TES# Chapter 2
- 1. Group Members Saurav Saurav Saurav Sharda Shiva Sijan Sonuja Development Approach 1 Tutor Asst. Prof. Shukra Raj Paudel Department of Civil Engineering IOE, Tribhuvan University 159 160 161 162 163 164 165
- 2. Objectives of the Presentation At the end of this presentation, listeners will be able to: • Understand and compare different development approaches • Familiarize the Infrastructure Development policies of Nepal • Comprehend the ethnographic information collection approach and participatory approach, tools and observation • Intuit the terms resource mapping, wealth ranking, poverty definition 2
- 3. 1. Development Approaches (LEP) 2. Community management, engineers role as facilitator 3. Key features: Infrastructure development policies of Nepal 4. Ethnographic approach to collect information 5. Participatory approach as community empowerment 6. Participatory tools, focus group discussions, key informants interview 7. Participatory observation, structured questionnaire 8. Resource mapping, wealth ranking, poverty definition Presentation Outline 3
- 4. • A component of sustainable development • Aims at improving the human well-being in the society • Enables people to progress towards self- sufficiency. Development Social Development Any progressive change is development. 4
- 5. 2.1 Development Approach • L- Labor Based • E- Environment Friendly • P- Participatory • Territorial approach • Gender approach • Partnership approach 5
- 6. 2.1 Development Approach contd. • L- Labor Based • Use of Local level Technology • Provides Local Employment • Local skill development • Local income generation, livelihood improvement 6
- 7. 2.1 Development Approach contd. • E- Environment Friendly • Account the real impact of development on the environment • Less disturbance to the environment • Simple mitigation measures • Able to face the challenges of Sustainable development 7
- 8. 2.1 Development Approach contd. • P- Participatory Approach • Everyone participates in the decision-making part of a development process • Participation either individually or representation of a group • Ideal approach to development since each participation is highly encouraged and welcomed and no distinct dominant figure • But perfect participatory approach cannot be obtained: misinterpretation, conflicts, omitted views and people etc. 8
- 9. 2.1 Development Approach contd. • Advantages of participatory approach • Cultivates feeling of ownership among participating members which result to make feel themselves responsible for the development project • Ensures wider acceptance of the decisions • Wider range of perspectives and insights for sustainability • Provides chance for less represented and minorities in community to shine and do important work • Likely to unite different groups • Likely to survive beyond the planning process 9
- 10. 2.1 Development Approach contd. • Disadvantages of participatory approach • Inclusion of every groups make decision making process last longer • Representatives from each group are required to be educated and understand the pathways and pitfalls in a development process • Inclusion of mavericks, which should be handled properly to run smoothly • Representation might not be done by right people of a particular group • Requires patience, time and commitment • Greater chance of clash of ideals and division of ideas 10
- 11. • Benefits a group of people but might provide lesser benefit for an individual self interest • Significant importance in developing the community and a nation as a whole • Using more than can be replenished leads to scarcity since supply is not unlimited • Overuse can lead to community problems Common Pool Resource 11
- 12. Management of CPR along with the community as a whole by the community itself with the help of volunteers and stakeholders within itCommunity Environment, Housing and Place Community Safety Children young people education Tackling Poverty Access and Transport Health and Science Enterprise and Skill Efficient and effective Service 2.2 Community Management Fig: Community Management 12
- 13. • Purpose of facilitator • Make any process easier and understandable • Helps a group of people understand what steps they need to fulfill their objectives while avoiding any pitfall on the way while maintaining a neutral view • Technical and managerial expertise of an engineer makes him an ideal facilitator in getting the technical and management aspect of a project correct. 2.2 Engineer as a Facilitator 13
- 14. 2.2 Role of Engineer as a Facilitator 14 Organizing and directing activities involved Planning, scheduling and leading meetings Ensuring all the team members understand the process Focal point in the communication and recognizing the training needs of the team members and encouraging team Acting as technical expert and researching Solving certain conflicts and interferences Selecting the level, defining the borders and work scope for the analysis considering the impact and resources required
- 15. 2.3 Key Features of Infrastructure Development policies in Nepal • Nepal has many development policies in place that aim to produce sustainability to development works in Nepal and bring a better standard of living among people. • We has a long experience of planned development of infrastructure through interim plans since 1956. 15
- 16. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • Interim Plans of Nepal • First 5 years Interim Plan (13/14-17/18) Plan Holiday 18/19 • Second 5 years Interim Plan (19/20-21/22) • Third 5 years Interim Plan (22/23-26/27) • Fourth 5 years Interim Plan (27/28-31/32) • Fifth 5 years Interim Plan (32/33-36/37) • Sixth 5 years Interim Plan (37/38-41/42) • Seventh 5 years Interim Plan (42/43-46/47) Plan Holiday 47/48,48/49 16
- 17. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • Interim Plans of Nepal • Eighth 5 years Interim Plan (49/50-53/54) • Ninth 5 years Interim Plan (54/55-58/59) • Tenth 5 years Interim Plan (59/60-63/64) • Third Year Interim Plan (64/65-66/67) • Twelfth 3 years Interim Plan (67/68-69/70) • Thirteenth 3 years Interim Plan (70/71- 72/73) • Fourteenth 3 years Interim Plan (73/74- 75/76) 17
- 18. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • Nepal Development Plans (10-5 years plans) • Improvement of existing local infrastructures and facilities (1st five year plan) • Regional approach to development (4th five year plan) • Small area development programme (5th five year plan) • Promotion of people’s partnership through local leadership (6th five year plan) • “Basic needs” programme (7th five year plan) 18
- 19. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. Eighth five year plan • Attainable sustainable growth • Liberal market oriented economy, Government as facilitator, motivator and regulator • Bottom up approach in development works were inititiated. • Agricultural sector development (9th five year plan) • “One family one employment” policy (9th five year plan) • Poverty alleviation and improve economic, social and human indicators. (10th five year plan) 19
- 20. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • Reconstruction, social reconciliation and proportionate development (Eleventh plan) • Achieve millennium development goal and reduce poverty to 21% (Twelfth plan) • Uplifting Nepal from LDC to developing countries by 2022 (Thirteenth Plan) 20
- 21. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • Fourteenth Plan Economic Growth rate - 7.2% Agricultural sector – 4.7% Non agricultural sector – 8.4% Human Development Index – 0.57 Electricity access – 87% Internet Access – 65% Drinking water access - 90% 21
- 22. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • Nepal Agricultural Perspective Plan (1997-2012) • Focuses on agricultural technology, road and power, irrigation, chemical fertilizer. • Projection of declination of people living below poverty line by 5.5 million. • Weather roads connection for transportation of fruits and herbs. • Installation of shallow tube wells to harness easily available groundwater for irrigation. 22
- 23. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • A 20-year master plan-2002 • Strengthen political and administrative linkages. • Alleviate poverty. • Develop and utilize economic and cultural potentiality. • Minimize transportation cost • Minimum adverse effect on environment. 23
- 24. 2.3 Infrastructure Development contd. • National Transport Policy -2001 • Develop reliable, cost effective,, safe facility and sustainable transportation system. • District roads, village roads, agricultural roads, etc. • Priority Investment Plan (1997-2007) • Guidance for development of roads. • Nepal Roads Board Act (2002) 24
- 25. 2.4 Ethnographic approach to collect information 25 Ethnography refers to literally means “writing culture” Ethnographic research Seeks an in-depth understanding of how people make sense of lived reality in their social worlds Involves observation or participant- observation, “hanging out” with people in their natural, everyday settings Uses fieldnotes to render “thick descriptions” of social interaction and lived experience through researcher immersion in events and activities of the social setting
- 26. Usefulness Of Ethnography Ethnography is useful for studying the links between social contexts, cultural meanings, and practices Practices are people’s everyday “doings” (activities, interactions) Ethnographic focus on behavioral and interactive dimensions of social life lends richness and depth Ethnography requires great deal of time, energy, resources Ethnography is most often rooted in the interpretive or critical traditions, not a positivist framework Feminist ethnography often seeks to “give voice” to women’s concerns; combines interpretive and critical perspectives
- 27. Ethnography provides a window into the social worlds people inhabit Ethnography focuses on people’s “doings” (practices, interactions) in their natural setting Participant-observation is the most common ethnographic approach Recording and analyzing fieldnotes are the core research activities of ethnography Ethnographic fieldnotes can be paired with other data collection methods (e.g., interviews) Ethnography is an interpretive activity Ethnography is representation of lived experience, not “reality”
- 28. Common Methods In Ethnography • Field research • Participant observation • Case studies • Focus groups
- 29. Participant Observation • “Participant observation combines participation in the lives of the people under study with the maintenance of a professional distance that allows adequate observation and recording of data (Fetterman 45).”
- 30. Case Studies: exploratory, explanatory and descriptive • In-depth analysis of an individual or a group of people with shared characteristics. • Often includes personal accounts directly from the participants. • Draws conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. • Research emphasis is placed on exploration and description.
- 31. Focus Groups • Concentrated group exploration and discussions. • What can be gained from the focus group method? • Method is qualitative but the information gathered can be quantitative.
- 32. 2.5 Participatory Approach as Community Empowerment What is Participation ?? Participation is a process through which people influence and share control over planning and the decision making. Peoples right to communicate their stories should be at the heart of participatory strategies leading to empowerment. (Melkote & Steeves 2001:355) 32
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- 34. Its our right! Expressing our views, freedom of thought and having the opportunity to participate in the cultural, artistic and recreational life of our communities is also more than just a good practice it is our right. Our opinion and decisions count! When considering and providing opportunities for participation it is important to acknowledge them as active and competent. 34 Participation Importance 2.5 Participatory Approach as Community Empowerment contd.
- 35. Identify our Strengths and Weaknesses Allowing others to identify their own strengths and weaknesses and offering them guidance and support is important for building their self-esteem and capacity. Build self esteem and capacity 35 2.5 Participatory Approach as Community Empowerment contd.
- 36. Community empowerment Empowerment is the ability of individuals to gain control socially, politically, economically, and psychologically through • access to information, knowledge, and skills; • decision making; • individual self-efficacy, community participation, and perceived control (Rappaport 1987; Zimmerman and Rappaport 1988). In other word, it is a process of change by which individuals or groups with little or no power gain the power ability to make choices that affect their lives
- 37. Community development Community development has two basic goals (two basic purposes): • first, to improve the quality of life of all members of the community, • and second, to involve all members of the community in the process. Basic three approaches for community development 1. Top-down 2. Partnership 3. Bottom-up 37
- 38. 38 Fig: relationship among approaches, participation and level of empowerment Approaches Participation Empowerment Source: Journal of Environmental Management Approaches Participation Empowerment Top-down Participation as a mean (static, passive, controllable) Low empowerment Bottom-up Participation as an end (active, dynamic, and self- mobilization) Moderate empowerment Partnership (cooperative) Working together High empowerment and Sustainable
- 39. Scale of participatory approach 39 Empowering 1. Rapid expert analysis 2. Questionnaires 3. Key informants 1. In depth joint analysis, learning and action 2.Visualdiagrams 3. Group Discussions 4. Active Participation Extractive 1. Options are shared but not power 2. Empowering method for extractive purposes Fig. Scale of participatory approach
- 40. Strategic Approaches 40 Learning Partnership 1. Analyzing problems 2. Finding problems 3. Shaping plans 1. Developing professional teams 1. Involving stakeholders at all levels shaping programmes and placements Empowerment Fig. Strategic approach
- 41. Steps to Participation 41 Manipulation Information Consultation Partnership Delegated Power Non Participation Tokenism Citizen power Fig. Steps to participation
- 42. Steps to Participation contd Manipulation Action of managing people in a clever, skilful or unscrupulous way to participation Information Informing citizens of their rights ,responsibilities and option Consultation Inviting citizens options and formally consulting or discussing 42
- 43. Steps to Participation contd Partnership Association of two or more people as partners like joint policy boards ,planning committees and mechanisms for resolving impasses Delegated Power Authorize to do people something as a representative through negotiations between citizens and public officials 43
- 44. 2.6 Participatory tools, focus group discussions, key informants interviews Participatory tools: a. Participatory Rural Appraisal: • Joint learning and decision making approach • Includes methods to help local people to understand through planning, monitoring and evaluation of activities. • So, facilitates lots of information exchange and analysis among stakeholders. b. Beneficiary feedback: Collection of views of stakeholders on currently ongoing or completed project. Involves the feedback of stakeholders about the development work to provide sustainability. 44
- 45. 2.6 Participatory tools contd. c. Key Informant Interview: • Qualitative assessment technique to gain information from community. • Interview is done with the key informant who has knowledge and understanding of the prevailing problem. Who could be key informant ? • People of community who has knowledge and information about the problems concerned with community • Community leader, Fathers, facilities supervisor, administrator, human resources specialists, facilities manager, business owner. 45
- 46. Planning key informant interviews • Gather and review existing data • Determine what information is needed • Choose key informant • Choose type of interview • Develop an interview tool • Determine documentation method • Conduct the interview • Compile and organize the data 46
- 47. 2.6 Participatory tools contd. d. Most significant change technique(MSC): Influential stories of people affecting the development activity are collected Most significant story is selected and subjected for discussion This helps to bring positive impact to the people in community 47
- 48. Focus Group Discussion • A data collection method in which certain number of people sharing common interest is interviewed with the help of facilitator. • Facilitator acts as mediator and uses interaction within group to gain information. • A group normally consist to 6-10 people sharing the common interest and characteristics. 48
- 49. Focus Group Discussion • The moderator creates the environment where all the participants are able to share their views, information, perception and ideas about any issue. • Multiple sessions are conducted to identify the current trends and patterns • After this a systematic analysis is done for final evaluation. 49
- 50. How to conduct a focus group? A. Conceptualization phase Determining the purpose What information is needed? Why is it needed? Determining whom to study Developing a plan and estimating the required resources. Specify procedure, time and proposed budget Allow others to review the plan. 50
- 51. How to conduct a focus group? Contd. B. Interview Phase • Developing the question and should be carefully planned • For best result around 5-6 questions should be asked. • Arrange question in logical sequence. • Use open ended questions and avoid yes no questions. • Moderator should keep discussion flowing on track, avoid irrelevant topics, make transitions into another question. 51
- 52. How to conduct a focus group? Contd. C. Analyzing and reporting phase • Immediately after the session moderator and assistant should spot check the data and information collected to make sure it is collected properly. • The moderator and assistant should arrive at short summary that is mutually agreeable. • Data can be examined and reported in three levels i.e. raw data, descriptive statements and interpretation. • Raw data is statements as they were said by the respondents. • Descriptive statements summarizes respondents comments and provide illustrative examples. • Interpretation is complex and presents the meaning of data rather than simply summarizing the data • The data analysis must be systematic and verifiable. 52
- 53. Advantages of focus groups • Can obtain data from children or individual who are not literate. • Provides data more quickly and at low cost than if individuals interviewed separately. • Requires less preparation and is comparatively easy to conduct • Researchers can directly interact with respondents • Very flexible: can be used with wide range of topics, individuals and settings • Results are easy to understand and more accessible for decision makers to finalize the decision. 53
- 54. Disadvantages of focus groups • Less control over group; less control over what information will be produced. • Produces relatively disorganized data and makes analysis difficult. • Small number of sample severely limit ability to generalize to larger population. • Requires carefully trained interviewer. • Result may be based on very dominant members; more reserved members may hesitate to talk. 54
- 55. 2.7 Participatory observation, structured questionnaires Participatory Observation • Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically used in qualitative research. • The method of evaluation in which evaluator gains information through observation and records from direct involvement with the surroundings. 55
- 56. Participatory Observation contd. 56 Fig: Participatory and non participatory observation
- 57. Participatory Observation contd. • It helps to understand the different aspects of locality. • It helps to develop relationships between the components within the observation areas. • It helps the researcher to interact with the groups and individuals of the observation areas to know them closely. 57
- 58. Participatory observation involves the observation of followings: 1. Appearance: Clothing, age, physical appearance, social status, religion 2. Verbal behaviour and interactions: languages, tone of voice, how they interacts with each others , ethnicity 3. Physical behaviour & gestures: body language for communication, how they express their feelings, social ranks, profession 58
- 59. Participatory observation involves Contd. • Personal space: relationship between each others, how close people are with each other • Human traffic: movement of people at observation site, time spent at the site, types of people(age, gender, ethnicity) entering or leaving the observation site. • People who stand out: people receiving more attention from others, their characterstics, what makes them alike from others people, kind of help people want from them 59
- 60. Strengths • Used to observe actions across time • More in-depth look at society and societal phenomena. • Supply critical information which may be helpful for project plan, data compilation and understandings. • Helps to be more familiar with contexts , relationships and behaviours • Observe the situation and background when any actions occurs. 60
- 61. Weaknesses • Time consuming • Needs good memory and attentiveness of researchers • Researchers can lose their objectives as they participate in groups. • Need to focus on objective of research as it is a subjective method 61
- 62. Phases of participation observation 62 Establishing relations Fit with the surroundings Data analysis Data recording and observations
- 63. Types of participation observation 1. Non participatory • No contact with population or group to be studied • Doesn't allow relationship formation 2. Passive participation • Limited connections without making any relationships. 3. Moderate participation • Researchers act both as an insider as well as an outsider • It keeps the researcher focused on research’s objectives. 63
- 64. Types of participation observation Contd. 4. Active participation • Active member of group accepting traditions and norms • In depth understandings and relationship with the group • Risk of losing objectives of research 5. Complete participation • Entirely integrated with the traditions and norms • Highest risk of losing research’s objectives. 64 Passive participation Moderate participation Active participation Complete participation
- 65. Structured Questionnaire • Data collection on a particular issue in which participants are presented a list of questions which needs clear and concise answers • Shouldn’t be subjective • Should make people realize about the importance of their answers and purpose of the study • Can be used in various survey situations by changing few questions • Self completion questionnaire : postal , electronic questionnaire 65
- 66. Structured Questionnaire Contd. • Interview schedules : face to face, telephone questionnaire • Questionnaire are used for: 1. Collecting realistic information to categorize people and other circumstances 2. Measure satisfaction of the clients with the services 3. To observe the opinions and attitudes of group of people • It should not be used to investigate complex issues and to explore latest and complicated controversial issues 66
- 67. Advantages • Touch with large number of people in low cost • Simply connect with geographically diversified people • Postal questionnaires can be completed in their suitable time • Telephone questionnaires makes it easy for disable people • F2F questionnaire helps to recognize the suitable person and gather additional information 67
- 68. Disadvantages • Responses rate low(postal) • Rejection rate high(telephone, F2F) • No control over postal questionnaire that who completes it. • Postal not suitable for people with visual and reading difficulties • F2f and telephone questionnaire needs skilled interviewers • F2f questionnaire more time consuming and labour intensive 68
- 69. 2.8 Resource mapping, Wealth ranking, Poverty definition Participatory Tools Mapping tools Diagramming tools Others Discussion and interviews Social mapping Wealth ranking Resource mapping 69
- 70. General definition: • Resource mapping identifies the resources that can realistically be mobilized for campaigning. • Such resources include human resources, financial resources, institutional assets, material assets, networks etc. • Use in education(schools), project management, business and more. 70 Resource Mapping
- 71. • Community Resource mapping is an approach in which information concerning the topography, human settlements, cultures and activities, abundance and distribution of resources, the access level and use of these resources, etc. are shown at a glance. • Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem of any place is of prime importance. 71 Community Resource mapping
- 72. • Basic result • Resource Map is a map showing a community’s or group’s living environment, natural resources, social facilities and infrastructures. 72Source: weadapt.orgSource:InSTEDD.org
- 73. Use of Resource mapping: • Identify new resources • Enable to picture resources & features • Avoid duplication of services and resources • Cultivate new partnerships and relationships • Identify problems, possibilities and opportunities • Encourage collaboration 73
- 74. Limitations • Bounded by spatial limitations on social, cultural and economic domains • Not viable for large geographical area • Limited by the available data and further high-quality data may not be available or in a format that can be mapped • Defines issues of access in terms of physical proximity to resources 74
- 75. Step 3: Taking Action Developing an Action Plan Achieving Consensus Implementing the Action Plan Sharing the Action Plan Reflection Questions Step 4: Maintaining, Sustaining, and Evaluating Mapping Efforts Evaluating Progress Maintaining Momentum Sustaining the Effort Reflection Questions Pre- mapping Mapping Action Evaluation & maintenance Step 1: Pre-Mapping Establishing a Task Force to Guide the Process Setting a Vision Setting Goals Communicating Continuously Reflection Questions Step 2: Mapping Identifying Resources Developing Mapping Tools and Strategies Gathering Information Determining the Meaning of the Information Communicating and Using the Mapping Results Reflection Questions Steps for Resource mapping 75
- 76. Wealth Ranking • Tool to identify levels of well-being in the households of the community using local criteria defined by community members themselves • Also known as well-being ranking • Provides an insight into the socioeconomic differences in a locality • Highly significant to prioritize development actions which fit the need of each specific group 76
- 77. Source : slideshare.net More examples: Punjab, Pakistan participatory Poverty Assessment (World Bank 2005) The wealth ranking was done in categories of • Very Poor • Poor • Better off • Well off based on social characteristics, assets, livelihood strategies and policies, institutions and processes In Uganda Wealth ranking was done under following categories: • People who can manage • People who have something • People who earn slowly • People who can’t manage 77
- 78. Results provided by wealth ranking • Local concept of wealth, economic and well- being states • Economic and well-being profile of community • Social stratification at community level • Ownership and user rights 78
- 79. Purpose of wealth ranking • To understand socioeconomic differences within a community • To categorize household or social groups into different economic categories • To know how people access and use resources • To identify the likely susceptible changes within a community brought by project interventions or climate change • To identify marginalized groups and inform the development of equitable benefit distribution mechanisms 79
- 80. Limitations of wealth ranking • Gives a stationary picture with no any expression with regards to poverty dynamics • Narrow focus on ranking doesn’t deal with distribution of well being within the household • May be susceptible matter and the information may not be completely true due to fear of people for the data to be used against them 80
- 81. Produce wealth ranking Analyze Conclude Steps for wealth ranking 81
- 82. Facilitation of wealth ranking Mapping method Card method Percentage distribution method Summary matrix method Source : knowledgebank.irri.org Use of social mapping 82
- 83. Social mapping A graphic representation of the community layout presenting information on: • Infrastructures • Population • Social stratifications • Chronic health cases • Disability • Malnourished children • Family planning • Vaccination • Widows • Destitute, etc 83
- 84. features Visual method providing a basis for the wealth ranking of the community Depended upon the size of community and demography it represents 84 Source:slideshare.n et Source:slideshar e
- 85. Uses of social mapping • To develop a comprehensive understanding of the physical and social aspects of the community • To collect demographic and other required information household wise • To provide a forum of discussion so as to unravel the various aspects of the social life • To serve as a guiding instrument during the process of planning interventions • To serve as a monitoring and evaluation tool 85
- 86. 86 Procedure for social mapping Prepare a base map Code each household Focus on the indicators Monitor and evaluate
- 87. Poverty definitions Multidimensional including various aspects and points of view with regards to subjects such as: • Material well being • Food security • Employment • Physical capital • Human capital • Physical deprivation • Psychological aspects (voice, power and independence) • Cultural and social norms, etc 87
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- 91. Thank You!! 91