race, especially to the ladies, who attended in great
numbers; those of Davidson County, with Aunt Rachel Jackson and
her niece, Miss Rachel Hays, at their head, backing Dungannon,
while the Sumner County ladies, led by Miss Clarissa Bledsoe,
daughter of the pioneer hero, Col. Anthony Bledsoe, bet their last
glove on little Maria. After this second defeat, General Jackson
became terribly in earnest, and before he gave up the effort to beat
Maria, he ransacked Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia and Kentucky.
He was almost as clamorous for a horse as was Richard in the battle
of Bosworth Field. He first wrote Col. William R. Johnson to send
him the best four mile horse in Virginia, without regard to price,
expressing a preference for the famous Bel-Air mare, Old Favorite.
Colonel Johnson sent him, at a high price, the celebrated horse,
Pacolet, by imported Citizen, who had greatly distinguished himself
as a four miler in Virginia. In the fall of 1813, at Nashville, Maria won
a sweepstake, $1,000 entrance, $500 forfeit, four mile heats, beating
Pacolet with great ease, two paying forfeit. It was said that Pacolet
had received an injury in one of his fore ankles. The General, being
anything but satisfied with the result, made a match on Pacolet
against Maria for $1,000 a side, $500 forfeit, four mile heats, to
come off over the same course, the fall of 1814; but, Pacolet being
still lame, he paid forfeit. These repeated failures only made the
General more inflexible in his purpose, and, in conjunction with Mr.
James Jackson, who then resided in the vicinity of Nashville, he sent
to South Carolina and bought Tam O’Shanter, a horse distinguished
in that state.

The fall of 1814 Maria won, over the same course, club purse of
$275, two mile heats, beating Tam O’Shanter, William Lytle’s
Royalist, and two or three others.
A few days after, over the same course, she won a proprietor’s
purse, $350, only one starting against her. About this time General
Jackson sent to Georgia and purchased of Colonel Alston Stump-the-
Dealer, but, for some cause, did not match him against Maria. The
General then sent to Kentucky and induced Mr. DeWett to come to
the Hermitage with his mare (reputed to be the swiftest mile nag in
the United States), with a view of matching her against Maria. Mr.
DeWett trained his mare at the Hermitage. In the fall of 1814, at
Clover Bottom, Maria beat this mare for $1,000 a side, dash of a
mile. In the fall of 1815 General Jackson and Mr. DeWett ran the
same mare against Maria, dash of half a mile, for $1,500 a side, $500
on the first quarter, $500 on six hundred yards, and $500 on the half
mile, all of which bets were won by Maria, the last by one hundred
feet. This was run at Nashville. The next week, over same course, she
won a match $1,000 a side, mile heats, made with General Jackson
and Col. Ed Ward, beating the Colonel’s horse, Western Light. Soon
after this race she was again matched against her old competitor,
DeWett’s mare, for $1,000 a side, over the same course (which was
in McNairy’s Bottom, above the sulphur spring), Maria giving her a
distance (which was then 120 yards) in a dash of two miles. Colonel
Lynch, of Virginia, had been induced to come and bring his famous
colored rider, Dick, to ride DeWett’s mare. Before the last start Uncle
Berry directed his rider (also colored) to put the spurs to Maria from
the tap of the drum. But, to his amazement, they went off at a
moderate gait, DeWett’s mare in the lead, making the first mile in
exactly two minutes. As they passed the stand Uncle Berry ordered
his boy to go on, but the mares continued at the same rate until after
they entered the back stretch, Maria still a little in the rear, when the
rider gave her the spurs and she beat her competitor one hundred
and eighty yards, making the last mile in one minute and forty-eight
seconds. All who saw the race declared that she made the most
extraordinary display of speed they ever witnessed.
When Uncle Berry demanded an explanation of his rider he
learned that Dick, who professed to be a conjurer, or spiritualist, had
frightened the boy by threatening that if he attempted to pass ahead

of him until they ran a mile and a quarter, he would lift him out of
his saddle, or throw down his mare by a mere motion of his whip,
which the boy fully believed. Most negroes at that time, and some
white people in this enlightened age, believe in these absurdities. The
speed of Maria was wonderful. She and the famous quarter race
horse, Saltram, were trained by Uncle Berry at the same time, and he
often “brushed” them through the quarter stretch, “and they always
came out locked.” Whichever one got the start kept the lead.
After the last race above mentioned, some Virginians present said
that there were horses in Virginia that could beat Maria. Captain
Haney offered to match her against any horse in the world, from one
to four mile heats, for $5,000.
Shortly after this conversation, meeting General Jackson, Captain
Haney informed him what had passed, and the General, in his
impressive manner, replied: “Make the race for $50,000, and
consider me in with you. She can beat any animal in God’s whole
creation.”
In March, 1816, at Lexington, Ky., she beat Robin Gray (sire of
Lexington’s third dam) a match, mile heats, for $1,000 a side. The
next month she beat at Cage’s race paths in Sumner County, near
Bender’s Ferry, Mr. John Childress’ Woodlawn filly, by Truxton, a
straight half mile for $1,000 a side, giving her sixty feet. Maria won
this race by two feet only. This was the first race I ever saw, and I was
greatly impressed with the beautiful riding of Monkey Simon.
After the race Maria was taken by Uncle Berry to Waynesboro, Ga.,
where she bantered the world, but could not get a race. There were
very few jockey clubs in the country at that time.
In January, 1817, Maria was returned to Captain Haney in Sumner
County, and soon afterwards sold by him to Pollard Brown, who got
her beaten at Charleston in a four mile heat race with Transport and
Little John, when she was nine years old. Maria carried over weight,
ran under many disadvantages, and lost the race by only a few feet.
(Continued in next issue.)

Mammy and Memory
Photo by Julie A. Royster, Raleigh, N. C.
Her work is done,
The setting sun
Throws twilight in her door.
Her work is done—
Her race is run,
Her friends have gone before.
“Mammy, goodnight!”
Heard she aright?
Low her head—and tenderly:
“Heish, chile, doan’ cry—
Sleep—sleep ‘bym-by!’”
Mammy and Memory.
John Trotwood Moore.

W
Nitrification of the Soil, or, How Plants Grow
By William Dennison of Fargo, North Dakota.
e will venture the assertion that when the history of the past
century is being written up, the chroniclers will discover that
there has been as much, if not more progress and advancement made
in the nineteenth century than in all of the eighteen centuries
preceding it. The advancement in the past century was phenomenal
in the marvelous achievements in inventions and in discoveries in
every branch of industry, in the arts and sciences; and I am delighted
to know that agriculture, horticulture and floriculture have also
received some attention, although not so much as might have been.
Still, we are pleased that a beginning in those branches has been
made, and we hope for much more rapid advancement within the
next two decades.
That there has been a great awakening and a marked advancement
in the material progress in the past century no one will seek to
controvert the fact, but let us hope that while we have been making
such rapid strides materially we have also, during the same period,
made equally as much advancement spiritually, for to glorify God is
(or ought to be) man’s chief aim in life. There has been a beginning
in the advancement of scientific agriculture, and the agricultural
world is indebted to no one so much as to John Bennett Lawes, of
Rothamsted, England, who devoted a lifetime of study and the lands
of his large estate to experimental farming, the results of which he
published from time to time in the Gardener’s Chronicle, and at his
death left a fund sufficient in trust to carry on the great work he had
begun and carried forward his celebrated tests of experimental
farming, extending over fifty years, from 1844 to 1893. Indeed, John
Bennett Lawes may justly be called the father of the experimental

stations in our country. In these earliest experiments the effects of
various manures were carried out. It was in these trials that the
excellent results obtained by manuring turnips with phosphate
previously treated with sulphuric acid were first discovered, and his
taking out a patent, in 1842, for treating mineral phosphate with
sulphuric acid, which was the commencement of the present
enormous manufacture of artificial manures. The above experiments
were carried on in pots by Mr. Lawes, but, in 1843, he was joined by
Dr. Gilbert, as eminent a chemist as was Mr. Lawes himself, and
from 1844 began the field experiments, which have become world-
wide for the great benefits they have resulted in to agriculturists
everywhere.
The Rothamsted estate was divided into small fields, and the
effects of the various crops on the fields with and without manure
were carefully noted. Soils were analyzed before the crops were
planted, and also after the crops were harvested, to determine the
loss or gain of nitrogen.
The rotation of crops was studied thoroughly, and beans and peas
were then made one in a four-course rotation. But even earlier than
1844 it had been observed that leguminous plants, of which there are
thousands distributed over this sphere, had a beneficial effect on the
land for the succeeding crop. At Rothamsted the legumes, or such of
them as beans, peas or red clover, were thoroughly tried, and it was
invariably found as one in a rotation of four to produce the same
results. In some way that they then could not explain, the land after a
crop of legumes was very much richer in nitrogen, amounting in
many instances to 300 pounds per acre. These worthy gentlemen
kept on for years trying to account for the phenomenon and
endeavored to discover the true source of nitrification. But to the
French chemists Schlosing and Muntz belong the credit of
establishing by experiment the true nature of nitrification. Their first
paper on the subject appeared early in 1877, or only twenty-nine
years ago. They wished to ascertain if the presence of humic matter
was essential to the purification of sewage by soil, and for this
purpose they conducted an experiment, in which sewage was passed
slowly through a column of sand and limestone. Under these
circumstances complete nitrification of the sewage took place. They
then allowed a chloroform vapor to fall for some time on top of the

column, the sewage passing as before. Nitrification now entirely
ceased and was not renewed for seven weeks, though the supply of
chloroform was suspended. A small quantity of nitrifying soil was
shaken with the water and the turbid extracts poured on the top of
the column. Nitrification at once recommenced, as strongly as
before.
To appreciate the force of the experiment, Muntz had previously
shown that chloroform was a means of distinguishing between the
action of a simple ferment as diastase, and a living organism, as
yeast, the chloroform having no influence on the work of the
unorganized ferment, which immediately stopped the activity of a
living agent. The above discovery of Schlosing and Muntz of the true
theory of nitrification of the soil was the greatest achievement to the
agricultural world, inasmuch as it has been demonstrated by
numerous eminent chemists and proved to be an ascertained fact;
and this problem solved, which had occupied the ablest scientific
minds for centuries. Now we hope for some advancement with the
farmers of the United States in the future. With the discovery of
Schlosing and Muntz there is no necessity for such an idea as
wornout land, as is prevalent in this great country, where the chief
occupation of the agriculturist has been in exploiting his land, just in
the same manner as everything else has been exploited. With an ever
increasing population of this sphere, there is no need to fear the
earth’s capacity in producing enough to supply all their wants. That
is when our farmers realize the paramount importance of the above
discovery, and begin to see how bountifully an all-wise Creator has
provided for us in placing these legumes on this earth for the benefit
of mankind. They are a double blessing to us, for they not only
abstract nitrogen from the atmosphere and deposit it in the ground
for the succeeding crops, and restore the fertility of the land, but
also, when they are made one in a four-course rotation, fill the soil
with fibre or roots, which no soil can be in its highest productive
condition without.

The Great New South
In the past quarter of a century
(1880–1905) from statistics
gathered by Richard H. Edmonds,
Trotwood’s finds the South has
doubled the value of her cotton
crop, her exports and her assessed
property; has trebled her
manufacturing products, her
railroad mileage and the value of
her farm products. She has
multiplied by five her lumber
products, increased her
manufacturing capital six-fold,
her tons of pig iron produced
eight-fold, her phosphate tons
mined nine-fold, her cotton bales
consumed ten-fold, her capital
invested in cotton mills eleven-
fold, her tons of coal mined
twelve-fold, her number of
spindles on cotton mills fourteen-
fold, her tons of coke produced
sixteen-fold, her number of cotton
oil mills seventeen-fold, her
capital invested in cotton oil mills
eighteen-fold, and her barrels of
petroleum two hundred and
thirty-five-fold!

She raised three-fourths of the
world’s cotton, and has one-half of
the standing timber of the whole
country. Her own cotton mills
consume 2,282,900 bales yearly,
or nearly as much as New England
and all the rest of the country
combined, whereas in 1880 she
consumed but one-sixth as much
as New England. Europe pays her
a tribute of over one million
dollars daily for cotton. Thus
marches on the Great New South.

W
Bre’r Washington’s Consolation
Saturday night my wife died,
Sunday she was buried,
Monday was my kotin’ day
And Chewsday I got married.
henever I heard the old man singing I knew he was in a
reminiscent mood and so I put down my book and went out to
the barn, where he was building a pen to put the fattening Berkshires
in. For a month these slick rascals had been running in the ten-acre
lot planted in corn and, at the “lay-by plowing,” sown in peas, all for
their especial benefit. The corn had nearly ripened and the peas were
in the pod; and now, day after day they had wallowed in the water of
the ten-acre field branch or torn down the tempting corn stalks or
eaten the juicy peas till their tails had taken on the two-ring curl of
contentment and they had grown too fat to run in so large a lot.
“An’ now dey must be put in de parlor,” said the old man as he
proceeded to build their pen, “an’ fed on poun’ cake an’ punkins. Fust
er good dry pen, bilt on er solid blue lime-rock, ef you so
forechewnate es to lib in Middle Tennessee, an’ ef you don’t lib
heah,” he half soliloquized, “jes’ bild it in sum mud hole an’ be dun
wid it, fur you ain’t gwi’ fatten your horgs no-how ef youn don’t lib in
Tennessee,” he said, with a sly wink. “Den, arter you gits the pen bilt
bring up a load ob yaller punkins to sharpen up dey appletights an’
start ’em off right; den plenty ob dis year’s cohn wid er sour-meal
mash ebry now and den to keep ’em eatin’ good, an’ den, chile, ’long
erbout Krismas time jes’ sot your mouf fur spairribs an’ sawsages—e
—yum, yum, yum”—and he wiped the corner of his mouth
suspiciously.

“Ole Naper cum to my house
I thout he cum to see me,
But when I cum to find him out,
He’s ’swade my wife to leave me.”
he sang again. “I’ll tell you, suh,” he laughed, “I can’t see what fatnin’
horgs hes got to do with marryin’, but dat’s what de aixpectashuns ob
dis horg-pen remin’s me ob ennyway—’bout de time I was kotin’ Unk
Peter’s widder, way back in fifty-fo’,” he added reflectively, “an’ de
hard time I had gettin’ enny konsolashun from dat ar ’oman. I tell
you, suh, it ain’t easy to git enny konsolashun from er widder—not
nigh es easy es it am frum er gal. Huh!” he ejaculated, derisively.
“Folks say it am an’ dat all widders jes’ watchin’ out fur er chance to
git marrid ergin, but you jes’ try onct to git er widder to say ‘yas’—
she’ll jes’ play erroun’ an’ play erroun’ de hook, and fus’ thing you
know she’s off, an’ dar you looks an lo!—dun swallered de bait
yo’se’f,” he said.
“Befo’ my wife died,” said the old man, as he ran his thumb down
his hatchet-blade, “I uster think I’d nuvver wanter git marrid enny
mo’, an’ I had de mos’ dispizerble contemplashuns fur dese ole fools
dat go rippin’ erroun’, dyein’ dey ha’r an’ writin’ poltry to de moon
befo’ dey fus’ wife’s feet git cold good! Hit’s all right fur er young man
to do dat—he jes’ nacherly jucy an’ he can’t help hisself. But dese ole
fools whut de hot sun ob matremony dun dried up, an’ de trials of
chillun-raisin’ dun tuck de foolishnes’ outen ’em an’ monkey-shines
ob mudder-in-law dun kill ’em in de home-stretch—I tell you, suh,
when I see such men as dese, dat has passed fur forty-odd years as
sober, senserbul men in de kommunity whar dey libs, all at onct
begin to git gay an’ boyish ergin, er snortin’ in evally an’ er clothin’
dey neck wid thunder, an’ er hollerin’ kerhonk, kerhonk, kerhonk to
de captins, an’ de shoutin’, an’ er gwine ’round wantin’ to fight de
man-in-de-moon ’kase he happen to peep into dey lady-lub’s winder,
it jes’ makes me wanter go ’round de barn an’ hug sum ole gray mule
fur konsolashun!
“Wheneber er ole man’s lub begins to take on er secon’ growth, it
am den dat de anguls in heaben prepares to shed dey tears. Why,
suh, I’ve seed ole fellers hab rumertisn an’ hart-failure so bad dey
cudn’t creep to dey fus’ wife’s fun’ral, but de naixt time I’d see ’em,
Gord bless you soul, honey, dey be runnin’ erroun’ at sum pickernick,

fetchin’ water frum de spring ebery five minutes fur sum sixteen-
year-ole gal, cuttin’ watermillions fur her, an’ tryin’ to meander off in
de shady woods and pull up all de hart’s-ease dat grows in er ten-acre
woods lot! De rumertizn all gohn, ter-be-sho’, and de hart-failure
dun turned into head failure, bless de Lawd.
“Dat’s whut I thout, suh,” he continued, “but bless yo’ soul, honey,
my wife hadn’t bin dead er week befo’ I got up one mornin’ an’ all
onbeknownst to myself I foun’ myself blackin’ my shoes! Cudn’t hep
it to sabe my life, suh—jes’ had to do it. De naixt day, suh, ’tirely
unbeknownst to de state ob my naturality, I kotch myself in de act ob
puttin’ h’ar-oil on my hair, cinnermun-draps on my handkerchief,
an’ pullin’ off de eel-skin gyarters I dun bin wearin’ forty years fur de
rumertizn. No mo’ rumertiz fur me; er man nurver hes rumertizn
arter his wife dies—least-wise,” he whispered, knowingly, “not twell
he marries erggin an’ den he hes it so bad he can’t cut stove-wood fur
her,” he laughed.
“In er week diszeese tuck me so komplementry, boss, I ’gun ter
roach up de ole muel, fix up de buggy, an’ whitewash de cabin. Dese
am allers de fus’ simptums, suh. I’ve knowed sum ole fellers to make
dey house go widout paint fur forty years, but jes’ es soon es dey wife
dies, jes’ watch ’em an’ see ef de fus’ thing dey don’t do am to paint
up dat ole house lak dey tryin’ to ketch er angul—huh! better had er
painted it er leetle fur de fus’ po angul arter dey fooled her into it!
“But de simptums come on me, suh, thick an’ fast, an’ fore
goodness, suh, by Sunday I had it so bad it broke out in spots all ober
me, wid gradual risin’ ob de temperchewin’ dryness in de region ob
de salvashun glands, an’ complete p’ralersis ob de pizzerrinctum ob
de sense-bumps! Gord, boss, I was mighty nigh insenserbul!
“It all seemed lak er dream to me, an’ I can’t tell ’zactly whut I did
do. I seemed ter be walkin’ in er gyarden whar golden roses bloomed
on peppermint candy vines, an’ coon-dorgs wid diamon’ eyes wuz
treein’ solid silver ’possums up in de ’simmon trees!
“I tell you, boss, I wanted to marry! An’ de fus’ thing I knowed, me
an’ dat ole muel was gwine in a peert trot up de road t’words de cabin
ob Sister Calline Jones, Unk Peter Jones’ widder. I felt sorter mean,
an’ I disremember sayin’ to myself: ‘Heah, you go, Wash, arter all
yore good revolushuns, de biggest fool in de ban’ waggin.’ As I rid off,
I seed dat old mischeevus Mistis ob mine, Miss Charlotte, God bless

her!—an’ she called out to me kinder mad-lak, an’ sed: ‘Unkle Wash,
I think it’s a shame you ain’t put on moanin’ for Aunt Peggy.’ The
way you are dressed, ennybody’d think you are gwine to er ball!’
“‘Lor’ bless your sweet soul, Miss Charlotte,’ sez I, ‘don’t hab ter
put on moanin’ lak de white folks; it am already dar, an’ mo’ dan skin
deep, too,’ I sez. ‘I bin moanin’ for Peggy eber sense I marrid ’er,’ I
sed, ‘an’ now is my time for rejicement, Miss Charlotte, an’ I gwineter
rejice. Sides dat,’ I sed, ‘whilst I’m moanin’, all my things gwine to
rack, an’ de chillun’s got nobody to take keer ob ’em an’ sumpin’
nuther sho’ gwinter happen, Miss Charlotte.’
“Miss Charlotte bleege to laf, an’ old Marster he spoke up an’ say,
‘Let ’im erlone, Charlotte. Can’t you see de ole fool has got it? Go on,
you ole idjut,’ he sed to me, ‘an’ marry sumbody an’ git back heah
termorrer wid enuf sense in yo’ haid to run er straight furrer fer de
fall plowin’.’ An’ wid dat I lit out.
“Now, Unk Pete an’ me, suh,” he explained, “belong to de same
church—de Candle Light—an’ to de same lodge—de Ainshunt an’
Honorbul Order ob de Bow-legged Sons of de Black Cat—an’ ’course
I ain’ gwi’ marry his widder now an’ spile sum moral observashun, so
I jes’ stopped at his cabin to git his consent fur me to marry his
widder.
“Get his consent?” I asked. “Why how could you get his consent if
he was dead?”
“Who sed he was dead?” said the old darky, quickly. “I nurver sed
so; I sed she was his widder!”
I tried to explain to him that a man couldn’t have a widow unless
he were dead, but this only made him throw back his head and laugh
heartily.
“Wal, wal, wal, white folks got such curious ways of thinkin’.
Who’d urver thout it? You see,” he said very solemnly and
impressively, “It was dis way: Unk Peter wus gittin’ ole, an’ went off
contrawise to de doctrine an’ marrid dis young ’oman. Furst thing he
know, he waked up sum mohnin’ an’ find hisself de father ob ten
chilouns, sum ob ’em hisn an’ sum ob ’em hern, by her fus’ husban’,
an’ dar he wus gittin’ so ole he cudn’t s’port ’em. So up he jumps an’
at de naixt meetin’ ob de church he runs fer de offis ob Patriark ob
Santerfercashun, which, ’kordin’ to de doctrine ob Hollerness,

marrid ’im to de church. ’Course arter Unk Pete gits santerfercashun
an’ marrid to de church, he cudn’t hab enny uder wife, so he hafter
put Sis Calline an’ de chilluns aside, which made all ob dem de
widders ob de church. Don’t you ketch on to de doctrine, suh?”
I told him I had caught.
The old man was silent as if in deep thought. Then he said: “I wus
young den, an’ bleeved eberything erbout de church an’ de doctrine I
eber heurd, smelt or dreamed, but I am older now, an’ I’ve cum to de
pinted konklushun dat when er man or er woman gets
santerfercashun; one or two things done happen to ’em: Either de
flahs ob youth dun played out in de bilers ob dar natral swashun—de
ole Adam in ’em jes’ peg out from ole aige—or else dey am layin’ low,
Brer ’Possum, fur de slickes’ game dat eber wus played. I’ve kinder
notis’d we all nacherly gits better es we gits older, ennyway, an’ when
we gits so ole we can’t sin no mo’, we mighty nigh good-fur-nuffin’.
An’ dars whar de patr’arks ob ole had it on to de res’ ob us,” said the
old man knowingly. “Jes’ let de good Marster let me lib heah erbout
seben hundred years longer, an’ jes’ watch me sot back an’ view
unconserned de fleetin’ vanerties ob dis life.
“Brer Peter wus in deep prayer when I rid up to his cabin, an’ arter
he ris up from his knees he blessed on de top ob my observashun, gib
me de grip ob Ainshunt an’ Honorbul Order ob de Bow-legged Sons
ob de Black Cat, an’ ’lowed he’d lak ter tak off my sandals an’ wash
my feet; but I tole ’im I jes’ wash ’em ’bout er month befo’ an’ didn’t
hab no time fur foolishness; dat I cum to dis cabin fur konsolashun
an’ den I jus’ got offen dat muel an’ plowed a straight furrer ob facts
down de row ob his head: ‘Brer Peter,’ sez I, ‘de doctrine ob our
church teach us it am not good fur er man wid er dozen chilluns to
lib erlone on one side ob er plantashun, an’ er nice, seekin’ lookin’
widder ’oman wid ten mo’ to lib erlone on de yudder side. In union
dar am strength, in numbers dar am prosperity, an’ in Duteromety
dar am happiness. Brer Peter, I wants ter marry Sister Calline,’ sez I.
‘She am yo’ widder an’ de widder ob de church, but you know
yourself she ain’t had no sho’ ’tall—jes’ ha’f a marrid life an’ er house
full ob chilluns—ten ob ’em, all needin’ sum lubbin’ father’s gidin’
arm, wid er hickory attachment, whilst my twelve or fifteen all need
de spirtool ker ob er good muther ercompament. De cotton pickin’
seezen am ’most on us, an’ if I kin jine our forces I’ll hab er lead-pipe

cinch on de cotton crap ob Tennessee to say nuthin’ ’bout de
fo’teenth ’mendment to de skule law fixin’ de pro ratter ob all
householders raisin’ twenty or mo’ widin de skule aige.
“I tell you, suh, Brer Peter tuck the thing mighty hard, mighty
hard. He didn’t wanter do dat thing ’tall. But arter he dun prayed
ober it, he cum out wid er new light in his eye, an’ he put his hand on
my head an’ bless me an’ say, ‘Brer Washington, I’ve prayed ober it.
It am de will ob de Lord. Lite on dat muel an’ seek your konsolashun.
Go in an’ receive de sanshun ob her reten-shun an’ de kompliment
ob her adorin’.’ And he kinder wink his off eye an’ sed, ‘Go in an’ win,
fur you am de Samson ob lub fightin’ de Phillustines ob matrermony;
but when you cum to git konsolashun from er widder’—an’ dar he
wink hes eye ergin—‘use de same weepun dat Samson used an’
victory am yourn.’
“But when I got to de widder’s cabin an’ tole her—great Scott, suh!
she tuck it terribul hard. She didn’t wan’ marry ’tall. Leastwise she
made me b’leeve it. Hit’s jes’ es I tole you, suh; you hafter wrastle
might swift fur konsolashun when you goes to marry a widder.
“‘Brer Washington,’ she sez, ‘dis am so suddent, so suddent! Don’t
you think you’d be satisfied ef I’d continue in de sisterly relashuns ob
de church wid you?’
“‘Sister Calline,’ sez I, sorter detarmined lak, ‘I’ve had ten ebry day
sisters all my life en sum seben hundred Sunday ones. What I now
wants am one wife!’
“Oh, I tell you, suh, you gotter shoot mighty klose fur konsolashun
when you wants ter marry a widder!
“We kept it up for hours, she argyfyin’ an’ me argyfyin’, she prayin’
an’ me prayin’. I tell you, Boss, she wus er speedy filly, an’ she had no
noshun ob quittin’. We went round de fus’ quarter ob de last mile
nose and nose—argyment ergin argyment, prayer ergin prayer. I
thout sho’ she had me distanced onct when she fotch out de
scriptures on me an’ turned to de twenty-second chapter ob Exerdust
an’ sed: ‘Brer Washington, read fur yo’self: “Thou shalt not afflict any
widder or fatherless chile.”’ But I turned over to Timerthy, de fifth
chapter an’ de third verse, an’ sez I, ‘Sister Calline, whut you read am
Ole Testament. It am anshunt histery. Heah am de New Testament,
heah am de new doctrine: “Honor widders dat am widders, indeed.”’

Oh, I tell you, Boss,” laughed the old man, “I sho’ hung onto de sulky
wheels ob her contenshun wid de wings ob my orthorteries—you
gotter hab sum speed lef’ fur de home stretch ef you wants ter beat er
widder home!
“An’ so we went, ’round an’ ’round, wheel ergin wheel, an both
drivin’ fur life, she quotin’ scriptures and argyfyin’ an’ me comin’
back wid Numbers an’ Duterrumetics—an’ sumtimes things dat wus
Reverlashuns to her! At de half I got her tired, at de three-quarters
she quit an’ jes’ befo’ she got to de wire she gib up wid er tired,
tangled break, an’ sed:
“Brer Washington, it am de Lord’s will.”
“Oh, I tell you, suh, you got er use a mighty keen switch ob
beseechment in de race ef you wanter lead er widder down de home
stretch!
“But goodness grashus!” he said, as if suddenly remembering
something. “I’d better be buildin’ dis pen or we won’t hab enny
sawseges fur Kristmus,” and he began to saw energetically.
“Hold on,” I said, “You never told me whether you married the
widow or not.”
He looked at me in undisguised astonishment—“Law, law, law,” he
said, “white folks got such curis ideas. In course I did—marrid her
dat night an’ tuck ’er home de naixt day; ain’t I bin tellin’ you whut er
hard time I had gettin’ konsolashun frum dat ar ’oman?”
He sawed vigorously away for awhile, but I could see he wished to
tell something else. Finally I said:
“Well, go on, I’m waiting.”
He turned around quickly, laid down his saw, laughed, and said:
“How de wurl did you know dar was ennything else? Bless my life,
suh, but de very look ob er white man am er search warrant to de
nigger’s soul. Ef you bleegter hab it, heah it am,” he said, as he
looked slyly around: “I hadn’t been married to dat ’oman but two
years befo’ I had to run fur er offis, too.
“What office?” I asked.
He grinned sheepishly.
“Patriark ob de Santerfercashun,” he said, “I beat Unk Peter fur
dat offis, an’ got eben wid ’im at his own game.

“Lemme tell you, chile,” he added, impressively, “two years ob
konsolashun frum er widder will make a dead man or a Patriark
outen ’most ennybody,” and he resumed his sawing with a vigor.

Concerning Littleness
Let not the littleness of people
disturb you. Remember that if
you have been made big enough
to do big things in life, you have
been made large enough to
overlook little things. So do not
imagine you are great, so long as
by sifting yourself you find
jealousy, hatred, malice or even
the spirit which frets, in your
heart. These and Greatness sleep
not in the same soul.
John Trotwood Moore.

H
An Unfinished
Race.
Stories of the Soil
The Little Things of Life, Happening All Over
the World and Caught in Ink for Trotwood’s
Monthly.
e was a fine-looking old gentleman, well-dressed and had the
air of a well-to-do business man. A silver-white mustache set off
his cheery-looking, full, round face, and something in his eyes told
me he wasn’t at all struck on formality and would not mind talking to
a stranger, to pass away an hour or two in a sleeping-car. I noticed,
too, that his left sleeve had no arm in it, and
then that he had on a G. A. R. button.
“That old fellow is all right,” I said to myself, “and I’ll bet he left
that arm down in Tennessee. There are a dozen good yarns tucked
away under that derby hat that have never yet seen the color of white
paper, and I am going to get one of them. I should say that he fought
from Shiloh to Chickamauga and from Chattanooga to Nashville, and
made a good one, too, or else he wouldn’t have left that arm in the
enemy’s country.” “He fought the war out,” I said, after I had studied
his countenance more closely and noticed the big bump of benignity
that made up his back head and ended in kind, mild countenance;
“and after it was over he let it stay over, forgot all its meanness,
inhumanity and cussedness generally, came on up here to Indiana
and went into business, attended strictly to it, and is now a well-to-
do business man.”
Satisfied that my diagnosis was correct, I went over, and taking a
seat by him, began to slyly get in my net for the fish I knew was
there.
“From Middle Tennessee, you say?” he said after awhile. “Well, I
guess I know every foot of it, nearly.” He laughed. “Under a little

black locust tree near Murfreesboro is what is left of this,” he said, as
he touched his empty coat sleeve. “I have often wanted to go back
there and see some of those pretty farms and good horses and
bluegrass hills when I didn’t have any guard duty to do and wasn’t
looking for an enemy, but friends.”
I cordially invited him to come, and mentioned how many of the
veterans come down every now and then to go over the battlefields of
the South.
“Is that long, wooden, covered bridge still spanning Duck River at
Columbia?” he asked quickly, as if suddenly remembering all about
it. “That old bridge has got a history,” he continued. “I was with Buell
when we got orders that we were to unite our army with Grant’s
somewhere in the neighborhood of Pittsburg Landing, on the
Tennessee. When we reached Columbia the river was up and the
bridge was partially destroyed, and all the flooring burned. I was one
of the engineers and had to repair the bridge. Word had come that
we were needed badly, and we worked day and night. Then word
came that we were needed worse, and by hard dint I got the army
over, and on we rushed for Pittsburg Landing. We got there almost
too late. Grant’s army was nearly ruined. Johnston had driven it
from Shiloh Church to the river bank, a distance of five or six miles,
and only our arrival that night, bringing in the thirty or thirty-five
thousand of Buell’s army, saved Grant. On what small things do great
destinies hang!” he mused. “A loss of a day at Columbia would have
changed the history of this country, and General Grant, instead of
having been President, would have been one more of our
unsuccessful generals.
“But the funniest experience I had in Tennessee was at a little
place in Marshall County, almost at the extreme edge of our army’s
position. It was after the battle of Shiloh, when the main army was at
Nashville and our outposts went as far south as Pulaski. Do you all
still raise pacing horses down there?”
I looked around to see if anybody was near enough to understand
the humor of such a question, but seeing none, and no sign of a joke
on the old gentleman’s face, I kept my face straight as I answered
him that we still raised a few.
“I was always fond of a good saddle horse,” he went on, “and many
of the boys in our company of cavalry were of the same way of

thinking. In fact, we had picked up a whole company of them down
there, and I’m afraid we did not take the trouble to issue any
Government warrants for them either,” he laughed. “So when we
went into camp in this village of Marshall County we had a company
of as fine horses as any cavalry company ever bestrode. Time went a
little heavy on our hands, until one day some of the boys got up a bet
on the speed of their respective horses, and a quarter race was run
that evening at which the entire company turned out. It was won by a
little roan horse that could pace nearly as fast as he could run, which
was saying a good deal, for he could run for a quarter of a mile about
as fast as anything I ever saw on four legs. Well, he won, and two
days afterward beat two others, and a week after that beat everything
they could rake and scrape up against him. All this was hugely
interesting and immensely exciting, and as none of us had ever heard
anything of the presence of the rebel cavalry leader and reckless
raider, General Forrest, and never dreamed of the danger we were in,
I am sorry to say that we were more interested in horse-racing just
then than anything else. The owner of the horse called the little roan
pacer and runner “Mack,” in honor of General MacPherson, who
commanded some of us at Shiloh. Well, after Mack had beaten
everything running, it was announced in camp one day that Mack’s
match at pacing had been captured a few days before, and a big
pacing race was to come off that evening to decide it. I had never
seen a pacing race under saddle, and with all the others I went out to
see it. You can imagine what asses we were when we left everything
in camp, even our side arms, in care of a few sentinels and camp
followers, and all of us adjourned to an old field about a quarter of a
mile to see the sport. The track was a half-mile, laid off on a nice
country road, the judges standing at the end of the half mile and the
start was at the beginning. It is needless to say that every man in the
company was at the end of the track where the judges were. The
horses were nearly equal favorites, and we soon had to appoint a
man to hold the bets. He had his hands full, for every man in the
company had something upon the race, and the goose hung high—
and we were the goose,” he laughed.
“There were to be three heats. An Indiana man rode Mack, and an
Ohio man rode the other horse. Down the lane they came on the first
heat, and all of us strained our necks to see who led. In forty yards of
the wire, so to speak, Mack lost his head, concluded he was born for

running and not for pacing, broke out and ran away from his man.
The judges gave the heat to the other horse. This made Mack’s
friends mad, and after a good deal of palavering the heat was
declared off and everything started over. In this heat Mack got down
to business and beat the other horse by the nose. But in the next heat
the other horse turned the tables on Mack and beat him a good
length. I’ve seen a good many harness races in my day since then,”
continued the old soldier, “but I never saw one that interested me as
much as that. Everything was excitement, and the boys were betting
everything they had, from hardtacks to dollars. When they turned up
the road to come down for the third heat, we could easily see them
from where we were, as the beginning of the track was slightly
elevated. They turned ’round to come, when all at once I saw both
horses stop, their riders looking intently toward the camp, which was
behind us and could be seen by them from their slight elevation. In
another instant they started, but not our way. They gave one wild
shout, bolted the fence on the side of the road and lit out across the
fields, according to our notion, like two fools. Before we had time to
imagine what was up, we heard some shouts and shots in camp,
some wild galloping and yells our way, and we turned ’round only to
rush into the arms of a detachment, some five-hundred strong, of
Forrest’s Cavalry. If there ever were a cheap set, we were the boys.
We made no bones of surrendering, for we hadn’t a dog’s show and
were glad to get off with our clothes.
“‘What in h—— are you Yanks doin’ down here, anyway?’ asked
their leader, a big fellow with a Colonel’s gray uniform on. When the
situation was explained to him he laughed like a big schoolboy.
‘Where is the stakeholder?’ he asked. When this gentleman was
pointed out he hollered out: ‘Fetch them stakes over here, sonny, and
tell the judges all bets are declared off on this race’! And the way the
Johnnies laughed racked us more than being captured.
“We soon learned the secret of the thing. Forrest had made one of
his characteristic raids around Nashville, captured and burned our
stores at Gallatin and Murfreesboro, and was sweeping on towards
Bragg’s army at Tullahoma. In his sweep he simply scooped us up
while we were down in the woods of Marshall County, running a
pumpkin fair, a goose show and a pacing meeting. But he was in a big
hurry himself, for nearly all of Buell’s cavalry were after him. He had

T
The Old Canoe.
no time to do anything but take all we had, including our horses, the
gate receipts and the book money and parole us and push on. But he
never got Mack and the other horse, and to this day I have always
wished that he had waited five minutes longer. I’d give ten dollars
now,” he added, “to know whether Mack or the other horse would
have won that last heat. But we never knew, for we were soon forced
to the front again; forgot all about our paroles, for we never did think
we were fairly captured, and I never saw Mack or his rider again. I
stayed the war out, but I never went to see any more pacing races in
the enemy’s country,” he laughed.
“Well, come down this fall and see some in the country of friends,”
I said. We shook hands and parted.
TROTWOOD.
he poem below goes the rounds of the press every year signed
with the name of Gen. Albert Pike. In fact, such is the general
belief, and all the books in which I have seen this poem printed fall
into this error. But though General Pike
wrote some very beautiful poems, he did
not write this one. We have his own admission made to Senator
Carmack, the distinguished senior Senator from Tennessee. Like
many other good poems, it was, perhaps, the only one some poet
wrote, and, never thinking it would be immortal, or that it had any
special merit, failed to sign his name to it.
It is a little curious how this poem became identified with General
Pike. But we learn how it was from an old citizen of Columbia, Tenn.,
who knew General Pike when he was a young man and lived here.
Pike practiced law there when he first started out in life, but met with
poor success. Becoming despondent, he one night paid his hotel bill,
went to the river’s edge, got into an old canoe, and drifted down to
Williamsport, where he took the stage for Nashville. From there he
went West, where he became a successful lawyer and politician, and
afterwards wrote a volume of poetry. Those poems in which he
allowed himself to be natural, such as “Every Year” and others, are
very beautiful. But in his most pretentious poem he seems to imitate
Keats and Shelley, and so lost his own individuality.

After many years Pike came back to Columbia, a celebrated man.
He was an ardent Whig, and made a big speech in support of his
principles. To offset his influence some ardent Democrat composed a
doggerel called “The Old Canoe,” in which it was plainly intimated
that Pike had left here years before between two suns, and had not
been too particular about taking some one else’s canoe to get away
in. This doggerel was sung around the streets until General Pike and
his friends were exasperated beyond measure, ending in the sensitive
poet’s leaving the town. Of course, it was all a lie, and the old canoe
was probably the property of no man, but it seems that then, as now,
nothing was too mean for one political party to say of another. This
beautiful poem, “The Old Canoe,” coming out about that time, was
attributed to General Pike, and its authorship has never before,
perhaps, been publicly corrected. It is found in the schoolbooks, and
in books on elocution, as being by General Pike, but Senator
Carmack is our authority that General Pike himself told him he did
not write it.

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