Testing

© British Computer Society, SIGIST, 2001
Standard for
Software Component Testing
Working Draft 3.4
Date: 27 April 2001
produced by the
British Computer Society
Specialist Interest Group in Software Testing
(BCS SIGIST)
Copyright Notice
This document may be copied in its entirety or
extracts made if the source is acknowledged.
This standard is available on the World Wide Web at the following URL:
http://www.testingstandards.co.uk/

Contents
FOREWORD .............................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................................2
1 SCOPE..................................................................................................................................3
2 PROCESS.............................................................................................................................5
3 TEST CASE DESIGN TECHNIQUES ................................................................................8
3.1 EQUIVALENCE PARTITIONING.................................................................................... 8
3.2 BOUNDARY VALUE ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 8
3.3 STATE TRANSITION TESTING..................................................................................... 9
3.4 CAUSE-EFFECT GRAPHING........................................................................................ 9
3.5 SYNTAX TESTING..................................................................................................... 9
3.6 STATEMENT TESTING ............................................................................................. 10
3.7 BRANCH/DECISION TESTING ................................................................................... 10
3.8 DATA FLOW TESTING ............................................................................................. 11
3.9 BRANCH CONDITION TESTING ................................................................................. 11
3.10 BRANCH CONDITION COMBINATION TESTING ........................................................... 11
3.11 MODIFIED CONDITION DECISION TESTING................................................................ 12
3.12 LCSAJ TESTING.................................................................................................... 12
3.13 RANDOM TESTING.................................................................................................. 12
3.14 OTHER TESTING TECHNIQUES .................................................................................12
4 TEST MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES..........................................................................13
4.1 EQUIVALENCE PARTITION COVERAGE........................................................................ 13
4.2 BOUNDARY VALUE COVERAGE ................................................................................. 13
4.3 STATE TRANSITION COVERAGE................................................................................. 13
4.4 CAUSE-EFFECT COVERAGE....................................................................................... 13
4.5 SYNTAX COVERAGE ................................................................................................ 14
4.6 STATEMENT COVERAGE........................................................................................... 14
4.7 BRANCH AND DECISION COVERAGE ........................................................................... 14
4.8 DATA FLOW COVERAGE ........................................................................................... 14
4.9 BRANCH CONDITION COVERAGE ............................................................................... 15
4.10 BRANCH CONDITION COMBINATION COVERAGE .......................................................... 15
4.11 MODIFIED CONDITION DECISION COVERAGE............................................................... 15
4.12 LCSAJ COVERAGE.................................................................................................... 16
4.13 RANDOM TESTING................................................................................................... 16
4.14 OTHER TEST MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES .................................................................16
ANNEX A PROCESS GUIDELINES (INFORMATIVE)..................................................................17
ANNEX B GUIDELINES FOR TESTING TECHNIQUES AND TEST MEASUREMENT
(INFORMATIVE).............................................................................................................26
B.1 EQUIVALENCE PARTITIONING.................................................................................. 26
B.2 BOUNDARY VALUE ANALYSIS ................................................................................. 31
B.3 STATE TRANSITION TESTING................................................................................... 35
B.4 CAUSE EFFECT GRAPHING ...................................................................................... 39
B.5 SYNTAX TESTING................................................................................................... 41
B.6 STATEMENT TESTING AND COVERAGE ..................................................................... 44
B.7 BRANCH/DECISION TESTING ................................................................................... 45
B.8 DATA FLOW TESTING ............................................................................................. 47
B.9 / B.10 / B.11 CONDITION TESTING .............................................................................................. 50
B.12 LCSAJ TESTING.................................................................................................... 54
B.13 RANDOM TESTING.................................................................................................. 59
B.14 OTHER TESTING TECHNIQUES .................................................................................60
ANNEX C TEST TECHNIQUE EFFECTIVENESS (INFORMATIVE) ..........................................61
ANNEX D BIBLIOGRAPHY (INFORMATIVE)...............................................................................63
ANNEX E DOCUMENT DETAILS (INFORMATIVE) ....................................................................64

Standard for Software Component Testing
© British Computer Society, SIGIST, 2001 Working Draft 3.4 (27-Apr-01) 1
Foreword
This working draft of the Standard replaces all previous versions. The previous edition was working
draft 3.3, dated 28 April 1997. This version has improved formatting and updated contact details.
The technical content remains unchanged from the previous version.

2 Working Draft 3.4 (27-Apr-01) © British Computer Society, SIGIST, 2001
Introduction
The history of the standard
A meeting of the Specialist Interest Group on Software Testing was held in January 1989 (this group
was later to affiliate with the British Computer Society). This meeting agreed that existing testing
standards are generally good standards within the scope which they cover, but they describe the
importance of good test case selection, without being specific about how to choose and develop test
cases.
The SIG formed a subgroup to develop a standard which addresses the quality of testing performed.
Draft 1.2 was completed by November 1990 and this was made a semi-public release for comment. A
few members of the subgroup trialled this draft of the standard within their own organisations. Draft
1.3 was circulated in July 1992 (it contained only the main clauses) to about 20 reviewers outside of
the subgroup. Much of the feedback from this review suggested that the approach to the standard
needed re-consideration.
A working party was formed in January 1993 with a more formal constitution. This has resulted in
Working Draft 3.4.
Aims of the standard
The most important attribute of this Standard is that it must be possible to say whether or not it has
been followed in a particular case (i.e. it must be auditable). The Standard therefore also includes the
concept of measuring testing which has been done for a component as well as the assessment of
whether testing met defined targets.
There are many challenges in software testing, and it would be easy to try and address too many
areas, so the standard is deliberately limited in scope to cover only the lowest level of independently
testable software. Because the interpretation of and name for the lowest level is imprecise, the term
"component" has been chosen rather than other common synonyms such as "unit", "module", or
"program" to avoid confusion with these more common terms and remain compatible with them.

© British Computer Society, SIGIST, 2001 Working Draft 3.4 (27-Apr-01)
3
1 Scope
1.1 Objective
The objective of this Standard is to enable the measurement and comparison of testing performed on
software components. This will enable users of this Standard to directly improve the quality of their
software testing, and improve the quality of their software products.
1.2 Intended audience
The target audience for this Standard includes:
- testers and software developers;
- managers of testers and software developers;
- procurers of software products or products containing software;
- quality assurance managers and personnel;
- academic researchers, lecturers, and students;
- developers of related standards.
1.3 Approach
This Standard prescribes characteristics of the test process.
The Standard describes a number of techniques for test case design and measurement, which support
the test process.
1.4 What this Standard covers
1.4.1 Specified components. A software component must have a specification in order to be
tested according to this Standard. Given any initial state of the component, in a defined environment,
for any fully-defined sequence of inputs and any observed outcome, it shall be possible to establish
whether or not the component conforms to the specification.
1.4.2 Dynamic execution. This Standard addresses dynamic execution and analysis of the results
of execution.
1.4.3 Techniques and measures. This Standard defines test case design techniques and test
measurement techniques. The techniques are defined to help users of this Standard design test cases
and to quantify the testing performed. The definition of test case design techniques and measures
provides for common understanding in both the specification and comparison of software testing.
1.4.4 Test process attributes. This Standard describes attributes of the test process that indicate
the quality of the testing performed. These attributes are selected to provide the means of assessing,
comparing and improving test quality.
1.4.5 Generic test process. This Standard defines a generic test process. A generic process is
chosen to ensure that this Standard is applicable to the diverse requirements of the software industry.

Working Draft 3.4 (27-Apr-01) © British Computer Society, SIGIST, 2001
4
1.5 What this Standard does not cover
1.5.1 Types of testing. This Standard excludes a number of areas of software testing, for
example:
- integration testing;
- system testing;
- user acceptance testing;
- statistical testing;
- testing of non-functional attributes such as performance;
- testing of real-time aspects;
- testing of concurrency;
- static analysis such as data flow or control flow analysis;
- reviews and inspections (even as applied to components and their tests).
A complete strategy for all software testing would cover these and other aspects.
1.5.2 Test completion criteria. This Standard does not prescribe test completion criteria as it is
designed to be used in a variety of software development environments and application domains. Test
completion criteria will vary according to the business risks and benefits of the application under test.
1.5.3 Selection of test case design techniques. This Standard does not prescribe which test case
design techniques are to be used. Only appropriate techniques should be chosen and these will vary
according to the software development environments and application domains.
1.5.4 Selection of test measurement techniques. This Standard does not prescribe which test
measurement techniques are to be used. Only appropriate techniques should be chosen and these will
vary according to the software development environments and application domains.
1.5.5 Personnel selection. This Standard does not prescribe who does the testing.
1.5.6 Implementation. This Standard does not prescribe how required attributes of the test
process are to be achieved, for example, by manual or automated methods.
1.5.7 Fault removal. This Standard does not address fault removal. Fault removal is a separate
process to fault detection.
1.6 Conformity
Conformity to this Standard shall be by following the testing process defined in clause 2.
1.7 Normative reference
The following standard contains provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute
provisions of the Standard. At the time of publication, the edition was valid. All standards are
subject to revision, and parties to agreements based on the Standard are encouraged to investigate the
possibility of applying the most recent edition of the standard listed below. Members of IEC and ISO
maintain registers of currently valid International Standards.
ISO 9001:1994, Part 1: 1994 Specification for design/development, production, installation and
servicing.

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2 Process
2.1 Pre-requisites
Before component testing may begin the component test strategy (2.1.1) and project component test
plan (2.1.2) shall be specified.
2.1.1 Component test strategy
2.1.1.1 The component test strategy shall specify the techniques to be employed in the design of test
cases and the rationale for their choice. Selection of techniques shall be according to clause 3. If
techniques not described explicitly in this clause are used they shall comply with the 'Other Testing
Techniques' clause (3.13).
2.1.1.2 The component test strategy shall specify criteria for test completion and the rationale for
their choice. These test completion criteria should be test coverage levels whose measurement shall
be achieved by using the test measurement techniques defined in clause 4. If measures not described
explicitly in this clause are used they shall comply with the 'Other Test Measurement Techniques'
clause (4.13).
2.1.1.3 The component test strategy shall document the degree of independence required of
personnel designing test cases from the design process, such as:
a) the test cases are designed by the person(s) who writes the component under test;
b) the test cases are designed by another person(s);
c) the test cases are designed by a person(s) from a different section;
d) the test cases are designed by a person(s) from a different organisation;
e) the test cases are not chosen by a person.
2.1.1.4 The component test strategy shall document whether the component testing is carried out
using isolation, bottom-up or top-down approaches, or some mixture of these.
2.1.1.5 The component test strategy shall document the environment in which component tests will
be executed. This shall include a description of the hardware and software environment in which all
component tests will be run.
2.1.1.6 The component test strategy shall document the test process that shall be used for component
testing.
2.1.1.7 The test process documentation shall define the testing activities to be performed and the
inputs and outputs of each activity.

2.1.1.8 For any given test case, the test process documentation shall require that the following
activities occur in the following sequence:
a) Component Test Planning;
b) Component Test Specification;
c) Component Test Execution;
d) Component Test Recording;
e) Checking for Component Test Completion.
2.1.1.9 Figure 2.1 illustrates the generic test process described in clause 2.1.1.8. Component Test
Planning shall begin the test process and Checking for Component Test Completion shall end it;
these activities are carried out for the whole component. Component Test Specification, Component
Test Execution, and Component Test Recording may however, on any one iteration, be carried out for
a subset of the test cases associated with a component. Later activities for one test case may occur
before earlier activities for another.
2.1.1.10 Whenever an error is corrected by making a change or changes to test materials or the
component under test, the affected activities shall be repeated.
BEGIN
Checking for
Component
Test Completion
Component
Test Recording
Component
Test Execution
Component
Test Specification
END
Component
Test Planning
Figure 2.1 Generic Component Test Process

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2.1.2 Project component test plan
2.1.2.1 The project component test plan shall specify the dependencies between component tests and
their sequence. Their derivation shall include consideration of the chosen approach to component
testing (2.1.1.4), but may also be influenced by overall project management and work scheduling
considerations.
2.2 Component test planning
2.2.1 The component test plan shall specify how the component test strategy (2.1.1) and project
component test plan (2.1.2) apply to the given component under test. This shall include specific
identification of all exceptions to the component test strategy and all software with which the
component under test will interact during test execution, such as drivers and stubs.
2.3 Component test specification
2.3.1 Test cases shall be designed using the test case design techniques selected in the test
planning activity.
2.3.2 The specific test specification requirements for each test case design technique are defined in
clause 3. Each test case shall be specified by defining its objective, the initial state of the component,
its input, and the expected outcome. The objective shall be stated in terms of the test case design
technique being used, such as the partition boundaries exercised.
2.3.3 The execution of each test case shall be repeatable.
2.4 Component test execution
2.4.1 Each test case shall be executed.
2.5 Component test recording
2.5.1 The test records for each test case shall unambiguously record the identities and versions of
the component under test and the test specification. The actual outcome shall be recorded. It shall be
possible to establish that the all specified testing activities have been carried out by reference to the
test records.
2.5.2 The actual outcome shall be compared against the expected outcome. Any discrepancy found
shall be logged and analysed in order to establish where the error lies and the earliest test activity that
should be repeated in order to remove the discrepancy in the test specification or verify the removal of
the fault in the component.
2.5.3 The test coverage levels achieved for those measures specified as test completion criteria
shall be recorded.
2.6 Checking for component test completion
2.6.1 The test records shall be checked against the previously specified test completion criteria. If
these criteria are not met, the earliest test activity that must be repeated in order to meet the criteria
shall be identified and the test process shall be restarted from that point.
2.6.2 It may be necessary to repeat the Test Specification activity to design further test cases to
meet a test coverage target.

3 Test Case Design Techniques
3.1 Equivalence Partitioning
3.1.1 Analysis. Equivalence partitioning uses a model of the component that partitions the input
and output values of the component. The input and output values are derived from the specification
of the component’s behaviour.
The model shall comprise partitions of input and output values. Each partition shall contain a set or
range of values, chosen such that all the values can reasonably be expected to be treated by the
component in the same way (i.e. they may be considered ‘equivalent’). Both valid and invalid values
are partitioned in this way.
3.1.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise partitions. A test case may exercise any
number of partitions. A test case shall comprise the following:
- the input(s) to the component;
- the partitions exercised;
- the expected outcome of the test case.
Test cases are designed to exercise partitions of valid values, and invalid input values. Test cases may
also be designed to test that invalid output values cannot be induced.
3.2 Boundary Value Analysis
3.2.1 Analysis. Boundary Value Analysis uses a model of the component that partitions the input
and output values of the component into a number of ordered sets with identifiable boundaries. These
input and output values are derived from the specification of the component's behaviour.
The model shall comprise bounded partitions of ordered input and output values. Each partition shall
contain a set or range of values, chosen such that all the values can reasonably be expected to be
treated by the component in the same way (i.e. they may be considered 'equivalent'). Both valid and
invalid values are partitioned in this way. A partition's boundaries are normally defined by the values
of the boundaries between partitions, however where partitions are disjoint the minimum and
maximum values in the range which makes up the partition are used. The boundaries of both valid
and invalid partitions are considered.
3.2.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise values both on and next to the boundaries of
the partitions. For each identified boundary three test cases shall be produced corresponding to values
on the boundary and an incremental distance either side of it. This incremental distance is defined as
the smallest significant value for the data type under consideration. A test case shall comprise the
following:
- the partition boundaries exercised;
Test cases are designed to exercise valid boundary values, and invalid input boundary values. Test
cases may also be designed to test that invalid output boundary values cannot be induced.

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3.3 State Transition Testing
3.3.1 Analysis. State transition testing uses a model of the states the component may occupy, the
transitions between those states, the events which cause those transitions, and the actions which may
result from those transitions.
The model shall comprise states, transitions, events, actions and their relationships. The states of the
model shall be disjoint, identifiable and finite in number. Events cause transitions between states,
and transitions can return to the same state where they began. Events will be caused by inputs to the
component, and actions in the state transition model may cause outputs from the component.
The model will typically be represented as a state transition diagram, state transition model, or a state
table.
3.3.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise transitions between states. A test case may
exercise any number of transitions. For each test case, the following shall be specified:
- the starting state of the component;
- the expected outputs from the component;
- the expected final state.
For each expected transition within a test case, the following shall be specified:
- the starting state;
- the event which causes transition to the next state;
- the expected action caused by the transition;
- the expected next state.
Test cases are designed to exercise valid transitions between states. Test cases may also be designed
to test that unspecified transitions cannot be induced.
3.4 Cause-Effect Graphing
3.4.1 Analysis. Cause-Effect Graphing uses a model of the logical relationships between causes
and effects for the component. Each cause is expressed as a condition, which is either true of false
(i.e. a Boolean) on an input, or combination of inputs, to the component. Each effect is expressed as a
Boolean expression representing an outcome, or a combination of outcomes, for the component
having occurred.
The model is typically represented as a Boolean graph relating the derived input and output Boolean
expressions using the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NAND, NOR, NOT. From this graph, or
otherwise, a decision (binary truth) table representing the logical relationships between causes and
effects is produced.
3.4.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise rules, which define the relationship between
the component's inputs and outputs, where each rule corresponds to a unique possible combination of
inputs to the component that have been expressed as Booleans. For each test case the following shall
be identified:
- Boolean state (i.e. true or false) for each cause;
- Boolean state for each effect.
3.5 Syntax Testing
3.5.1 Analysis. Syntax Testing uses a model of the formally-defined syntax of the inputs to a
component.
The syntax is represented as a number of rules each of which defines the possible means of production
of a symbol in terms of sequences of, iterations of, or selections between other symbols.

3.5.2 Design. Test cases with valid and invalid syntax are designed from the formally defined
syntax of the inputs to the component.
Test cases with valid syntax shall be designed to execute options which are derived from rules which
shall include those that follow, although additional rules may also be applied where appropriate:
- whenever a selection is used, an option is derived for each alternative by replacing the
selection with that alternative;
- whenever an iteration is used, at least two options are derived, one with the minimum
number of iterated symbols and the other with more than the minimum number of
repetitions.
A test case may exercise any number of options. For each test case the following shall be identified:
- option(s) exercised;
Test cases with invalid syntax shall be designed as follows:
- a checklist of generic mutations shall be documented which can be applied to rules or parts
of rules in order to generate a part of the input which is invalid;
- this checklist shall be applied to the syntax to identify specific mutations of the valid input,
each of which employs at least one generic mutation;
- test cases shall be designed to execute specific mutations.
For each test case the following shall be identified:
- the generic mutation(s) used;
- the syntax element(s) to which the mutation or mutations are applied;
3.6 Statement Testing
3.6.1 Analysis. Statement testing uses a model of the source code which identifies statements as
either executable or non-executable.
3.6.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise executable statements.
For each test case, the following shall be specified:
- identification of statement(s) to be executed by the test case;
3.7 Branch/Decision Testing
3.7.1 Analysis. Branch testing requires a model of the source code which identifies decisions and
decision outcomes. A decision is an executable statement which may transfer control to another
statement depending upon the logic of the decision statement. Typical decisions are found in loops
and selections. Each possible transfer of control is a decision outcome.
3.7.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise decision outcomes.
- identification of decision outcome(s) to be executed by the test case;

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3.8 Data Flow Testing
3.8.1 Analysis. Data Flow Testing uses a model of the interactions between parts of a component
connected by the flow of data as well as the flow of control.
Categories are assigned to variable occurrences in the component, where the category identifies the
definition or the use of the variable at that point. Definitions are variable occurrences where a
variable is given a new value, and uses are variable occurrences where a variable is not given a new
value, although uses can be further distinguished as either data definition P-uses or data definition C-
uses. Data definition P-uses occur in the predicate portion of a decision statement such as while .. do,
if .. then .. else, etc. Data definition C-uses are all others, including variable occurrences in the right
hand side of an assignment statement, or an output statement.
The control flow model for the component is derived and the location and category of variable
occurrences on it identified.
3.8.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to execute control flow paths between definitions and
uses of variables in the component.
Each test case shall include:
- locations of relevant variable definition and use pair(s);
- control flow subpath(s) to be exercised;
3.9 Branch Condition Testing
3.9.1 Analysis. Branch Condition Testing requires a model of the source code which identifies
decisions and the individual Boolean operands within the decision conditions. A decision is an
executable statement which may transfer control to another statement depending upon the logic of the
decision statement. A decision condition is a Boolean expression which is evaluated to determine the
outcome of a decision. Typical decisions are found in loops and selections.
3.9.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise individual Boolean operand values within
decision conditions.
- for each decision evaluated by the test case, identification of the Boolean operand to be
exercised by the test case and its value;
3.10 Branch Condition Combination Testing
3.10.1 Analysis. Branch Condition Combination Testing requires a model of the source code
which identifies decisions and the individual Boolean operands within the decision conditions. A
decision is an executable statement which may transfer control to another statement depending upon
the logic of the decision statement. A decision condition is a Boolean expression which is evaluated to
determine the outcome of a decision. Typical decisions are found in loops and selections.
3.10.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise combinations of Boolean operand values
within decision conditions.
- for each decision evaluated by the test case, identification of the combination of Boolean
operands to be exercised by the test case and their values;

3.11 Modified Condition Decision Testing
3.11.1 Analysis. Modified Condition Decision Testing requires a model of the source code which
identifies decisions, outcomes, and the individual Boolean operands within the decision conditions. A
decision is an executable statement which may transfer control to another statement depending upon
the logic of the decision statement. A decision condition is a Boolean expression which is evaluated to
determine the outcome of a decision. Typical decisions are found in loops and selections.
3.11.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to demonstrate that Boolean operands within a decision
condition can independently affect the outcome of the decision.
- for each decision evaluated by the test case, identification of the combination of Boolean
operands to be exercised by the test case, their values, and the outcome of the decision;
- the expected outcome of the test case
3.12 LCSAJ Testing
3.12.1 Analysis. LCSAJ testing requires a model of the source code which identifies control flow
jumps (where control flow does not pass to a sequential statement). An LCSAJ (Linear Code
Sequence and Jump) is defined by a triple, conventionally identified by line numbers in a source code
listing: the start of the linear code sequence, the end of the linear code sequence, and the target line to
which control flow is transferred.
3.12.2 Design. Test cases shall be designed to exercise LCSAJs.
- identification of the LCSAJ(s) to be executed by the test case;
3.13 Random Testing
3.13.1 Analysis. Random Testing uses a model of the input domain of the component that defines
the set of all possible input values. The input distribution (normal, uniform, etc.) to be used in the
generation of random input values shall be based on the expected operational distribution of inputs.
Where no knowledge of this operational distribution is available then a uniform input distribution
shall be used.
3.13.2 Design. Test cases shall be chosen randomly from the input domain of the component
according to the input distribution.
A test case shall comprise the following:
The input distribution used for the test case suite shall also be recorded.
3.14 Other Testing Techniques
Other test case design techniques may be used that are not listed in this clause. Any alternative
techniques used shall satisfy these criteria:
a) The technique shall be available in the public domain and shall be referenced.
b) The test case design technique shall be documented in the same manner as the other test
case design techniques in clause 3.
c) Associated test measurement techniques may be defined as described in clause 4.13.

4 Test Measurement Techniques
In each coverage calculation, a number of coverage items may be infeasible. A coverage item is
defined to be infeasible if it can be demonstrated to be not executable. The coverage calculation shall
be defined as either counting or discounting infeasible items - this choice shall be documented in the
test plan. If a coverage item is discounted justification for its infeasibility shall be documented in the
test records.
In each coverage calculation, if there are no coverage items in the component under test, 100%
coverage is defined to be achieved by one test case.
4.1 Equivalence Partition Coverage
4.1.1 Coverage Items. Coverage items are the partitions described by the model (see 3.1.1).
4.1.2 Coverage Calculation. Coverage is calculated as follows:
Equivalence partition coverage=
number of covered partitions
total number of partitions *100%
4.2 Boundary Value Coverage
4.2.1 Coverage Items. The coverage items are the boundaries of partitions described by the model
(see 3.2.1). Some partitions may not have an identified boundary, for example, if a numerical
partition has a lower but not an upper bound.
Boundary value coverage =
number of distinct boundary values executed
total number of boundary values *100%
where a boundary value corresponds to a test case on a boundary or an incremental distance either
side of it (see 3.2.2).
4.3 State Transition Coverage
4.3.1 Coverage Items. Coverage items are sequences of one or more transitions between states on
the model (see 3.3.1).
4.3.2 Coverage Calculation. For single transitions, the coverage metric is the percentage of all
valid transitions exercised during test. This is known as 0-switch coverage. For n transitions, the
coverage measure is the percentage of all valid sequences of n transitions exercised during test. This
is known as (n - 1) switch coverage.
4.4 Cause-Effect Coverage
4.4.1 Coverage Items. Coverage items are rules, where each rule represents a unique possible
combination of inputs to the component that have been expressed as Booleans.
Cause- Effect Coverage =
Number of rules exercised
Total number of rules *100%

4.5 Syntax Coverage
No coverage measure is defined for syntax testing.
4.6 Statement Coverage
4.6.1 Coverage Items. Coverage items are executable statements in the source code.
Statement Coverage=
Number of executable statements executed
Total number of executable statements
*100%
4.7 Branch and Decision Coverage
4.7.1 Branch Coverage Items. A branch is:
• a conditional transfer of control from any statement to any other statement in the component;
• an unconditional transfer of control from any statement to any other statement in the
component except the next statement;
• when a component has more than one entry point, a transfer of control to an entry point of
the component.
An entry point is either the first statement of the component or any other statement which may be
branched to from outside the component.
4.7.2 Branch Coverage Calculation. Coverage is calculated as follows:
Branch Coverage=
number of executed branches
total number of branches *100%
4.7.3 Decision Coverage Items. Decision Coverage uses the model of the component described
for Branch Testing in clause 3.7.1. Coverage items are decision outcomes.
Decision Coverage is only defined for components with one entry point.
4.7.4 Decision Coverage Calculation. Coverage is calculated as follows:
Decision Coverage =
number of executed decision outcomes
total number of decision outcomes *100%
4.8 Data Flow Coverage
4.8.1 Coverage Items. The coverage items are the control flow subpaths from a variable
definition to the variable’s corresponding p-uses, c-uses, or their combination.
4.8.2 Coverage Calculation. For the purposes of these coverage calculations a definition-use pair
is defined as a simple subpath between a definition of a variable and a use of that variable and
coverage is calculated using the formula:
Coverage = (N/T) * 100%, where N and T are defined in the subsequent subclauses.
A simple subpath is a subpath through a component’s control flow graph where no parts of the
subpath are visited more than necessary.
4.8.2.1 All-definitions. This measure is defined with respect to the traversal of the set of subpaths
from each variable definition to some use (either p-use or c-use) of that definition.
N = Number of exercised definition-use pairs from distinct variable definitions
T = Number of variable definitions

4.8.2.2 All-c-uses. This measure is defined with respect to the traversal of the set of subpaths from
each variable definition to every c-use of that definition.
N = Number of exercised definition-c-use pairs
T = Number of definition-c-use pairs
4.8.2.3 All-p-uses. This measure is defined with respect to the traversal of the set of subpaths from
each variable definition to every p-use of that definition.
N = Number of exercised definition-p-use pairs
T = Number of definition-p-use pairs
4.8.2.4 All-uses. This measure is defined with respect to the traversal of the set of subpaths from
each variable definition to every use (both p-use and c-use) of that definition.
N = Number of exercised definition-use pairs
T = Number of definition-use pairs
4.8.2.5 All-du-paths. This measure is defined with respect to the traversal of the set of subpaths
from each variable definition to every use (both p-use and c-use) of that definition.
N = Number of exercised simple subpaths between definition-use pairs
T = Number of simple subpaths between definition-use pairs
4.9 Branch Condition Coverage
4.9.1 Coverage Items. Branch Condition Coverage uses a model of the component described in
clause 3.9.1. Coverage items are Boolean operand values within decision conditions.
Branch Condition Coverage is only defined for components with one entry point.
Branch Condition Coverage=
number of Boolean operand values executed
total number of Boolean operand values *100%
4.10 Branch Condition Combination Coverage
4.10.1 Coverage Items. Branch Condition Combination Coverage uses a model of the component
described in clause 3.10.1. Coverage items are unique combinations of the set of Boolean operand
values within each decision condition.
Branch Condition Combination Coverage is only defined for components with one entry point.
Branch Condition Combination Coverage
=
number of Boolean operand value combinations executed
total number of Boolean operand value combinations *100%
4.11 Modified Condition Decision Coverage
4.11.1 Coverage Items. Modified Condition Decision Coverage uses a model of the component
described in clause 3.11.1. Coverage items are Boolean operand values within decision conditions.
Modified Condition Decision Coverage is only defined for components with one entry point.

Modified Condition Decision Coverage
=
number of Boolean operand values shown to independently affect the decision
outcome total number of Boolean operands
*100 %
4.12 LCSAJ Coverage
4.12.1 Coverage Items. Coverage items are LCSAJs for the component (see 3.12.1).
4.12.2 Coverage Calculation Coverage is calculated as follows:
LCSAJ Coverage =
number of executed LCSAJs
total number of LCSAJs *100%
4.13 Random Testing
No coverage measure is defined for random testing.
4.14 Other Test Measurement Techniques
Other test measurement techniques may be used that are not listed in this clause. Any alternative
techniques used shall satisfy these criteria:
a) The technique shall be available in the public domain and shall be referenced.
b) The test measurement technique shall be documented in the same manner as the other test
measurement techniques in clause 4.
c) Associated test case design techniques may be defined as described in clause 3.13.

Annex A Process Guidelines (informative)
The purpose of this annex is to provide guidance on the requirements specified in clause 2 of this
Standard.
These guidelines are supported by the use of example documentation from a fictitious project, named
EX. The example documentation provides a basic sample of the full set of documentation which
conforms to this Standard. The technical content of the example documentation merely serves to
illustrate one interpretation of this Standard and does not suggest that this interpretation is to be
preferred over any other. Any set of documentation which meets the requirements of clause 2 of this
Standard is acceptable.
The test documentation examples included are:
• Component Test Strategy;
• Project Component Test Plan;
• Component Test Plan;
• Component Test Specification;
• Component Test Report.
The relationships between the different forms of example test documentation can be seen in the
following Document Hierarchy:
Component
Test Strategy
Project
Component
Test Plan
Component
Test Report
Component
Test
Specification
Component
Test Plan

The Document Hierarchy shows that there is a single Component Test Strategy for Project EX (in this
example documented within the project’s Quality Plan) and a single Project Component Test Plan for
the project. For each component there is a Component Test Plan and corresponding Component Test
Specification and Component Test Report.
A.1 Pre-Requisites
Clause 2 of the Standard specifies requirements for the overall test process including component
testing. The prerequisites for component testing are an overall Component Test Strategy and a project
specific Project Component Test Plan.
A.1.1 Component Test Strategy
A.1.1.1 To comply with this Standard, component testing must be carried out within a pre-defined
documented strategy. Many organisations will achieve this through a corporate or divisional Testing
Manual or Quality Manual. In other cases, the Component Test Strategy could be defined for one
project only and may be presented as part of a specific project Quality Plan.
A.1.1.2 This Standard does not prescribe that the component test strategy documentation need be a
single document or a whole document. In the case where a Component Test Strategy is tailored to a
specific project the component test strategy documentation could be incorporated into the project
component test planning documentation.
A.1.1.3 This Standard requires that the Component Test Strategy is defined in advance but does not
prescribe the format of component test strategy documentation.
A.1.1.4 As part of the test strategy, this Standard defines a generic test process comprising a series of
test activities and requires this sequence of activities to be followed for a particular test case. This
allows, for instance, incremental approaches such as planning, executing and recording the tests for
one set of components before another; or planning, executing and recording the application of one test
case design technique before another.
A.1.1.5 Further requirements on the management of the testing are given in ISO-9001. Guidance on
setting up a test process is available in [IEEE 1008].
A1.1.6 The form of the test completion criterion will typically be a target for test coverage.
A.1.1.7 The following example provides a Component Test Strategy for Project EX developing the
EX system. For the purposes of the example, the architectural design process decomposes the system
into functional areas each containing a number of components. The example Component Test
Strategy is provided as a section in the project’s Quality Plan.
(Example)
Project EX Quality Plan
Section 6
Component Test Strategy
This section provides the component test strategy for Project EX. Any exceptions to this strategy (for example: omitted or
additional design or measurement techniques) must be documented in the Component Test Plan.
Exceptions to this strategy must be approved by the Project Manager and the Quality Manager. The use of any additional
design or measurement techniques, where appropriate, is encouraged and can be done without specific approval.

(Example)
1. Design Techniques: Component tests shall be designed using the following techniques:
• Equivalence Partitioning (EP, Std 3.1);
• Boundary Value Analysis (BVA, Std 3.2);
• Decision Testing (DT, Std 3.7).
Rationale: EP and BVA have proven cost-effective on previous releases. DT shall be used to complete coverage should
EP and BVA fail to meet the coverage completion criteria.
2. Completion criteria: A minimum of 100% Equivalence Partition Coverage (EPC, Std 4.1), 100% Boundary
Value Coverage (BVC, Std 4.2) and 90% Decision Coverage (DC, Std 4.7, 4.7.3 & 4.7.4) shall be achieved
for each component test.
Rationale: Equivalence Partition and Boundary Value Coverage are used to ensure full application of the corresponding
test case design techniques, while Decision coverage provides a useful white box check on the overall set of
test cases.
3. Independence: No independence is required in the production of test plans and test specifications, or in the
implementation of tests. All test documentation including test records must be reviewed by the member of the
project to whom the originator of the work reports.
4. Approach: Components shall be tested in isolation using stubs and drivers in place of interfacing
components.
5. Environment: Component tests shall be run in the developer’s own workspace. All output shall be logged to
file. The Coverage Tool
(1)
shall be used to analyse the test coverage of each test run.
6. Error Correction: Wherever possible, test cases for a component should be executed together in a single
test run. The outcome of all test cases should then be analysed. If corrections are needed then the entire
component test should be repeated.
7. Project Component Test Plan: A Project Component Test Plan shall be produced following completion of
the architectural design of the EX system (Std 2.1.2).
8. Component Test Process: Items 10 to 14 below detail the component test process.
End
Checking for
Component
Test
Completion
Component
Test
Planning
Component
Test
Specification
Component
Test
Execution
Component
Test
Recording
Begin
Fix component & repeat
Fix Component Test Plan & repeat
Fix Component Test Specification & repeat
Fix Component Test Specification & repeat
9. Component Test Plan: Individual component tests will be planned following completion of the design for the
functional area which a related group of components comprise.
A Component Test Plan can be for a single component or a group of related components which comprise a functional
area of the system. The Component Test Plan shall list the test case design techniques to be used when
specifying tests for the component, the measurement techniques to be used when executing tests, stubs,
drivers and specific test completion criteria.
Exceptions to this Component Test Strategy shall be explicitly identified and approved where approval is required by this
Component Test Strategy.
Inputs: Architectural Design, Detailed Design, Project Component Test Plan, Quality Plan;
Outputs: Component Test Plan.
10. Component Test Specification: The component test specification shall provide a list of test cases
annotated with the associated design elements which each test case exercises. This will help the related
measurement criteria to be assessed.
Prior to test execution, the test specification shall be reviewed for completeness.
Inputs: Architectural Design, Detailed Design, Component Test Plan;
Outputs: Component Test Specification.

(Example)
11. Component Test Execution: Test execution shall be prepared by coding the drivers and stubs specified in
the test plan, compiling and linking with the component under test. The test driver shall include code to control
tests and create a log file. Tests are then run.
The Coverage Tool
(1)
shall be used during test execution to analyse test coverage.
The objective of test execution shall be to execute all specified test cases. Test execution shall complete when either all
test cases have been executed or an error is encountered which prevents continuation. Test execution should
not be halted for minor errors (the error should be recorded and test execution continued).
Inputs: Component Test Plan, Component Test Specification, Component Code;
Outputs: Test outcomes, Test log file, Coverage analysis report, stub and driver code.
12. Component Test Recording: The test log file shall be examined by the tester to compare actual test
outcomes with expected test outcomes. Differences shall be investigated. Any due to software or test errors
will raise a fault report. Where a test is incomplete, this shall cause a regression in the test process. Where
applicable, correction shall be made to the component design and/or code as necessary to correct for fault
reports raised during the Component Test Recording activity. The test process shall then be repeated.
A Component Test Record shall be produced each time a test is run, containing the version of component under test,
version of the Component Test Specification, date and time of test, the number of test cases run, number of
test discrepancies, coverage measurements and cross-references to any fault reports raised.
Inputs: Test Plan, Test Specification, Test log file, Coverage analysis report, Component Code;
Outputs: Component Test Record, Fault Reports.
13. Checking for Component Test Completion: The Component Test Record shall be marked to show
whether the overall test has passed and completion criteria have been met.
Inputs: Component Test Plan (specifying completion criteria), Component Test Record, Fault Reports;
Outputs: Component Test Record (pass/ fail).
Where coverage has not been achieved, the Component Test Specification will normally be extended with further test
cases until the required coverage level is achieved. Exceptionally, with the approval of the Project Manager
and the Quality Manager, the completion criteria in the Component Test Plan may be changed to the achieved
level.
A.1.1.9 Notes:
(1) For the purposes of this example, a generic test coverage measurement tool has been
used called “Coverage Tool”. In practice, a test strategy would explicitly give the
name of any tool used.
A.1.2 Project Component Test Planning
A.1.2.1 This Standard does not prescribe that the Project Component Test Plan documentation need
be a single document or a whole document.
A.1.2.2 As a minimum, the Project Component Test Plan should identify any specific adaptations of
the component test strategy and to specify any dependencies between component tests.
A.1.2.3 Further guidance on test planning is available in [IEEE 829].
A.1.2.4 The following example provides a Project Component Test Plan for project EX. Strictly
speaking, there are no dependencies between component tests because all components are tested in
isolation. The hypothetical project EX desires to begin the integration of tested components before all
component testing is complete. Thus the sequence of component testing is driven by the requirements
of integration testing.
(Example)
Project EX
Project Component Test Plan
1. Dependencies: Strict adherence to the Component Test Strategy (isolation testing) removes any

(Example)
dependencies between component tests. Nevertheless, consideration for subsequent integration means that
it will be most convenient to complete the component testing of some parts of the system before that of other
parts.
The approach selected is to implement the kernel of each functional area of the system so that a minimal working thread
can be established as early as possible.
The component test sequence will be:
• LOG 1 - LOG 6;
• REM 1 - REM 6 (timing critical);
• RES 1 - RES 4;
• MIS 1 - MIS 5.
Integration testing can now start in parallel with the remaining component tests. Remaining components will be tested in
the sequence:
• RES 5 - RES 8;
• MIS 6 - MIS 10;
• LOG 7 - LOG 12;
• MIS 11 - MIS 20.
A.2 Component Test Planning
A.2.1 This Standard does not prescribe that the Component Test Plan documentation need be a
single document or a whole document.
A.2.2 The form of the test completion criterion is not mandated. This will typically be a test
coverage target which has been mandated by the Component Test Strategy.
A.2.3 Further guidance on test planning is available in [IEEE 829].
A.2.4 An example test plan for component LOG 3 of project EX is shown below. This could be
contained in the same physical document as the previous document, the Project Component Test Plan
for all components.
(Example)
Project EX
Component Test Plan
for
Component LOG 3
1. Design techniques: EP (Std 3.1), BVA (Std 3.2), DT (Std 3.7).
2. Measurement Techniques: EPC (Std 4.1), BVC (Std 4.2) and DC (Std 4.7.3, 4.7.4)
.
3. Completion Criteria:
• EPC 100% (Std 4.1);
• BVC 100% (Std 4.2);
• DC 100% (Std 4.7.3, 4.7.4).

(Example)
Note: the Component Test Strategy requires only 90% Decision coverage, but this is a critical component
(1)
.
4. Stubs: for components LOG 4 and LOG 5 (which are called by LOG 3)
(2)
.
5. Driver: in place of component LOG 1 (which calls LOG 3)
(2)
.
6. Exceptions: The raised completion criteria of 100% decision coverage does not require approval
(1)
.
Exception approval - not applicable.
A.2.5 Notes:
(1) The example Test Strategy has stated that any additional coverage does not require
explicit approval.
(2) The calling tree for functional area “LOG” is that “LOG 1” calls “LOG 2” and
“LOG 3”. “LOG 3” calls “LOG 4” and “LOG 5”. As “LOG 2” is not called by
“LOG 3”, it is not required to test “LOG 3”
LOG 1
(Driver)
LOG 2
(Not required)
LOG 3
LOG 4
(Stub)
LOG 5
(Stub)
A.3 Test Specification
A.3.1 The test specification for a component may be in machine-readable form; some test
automation tools employ scripting languages that may meet the requirements of this Standard.
A.3.2 An example Test Specification for component LOG 3 in project EX is given below. Note
that the specification has been extended (version 2) to cater for gaps in the coverage of the initial
specification and errors as reported in the test record (A.5).
(Example)
Project EX
Component Test Specification
for
Component LOG 3 (Issue A)(1)
Test design table
Test Objective: Input Validation
Initial state of component for each test case: start of new entry

(Example)
Conditions
Valid
Classes
Tag Invalid
Classes
Tag Valid
Boundaries
Tag Invalid
Boundaries
Tag
Inputs 1-7 V1 < 1 X1 1 VB1 0 XB1
> 7 X2 7 VB2 8 XB2
non-digit X3
Outcomes Beginner (1-5) V2 5 VB3
Advanced(6-7) V3 6 VB4
Test cases (2)
Test
Case
Input Values Expected Outcome New Conditions covered
(cross referenced to “Tag”
in Test Design Table”)
1 3 Beginner V1, V2
2 7 Advanced V3, VB2
3 1 Beginner VB1
4 0 Error message X1, XB1
5 9 Error message X2
6 8 Error message XB2
7 A Error message X3
8 5 Beginner VB3
9 6 Advanced VB4
Additional/Altered Test cases (Test Specification Version 2)
(3)
Test
Case
Description Expected Outcome Reason
2 7 Experienced Test fault
9 6 Experienced Test fault
10 <return> (no input) Re-display entry screen Decision Coverage
A.3.3 Notes:
(1) The tests are for Issue A of component LOG 3, a component which has not yet been
issued, but will be given Issue A status when it has passed its component test.
(2) Test cases have covered all tags in the Test Design Table with at least one test case,
so we have 100% coverage of partitions and boundaries.
(3) When the test cases were executed (see example Component Test Record in A.5.3),
two test cases failed due to errors in the test case (2, 9), where the wrong term for
the expected outcome (“Advanced” instead of “Experienced”) was used. Test
specification version 2 corrected these test cases and added one further test case to
achieve 100% decision coverage.

A.4 Test Execution
A.4.1 Test execution and coverage measurement are often performed by tools. This Standard does
not prescribe how such tools work.
A.5 Test Recording
A.5.1 In the following example Test Report, component LOG 3 of project EX fails the first
execution of tests 1 to 9. Test cases 2 and 9 fail due to errors in the test specification. These are
corrected and a further test case is specified to complete decision coverage.
A.5.2 After recording results each outcome is classified. Typically, one of the following situations
will be recorded:
a) A test has been incorrectly performed and must be repeated;
b) A test has detected a fault in the component; the component must be changed, and the test
repeated;
c) A test has detected a fault in the specification of the component; the specification of the
component, the component and the test specification (possibly) must be changed, and the
test repeated;
d) A test has detected a fault in the test specification; the test specification must be changed,
and the test repeated;
e) A test executes and produces the expected outcome; further test cases are performed, if any
remain.
A.5.3 It is possible that there is insufficient information to make the classification at this point in
the process. In this instance, it may be necessary to extend the test specification and prepare and
execute more test cases before deciding what to do. A record of all decisions made should be
documented as part of the Test Report.
(Example)
Project EX
Component Test Report
for
Component LOG 3 (Issue A)(1)
Date: 17/1/1997 by D. Tester
Component: LOG 3, Issue A
(1)
Component Test Specification LOG 3 Version 1
Test cases executed: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Failed Test cases
Test
Case
Expected
Outcome
Actual
Outcome
2 Advanced Experienced
9 Advanced Experienced
Fault report TFR23 raised. Test cases 2 and 9 state incorrect expected outcome.
Decision Coverage achieved: 83%
Date: 20/1/1997 by D. Tester
Component: LOG 3, Issue A
(1)

(Example)
Component Test Specification LOG 1 Version 2
(2)
Test cases executed: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
All test cases matched expected outcome
Decision Coverage achieved: 100%
Test passed
A.5.4 Notes:
(1) The tests are for Issue A of component “LOG 3”, a component which has not yet
been issued, but will be given Issue A status when it has passed its component test.
(2) When the test cases were executed, two test cases failed due to errors in the test
cases (2, 9). Test specification version 2 corrected these test cases (see example Test
Specification A.4.2) and added one further test case to achieve 100% decision
coverage.
A.6 Checking for Test Completion
A.6.1 A check against the test completion criteria is mandatory at this point. If the criteria are not
met, normally additional tests shall be required, alternatively, by allowing iteration of Test Planning,
the Standard implicitly permits the relaxation (or strengthening) of test completion criteria. Any
changes to the test completion criteria should be documented.
A.6.2 If all test completion criteria are met then the component is released for integration.

Annex B Guidelines for Testing Techniques and Test Measurement
(informative)
The purpose of this clause is to provide guidance on the requirements specified in clauses 3 and 4 of
this Standard.
Each test technique is based upon a model of the component. Since the easiest way to understand the
model is by means of an example, the guidance provided here consists mainly of examples. A variety
of applications and programming languages are used. The specification of a component is highlighted
by means of an italic font. Functional test case design techniques and measures may be used for any
development environment. Structural test case design techniques and measures are based on the
underlying structure of the development language used. Those described in this Standard are well-
established for procedural 3GL programming languages.
B.1 Equivalence Partitioning
Introduction
Equivalence partitioning is based on the premise that the inputs and outputs of a component can be
partitioned into classes that, according to the component's specification, will be treated similarly by
the component. Thus the result of testing a single value from an equivalence partition is considered
representative of the complete partition.
Example
Consider a component, generate_grading, with the following specification:
The component is passed an exam mark (out of 75) and a coursework (c/w) mark (out of 25),
from which it generates a grade for the course in the range 'A' to 'D'. The grade is
calculated from the overall mark which is calculated as the sum of the exam and c/w marks,
as follows:
greater than or equal to 70 - 'A'
greater than or equal to 50, but less than 70 - 'B'
greater than or equal to 30, but less than 50 - 'C'
less than 30 - 'D'
Where a mark is outside its expected range then a fault message ('FM') is generated. All
inputs are passed as integers.
Initially the equivalence partitions are identified and then test cases derived to exercise the partitions.
Equivalence partitions are identified from both the inputs and outputs of the component and both
valid and invalid inputs and outputs are considered.
The partitions for the two inputs are initially identified. The valid partitions can be described by:
0 <= exam mark <= 75
0 <= coursework mark <= 25
The most obvious invalid partitions based on the inputs can be described by:
exam mark > 75
exam mark < 0
coursework mark > 25

coursework mark < 0
Partitioned ranges of values can be represented pictorially, therefore, for the input, exam mark, we
get:
0 75
0 <=
exam
mark
<= 75< 0
exam
mark
> 75exam
mark
And for the input, coursework mark, we get:
0 25
0 <=
c/w
mark
<= 25< 0
c/w
mark
> 25c/w
mark
Less obvious invalid input equivalence partitions would include any other inputs that can occur not so
far included in a partition, for instance, non-integer inputs or perhaps non-numeric inputs. So, we
could generate the following invalid input equivalence partitions:
exam mark = real number (a number with a fractional part)
exam mark = alphabetic
coursework mark = real number
coursework mark = alphabetic
Next, the partitions for the outputs are identified. The valid partitions are produced by considering
each of the valid outputs for the component:
'A' is induced by 70 <= total mark <= 100
'B' is induced by 50 <= total mark < 70
'C' is induced by 30 <= total mark < 50
'D' is induced by 0 <= total mark < 30
'Fault Message' is induced by total mark > 100
'Fault Message' is induced by total mark < 0
where total mark = exam mark + coursework mark. Note that 'Fault Message' is considered as a valid
output as it is a specified output.
The equivalence partitions and boundaries for total mark are shown pictorially below:
0 30
0 <=
total
mark
< 30< 0
total
mark
30 <=
total
mark
< 50
50
70 100
70 <= total
mark
<= 100
total
mark
> 100
50
50 <=
total
mark
< 70
(cont.
from
above)
(cont.
below)
An invalid output would be any output from the component other than one of the five specified. It is
difficult to identify unspecified outputs, but obviously they must be considered as if we can cause one
then we have identified a flaw with either the component, its specification, or both. For this example

three unspecified outputs were identified and are shown below. This aspect of equivalence
partitioning is very subjective and different testers will inevitably identify different partitions which
they feel could possibly occur.
output = 'E'
output = 'A+'
output = 'null'
Thus the following nineteen equivalence partitions have been identified for the component
(remembering that for some of these partitions a certain degree of subjective choice was required, and
so a different tester would not necessarily duplicate this list exactly):
exam mark > 75
exam mark < 0
coursework mark < 0
exam mark = real number
70 <= total mark <= 100
50 <= total mark < 70
total mark > 100
total mark < 0
output = 'E'
output = 'A+'
output = 'null'
Having identified all the partitions then test cases are derived that 'hit' each of them. Two distinct
approaches can be taken when generating the test cases. In the first a test case is generated for each
identified partition on a one-to-one basis, while in the second a minimal set of test cases is generated
that cover all the identified partitions.
The one-to-one approach will be demonstrated first as it can make it easier to see the link between
partitions and test cases. For each of these test cases only the single partition being targetted is stated
explicitly. Nineteen partitions were identified leading to nineteen test cases.
The test cases corresponding to partitions derived from the input exam mark are:
Test Case 1 2 3
Input (exam mark) 44 -10 93
Input (c/w mark) 15 15 15
total mark (as calculated) 59 5 108
Partition tested (of exam mark) 0 <= e <= 75 e < 0 e > 75
Exp. Output 'B' 'FM' 'FM'
Note that the input coursework (c/w) mark has been set to an arbitrary valid value of 15.

The test cases corresponding to partitions derived from the input coursework mark are:
Test Case 4 5 6
Input (exam mark) 40 40 40
Input (c/w mark) 8 -15 47
Partition tested (of c/w mark) 0 <= c <= 25 c < 0 c > 25
Exp. Output 'C' 'FM' 'FM'
Note that the input exam mark has been set to an arbitrary valid value of 40.
The test cases corresponding to partitions derived from possible invalid inputs are:
Test Case 7 8 9 10
Input (exam mark) 48.7 q 40 40
Input (c/w mark) 15 15 12.76 g
total mark (as calculated) 63.7 not applicable 52.76 not applicable
Partition tested exam mark =
real number
exam mark =
alphabetic
c/w mark =
real number
c/w mark =
alphabetic
Exp. Output 'FM' 'FM' 'FM' 'FM'
The test cases corresponding to partitions derived from the valid outputs are:
Test Case 11 12 13
Input (exam mark) -10 12 32
Input (c/w mark) -10 5 13
total mark (as calculated) -20 17 45
Partition tested (of total
mark)
t < 0 0 <= t < 30 30 <= t < 50
Exp. Output 'FM' 'D' 'C'
Test Case 14 15 16
Input (exam mark) 44 60 80
Input (c/w mark) 22 20 30
Partition tested (of total
mark)
50 <= t < 70 70 <= t <= 100 t > 100
Exp. Output 'B' 'A' 'FM'
The input values of exam mark and coursework mark have been derived from the total mark, which is
their sum.

The test cases corresponding to partitions derived from the invalid outputs are:
Test Case 17 18 19
Input (exam mark) -10 100 null
Input (c/w mark) 0 10 null
total mark (as calculated) -10 110 null+null
Partition tested (output) 'E' 'A+' 'null'
Exp. Output 'FM' 'FM' 'FM'
It should be noted that where invalid input values are used (as above, in test cases 2, 3, 5-11, and 16-
19) it may, depending on the implementation, be impossible to actually execute the test case. For
instance, in Ada, if the input variable is declared as a positive integer then it will not be possible to
assign a negative value to it. Despite this, it is still worthwhile considering all the test cases for
completeness.
It can be seen above that several of the test cases are similar, such as test cases 1 and 14, where the
main difference between them is the partition targetted. As the component has two inputs and one
output, each test case actually 'hits' three partitions; two input partitions and one output partition..
Thus it is possible to generate a smaller 'minimal' test set that still 'hits' all the identified partitions by
deriving test cases that are designed to exercise more than one partition. The following test case
suite of eleven test cases corresponds to the minimised test case suite approach where each test case is
designed to hit as many new partitions as possible rather than just one. Note that here all three
partitions are explicitly identified for each test case.
Test Case 1 2 3 4
Input (exam mark) 60 40 25 15
Input (c/w mark) 20 15 10 8
total mark (as calculated) 80 55 35 23
Partition (of exam mark) 0 <= e <= 75 0 <= e <= 75 0 <= e <= 75 0 <= e <= 75
Partition (of c/w mark) 0 <= c <= 25 0 <= c <= 25 0 <= c <= 25 0 <= c <= 25
Partition (of total mark) 70 <= t <= 100 50 <= t < 70 30 <= t < 50 0 <= t < 30
Exp. Output 'A' 'B' 'C' 'D'
Test Case 5 6 7 8
Input (exam mark) -10 93 60.5 q
Input (c/w mark) -15 35 20.23 g
total mark (as calculated) -25 128 80.73 -
Partition (of exam mark) e < 0 e > 75 e = real number e = alphabetic
Partition (of c/w mark) c < 0 c > 25 c = real number c = alphabetic
Partition (of total mark) t < 0 t > 100 70 <= t <= 100 -
Exp. Output 'FM' 'FM' 'FM' 'FM'

Test Case 9 10 11
Input (exam mark) -10 100 'null'
Input (c/w mark) 0 10 'null'
total mark (as calculated) -10 110 null+null
Partition (of exam mark) e < 0 e > 75 -
Partition (of c/w mark) 0 <= c <= 25 0 <= c <= 25 -
Partition (of total mark) t < 0 t > 100 -
Partition (of output) 'E' 'A+' 'null'
Exp. Output 'FM' 'FM' 'FM'
The one-to-one and minimised approaches represent the two extremes of a spectrum of approaches to
equivalence partitioning. The disadvantage of the one-to-one approach is that it requires more test
cases and if this causes problems a more minimalist approach can be used. Normally, however, the
identification of partitions is far more time consuming than the generation and execution of test cases
themselves and so any savings made by reducing the size of the test case suite are relatively small
compared with the overall cost of applying the technique. The disadvantage of the minimalist
approach is that in the event of a test failure it can be difficult to identify the cause due to several new
partitions being exercised at once. This is a debugging problem rather than a testing problem, but
there is no reason to make debugging more difficult than it is already.
Both of the above test case suites achieve 100% equivalence partition coverage as each ensures that
all nineteen identified partitions are exercised by at least one test case. Lower levels of coverage
would be achieved if all the partitions identified are not all exercised. If all the partitions are not
identified, then any coverage measure based on this incomplete set of partitions would be misleading.
B.2 Boundary Value Analysis
Introduction
Boundary Value Analysis is based on the following premise. Firstly, that the inputs and outputs of a
component can be partitioned into classes that, according to the component's specification, will be
treated similarly by the component and, secondly, that developers are prone to making errors in their
treatment of the boundaries of these classes. Thus test cases are generated to exercise these
boundaries.
Example
Consider a component, generate_grading, with the following specification:
The component is passed an exam mark (out of 75) and a coursework (c/w) mark (out of 25),
from which it generates a grade for the course in the range 'A' to 'D'. The grade is
calculated from the overall mark which is calculated as the sum of the exam and c/w marks,
as follows:
greater than or equal to 70 - 'A'
greater than or equal to 50, but less than 70 - 'B'
greater than or equal to 30, but less than 50 - 'C'
less than 30 - 'D'
Where a mark is outside its expected range then a fault message ('FM') is generated. All
inputs are passed as integers.

Initially the equivalence partitions are identified, then the boundaries of these partitions are
identified, and then test cases are derived to exercise the boundaries. Equivalence partitions are
identified from both the inputs and outputs of the component and both valid and invalid inputs and
outputs are considered.
The most obvious invalid partitions can be described by:
exam mark > 75
exam mark < 0
coursework mark < 0
Partitioned ranges of values can be represented pictorially, therefore, for the input, exam mark, the
same notation leads to:
0 75
0 <= exam
mark
<= 75< 0
exam
mark
> 75exam
mark
And for the input, coursework mark, we get:
0 25
0 <=
c/w
mark
<= 25< 0
c/w
mark
> 25c/w
mark
For each boundary three values are used, one on the boundary itself and one either side of it, the
smallest significant distance away, as shown below:
boundary boundary
boundary
values
boundary
values
Thus the six test cases derived from the input exam mark are:
Test Case 1 2 3 4 5 6
Input (exam mark) -1 0 1 74 75 76
Input (c/w mark) 15 15 15 15 15 15
Boundary tested (exam mark) 0 75
Exp. Output 'FM' 'D' 'D' 'A' 'A' 'FM'
Note that the input coursework (c/w) mark has been set to an arbitrary valid value of 15.

The test cases derived from the input coursework mark are thus:
Test Case 7 8 9 10 11 12
Input (exam mark) 40 40 40 40 40 40
Input (c/w mark) -1 0 1 24 25 26
Boundary tested (c/w mark) 0 25
Exp. Output 'FM' 'C' 'C' 'B' 'B' 'FM'
Note that the input exam mark has been set to an arbitrary valid value of 40.
Less obvious invalid input equivalence partitions would include any other inputs that can occur not so
far included in a partition, for instance, non-integer inputs or perhaps non-numeric inputs. In order
to be considered an equivalence partition those values within it must be expected, from the
specification, to be treated in an equivalent manner by the component. Thus we could generate the
following invalid input equivalence partitions:
exam mark = real number
etc.
Although these are valid equivalence partitions they have no identifiable boundaries and so no test
cases are derived.
Next, the partitions and boundaries for the outputs are identified. The valid partitions are produced
by considering each of the valid outputs for the component thus:
'A' is induced by 70 <= total mark <= 100
'B' is induced by 50 <= total mark < 70
'C' is induced by 30 <= total mark < 50
'D' is induced by 0 <= total mark < 30
'Fault Message' is induced by total mark > 100
'Fault Message' is induced by total mark < 0
where total mark = exam mark + coursework mark.
'Fault Message' is considered here as it is a specified output. The equivalence partitions and
boundaries for total mark are shown below:
0 30
0 <=
total
mark
< 30< 0
total
mark
30 <=
total
mark
< 50
50
70 100
70 <=total
mark
<= 100
total
mark
> 100
50
50 <=
total
mark
< 70
(cont.
from
above)
(cont.
below)

Thus the test cases derived from the valid outputs are:
Test Case 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Input (exam mark) -1 0 0 29 15 6 24 50 26
Input (c/w mark) 0 0 1 0 15 25 25 0 25
total mark (as calculated) -1 0 1 29 30 31 49 50 51
Boundary tested (total mark) 0 30 50
Exp. Output 'FM' 'D' 'D' 'D' 'C' 'C' 'C' 'B' 'B'
Test Case 22 23 24 25 26 27
Input (exam mark) 49 45 71 74 75 75
Input (c/w mark) 20 25 0 25 25 26
total mark (as calculated) 69 70 71 99 100 101
Boundary tested (total mark) 70 100
Exp. Output 'B' 'A' 'A' 'A' 'A' 'FM'
The input values of exam mark and coursework mark have been derived from the total mark, which is
their sum.
An invalid output would be any output from the component other than one of the five specified. It is
difficult to identify unspecified outputs, but obviously they must be considered as if we can cause one
then we have identified a flaw with either the component, its specification, or both. For this example
three unspecified outputs were identified ('E', 'A+', and 'null'), but it is not possible to group these
possible outputs into ordered partitions from which boundaries can be identified and so no test cases
are derived.
So far several partitions have been identified that appear to be bounded on one side only. These are:
exam mark > 75
exam mark < 0
coursework mark < 0
total mark > 100
total mark < 0
In fact these partitions are bounded on their other side by implementation-dependent maximum and
minimum values. For integers held in sixteen bits these would be 32767 and -32768 respectively.
Thus, the above partitions can be more fully described by:
75 < exam mark <= 32767
-32768 <= exam mark < 0
25 < coursework mark <= 32767
-32768 <= coursework mark < 0
100 < total mark <= 32767
-32768 <= total mark < 0

It can be seen that by bounding these partitions on both sides a number of additional boundaries are
identified, which must be tested. This leads to the following additional test cases:
Test Case 28 29 30 31 32 33
Input (exam mark) 32766 32767 32768 -32769 -32768 -32767
Input (c/w mark) 15 15 15 15 15 15
Boundary tested (exam mark) 32767 -32768
Exp. Output 'FM' 'FM' 'FM' 'FM' 'FM' 'FM'
Test Case 34 35 36 37 38 39
Input (exam mark) 40 40 40 40 40 40
Input (c/w mark) 32766 32767 32768 -32769 -32768 -32767
Boundary tested (c/w mark) 32767 -32768
Test Case 40 41 42 43 44 45
Input (exam mark) 16383 32767 1 0 -16384 -32768
Input (c/w mark) 16383 0 32767 -32767 -16384 -1
total mark (as calculated) 32766 32767 32768 -32767 -32768 -32769
Boundary tested (total mark) 32767 -32768
It should be noted that where invalid input values are used (as above, in test cases 1, 6, 7, 12, 13, and
27-45) it may, depending on the implementation, be impossible to actually execute the test case. For
instance, in Ada, if the input variable is declared as a positive integer then it will not be possible to
assign a negative value to it. Despite this, it is still worthwhile considering all the test cases for
completeness.
The above test case suite achieves 100% boundary value coverage as it ensures that all identified
boundaries are exercised by at least one test case. Lower levels of coverage would be achieved if all
the boundaries identified are not all exercised. If all the boundaries are not identified, then any
coverage measure based on this incomplete set of boundaries would be misleading.
B.3 State Transition Testing
Introduction
This black box technique is based upon an analysis of the specification of the component to model its
behaviour by state transitions. We illustrate the technique by means of a worked example. Naturally,
the technique is only effective to the extent that the model captures the specification of the
component.

Example
Consider a component, manage_display_changes, with the following specification:
The component responds to input requests to change an externally held display mode for a
time display device. The external display mode can be set to one of four values: Two
correspond to displaying either the time or the date, and the other two correspond to modes
used when altering either the time or date.
There are four possible input requests: 'Change Mode', 'Reset', 'Time Set' and 'Date Set'. A
'Change Mode' input request shall cause the display mode to move between the 'display
time' and 'display date' values. If the display mode is set to 'display time' or 'display date'
then a 'Reset' input request shall cause the display mode to be set to the corresponding 'alter
time' or 'alter date' modes. The 'Time Set' input request shall cause the display mode to
return to 'display time' from 'alter time' while similarly the 'Date Set' input request shall
cause the display mode to return to 'display date' from 'alter date'.
A state model is produced for the
component to identify its states,
transitions, and their events and actions.
State transition diagrams (STD) are
commonly used as state models and their
notation is briefly illustrated opposite.
Events are always caused by input.
Similarly, actions are likely to cause
output. The output from an action may be
essential in order to identify the current
state of the component. A transition is
determined by the current state and an
event and is normally labelled simply with
the event and action.
event
action
input
output
transition
State 2
State 1
The STD for the component manage_display_changes is shown in figure B.3.

DISPLAYING
TIME (S1)
DISPLAYING
DATE (S2)
CHANGING
TIME (S3)
CHANGING
DATE (S4)
'change
mode' (CM)
'reset' (R)
'reset' (R)
'time set' (TS)
'date set' (DS)
'change
mode' (CM)
alter date (AD)
alter time (AT)
display
date (D)
display
time (T)
display date (D)
display time (T)
Figure B.3 STD for Manage_Display_Changes
Test cases are initially derived from the state transition diagram to exercise each of the possible
transitions (using the abbreviated STD labels):
Test Case 1 2 3 4 5 6
Start State S1 S1 S3 S2 S2 S4
Input CM R TS CM R DS
Expected Output D AT T T AD D
Finish State S2 S3 S1 S1 S4 S2
This indicates that for test case 1 the starting state is DISPLAYING TIME (S1), the input is 'change
mode' (CM), the expected output is 'display date' (D), and the finish state is DISPLAYING DATE
(S2).
This set of six test cases exercises each of the possible transitions and so achieves 0-switch coverage
[Chow]. Tests written to achieve this level of coverage are limited in their ability to detect some types
of faults because although they will detect the most obvious incorrect transitions and outputs, they
will not detect more subtle faults that are only detectable through exercising sequences of transitions.

Tests written to achieve the next level of coverage, 1-switch, exercise all the possible sequential pairs
of transitions, of which there are ten in the manage_display_changes component:
Test Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Start State S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S2 S2 S2 S4 S4
Input CM CM R TS TS CM CM R DS DS
Exp. Output D D AT T T T T AD D D
Next State S2 S2 S3 S1 S1 S1 S1 S4 S2 S2
Input CM R TS CM R CM R DS CM R
Exp. Output T AD T D AT D AT D T AD
Finish State S1 S4 S1 S2 S3 S2 S3 S2 S1 S4
This indicates that test case 1 comprises two transitions. For the first transition the starting state is
DISPLAYING TIME (S1), the initial input is 'change mode' (CM), the intermediate expected output
is display date (D), and the next state is DISPLAYING DATE (S2). For the second transition, the
second input is 'change mode' (CM), the final expected output is display time (T), and the finish state
is DISPLAYING TIME (S1).
Note that intermediate states, and the inputs and outputs for each transition, are explicitly defined.
Longer sequences of transitions can be tested to achieve higher and higher levels of switch coverage,
dependent on the level of test thoroughness required.
A limitation of the test cases derived to achieve switch coverage is that they are designed to exercise
only the valid transitions in the component. A more thorough test of the component will also attempt
to cause invalid transitions to occur. The STD only explicitly shows the valid transitions (all
transitions not shown are considered invalid). A state model that explicitly shows both valid and
invalid transitions is the state table. The notation used for state tables is briefly described below:
Input 1 Input 2 etc.
Start State 1 Entry A Entry B etc.
Start State 2 Entry C Entry D etc.
etc. etc. etc. etc.
where Entry X = Finish State / Output for the given start state and input.
The state table for the manage_display_changes component is shown below:
CM R TS DS
S1 S2/D S3/AT S1/N S1/N
S2 S1/T S4/AD S2/N S2/N
S3 S3/N S3/N S1/T S3/N
S4 S4/N S4/N S4/N S2/D
Any entry where the state remains the same and the output is shown as null (N) represents a null
transition, where any actual transition that can be induced will represent a failure. It is the testing of
these null transitions that is ignored by test sets designed just to achieve switch coverage. Thus a
more complete test set will test both possible transitions and null transitions, which means testing the
response of the component to all possible inputs in all possible states. The state table provides an
ideal means of directly deriving this set of test cases.

There are 16 entries in the table above representing each of the four possible inputs that can occur in
each of the four possible states, making 16 test cases which can be read from the state table as shown
below:
CM R TS DS
S1
S2/D
(Test Case 1)
S3/AT
(Test Case 2)
S1/N
(Test Case 3)
S1/N
(Test Case 4)
S2
S1/T
(Test Case 5)
S4/AD
(Test Case 6)
S2/N
(Test Case 7)
S2/N
(Test Case 8)
S3
S3/N
(Test Case 9)
S3/N
(Test Case 10)
S1/T
(Test Case 11)
S3/N
(Test Case 12)
S4
S4/N
(Test Case 13)
S4/N
(Test Case 14)
S4/N
(Test Case 15)
S2/D
(Test Case 16)
which corresponds to:
Test Case 1 2 3 4 5 .... . . .... 12 13 14 15 16
Start State S1 S1 S1 S1 S2 .... . . .... S3 S4 S4 S4 S4
Input CM R TS DS CM .... . . .... DS CM R TS DS
Exp. Output D AT N N T .... . . .... N N N N D
Finish State S2 S3 S1 S1 S1 .... . . .... S3 S4 S4 S4 S2
If the above test cases are compared with those produced to achieve 0-switch coverage then it can be
seen that by also testing the null transitions an extra 10 test cases are created (3,4,7,8,9,10,12,13,14
and 15).
B.4 Cause Effect Graphing
Introduction
behaviour by means of causes and effects. We illustrate the technique by means of a worked example.
Naturally, the technique is only effective to the extent that the model captures the specification of the
component.
Example
Take a cheque debit function whose inputs are debit amount, account type and current balance and
whose outputs are new balance and action code. Account type may be postal ('p') or counter ('c').
The action code may be 'D&L', 'D', 'S&L' or 'L', corresponding to 'process debit and send out letter',
'process debit only', 'suspend account and send out letter' and 'send out letter only' respectively. The
function has the following specification:
If there are sufficient funds available in the account or the new balance would be within
the authorised overdraft limit then the debit is processed. If the new balance would
exceed the authorised overdraft limit then the debit is not processed and if it is a postal
account it is suspended. Letters are sent out for all transactions on postal accounts and
for non-postal accounts if there are insufficient funds available (i.e. the account would
no longer be in credit).

The conditions are:
C1 New balance in credit
C2 New balance overdraft, but within authorised limit
C3 Account is postal
The actions are:
A1 Process debit
A2 Suspend account
A3 Send out letter
A cause-effect graph shows the relationship between the conditions and actions in a notation similar
to that used by designers of hardware logic circuits. The specification is modelled by the graph
shown in Figure B.4.
Figure B.4: Cause-effect graph
The code graph is then recast in terms of a decision table. Each column of the decision table is a rule.
The table comprises two parts. In the first part each rule is tabulated against the conditions. A 'T'
indicates that the condition must be TRUE for the rule to apply and an 'F' indicates that the condition
must be FALSE for the rule to apply. In the second part, each rule is tabulated against the actions. A
'T' indicates that the action will be performed; an 'F' indicates that the action will not be performed;
an asterisk (*) indicates that the combination of conditions is infeasible and so no actions are defined
for the rule.
The example has the following decision table:
Rules: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C1: New balance in credit F F F F T T T T
C2: New balance overdraft,
but within authorised limit
F F T T F F T T
C3: Account is postal F T F T F T F T
A1: Process debit F F T T T T * *
A2: Suspend account F T F F F F * *
A3: Send out letter T T T T F T * *

The following test cases would be required to provide 100% cause-effect coverage, and correspond to
the rules in the decision table above (no test cases are generated for rules 7 and 8 as they are
infeasible):
CAUSES EFFECTS
test
case
account
type
overdraft
limit
current
balance
debit
amount
new
balance
action
code
1 'c' £100 -£70 £50 -£70 'L'
2 'p' £1500 £420 £2000 £420 'S&L'
3 'c' £250 £650 £800 -£150 'D&L'
4 'p' £750 -£500 £200 -£700 'D&L'
5 'c' £1000 £2100 £1200 £900 'D'
6 'p' £500 £250 £150 £100 'D&L'
B.5 Syntax Testing
Introduction
behaviour by means of a description of the input via its syntax. We illustrate the technique by means
of a worked example. The technique is only effective to the extent that the syntax as defined
corresponds to the required syntax.
Example
Consider a component that simply checks whether an input float_in conforms to the syntax of a
floating point number, float (defined below). The component outputs check_res, which takes the
form 'valid' or 'invalid' dependent on the result of its check.
Here is a representation of the syntax for the floating point number, float in Backus Naur Form
(BNF) :
float = int "e" int.
int = ["+"|"-"] nat.
nat = {dig}.
dig = "0"|"1"|"2"|"3"|"4"|"5"|"6"|"7"|"8"|"9".
Terminals are shown in quotation marks; these are the most elementary parts of the syntax - the
actual characters that make up the input to the component. | separates alternatives. [] surrounds an
optional item, that is, one for which nothing is an alternative. {} surrounds an item which may be
iterated one or more times.

B.5.1 Test Cases with Valid Syntax
The first step is to derive the options from the syntax. Each option is followed by a label, in the form
[opt_1], [opt_2], etc., to enable it to be identified later.
float has no options.
int has three options: nat [opt_1], "+" nat [opt_2] and "-" nat [opt_3].
nat has two options: a single digit number [opt_4] and a multiple digit number [opt_5].
dig has ten options: one for each digit [opt_6 to opt_15].
There are thus fifteen options to be covered. The next step is to construct test cases to cover the
options.
The following test cases cover them all:
test case float_in option(s) executed check_res
1 3e2 opt_1 'valid'
2 +2e+5 opt_2 'valid'
3 -6e-7 opt_3 'valid'
4 6e-2 opt_4 'valid'
5 1234567890e3 opt_5 'valid'
6 0e0 opt_6 'valid'
7 1e1 opt_7 'valid'
8 2e2 opt_8 'valid'
9 3e3 opt_9 'valid'
10 4e4 opt_10 'valid'
This is by no means a minimal test set to exercise the 15 options (it can be reduced to just three test
cases, for example, 2, 3 and 5 above), and some test cases will exercise more options than the single
one listed in the 'options executed' column. Each option has been treated separately here to aid
understanding of their derivation. This approach may also contribute to the ease with which the
causes of faults are located.
B.5.2 Test Cases with Invalid Syntax
The first step is to construct a checklist of generic mutations. A possible checklist is:
m1. introduce an invalid value for an element;
m2. substitute an element with another defined element;
m3. miss out a defined element;
m4. add an extra element.

These generic mutations are applied to the individual elements of the syntax to yield specific
mutations. The elements, represented in the form el_1, el_2, etc., of the syntax for float can be
identified from the BNF representation as shown below:
float = int "e" int. el_1 = el_2 el_3 el_4.
int = ["+"|"-"] nat. el_5 = el_6 el_7.
nat = {dig}. el_8 = el_9.
dig = "0"|"1"|"2"|"3"|"4"|"5"|"6"|"7"|"8"|"9". el_10 = el_11.
[“+”|”-”] has been treated as a single element because the mutation of optional items separately does
not create test cases with invalid syntax (using these generic mutations).
The next step is to construct test cases to cover the mutations:
test case float_in mutation element check_res
1 xe0 m1 x for el_2 'invalid'
2 0x0 m1 x for el_3 'invalid'
3 0ex m1 x for el_4 'invalid'
4 x0e0 m1 x for el_6 'invalid'
5 +xe0 m1 x for el_7 'invalid'
6 ee0 m2 el_3 for el_2 'invalid'
7 +e0 m2 el_6 for el_2 'invalid'
8 000 m2 el_2 for el_3 'invalid'
9 0+0 m2 el_6 for el_3 'invalid'
10 0ee m2 el_3 for el_4 'invalid'
11 0e+ m2 el_6 for el_4 'invalid'
12 e0e0 m2 el_3 for el_6 'invalid'
13 +ee0 m2 el_3 for el_7 'invalid'
14 ++e0 m2 el_6 for el_7 'invalid'
15 e0 m3 el_2 'invalid'
16 00 m3 el_3 'invalid'
17 0e m3 el_4 'invalid'
18 y0e0 m4 y in el_1 'invalid'
19 0ye0 m4 y in el_1 'invalid'
20 0ey0 m4 y in el_1 'invalid'
21 0e0y m4 y in el_1 'invalid'
22 y+0e0 m4 y in el_5 'invalid'
23 +y0e0 m4 y in el_5 'invalid'
24 +0yeo m4 y in el_5 'invalid'
Some of the mutations are indistinguishable from correctly formed expansions and these have been
discarded. For example, the generic mutation m2 (el_2 for el_4) generates correct syntax as m2 is
“substitute an element with another defined element” and el_2 and el_4 are the same (int).
Some of the remaining mutations are indistinguishable from each other and these are covered by a
single test case. For example, applying the generic mutation m1 (“introduce an invalid value for an
element”) by replacing el_4, which should be an integer, with “+” creates the form “0e+”. This is the
same input as generated for test case 11 above.

Many more test cases can be created by making different choices when using single mutations, or
combining mutations.
B.5.3 Syntax Test Coverage
No test coverage measures are defined for syntax testing. Any measures of coverage would be based
on the rules for generating valid syntax options and the checklist for generating test cases with invalid
syntax. Neither the rules nor the checklist are definitive and so any syntax test coverage measures
based on a particular set will be specific to that set of rules and checklist.
B.6 Statement Testing and Coverage
Introduction
This structural test technique is based upon the decomposition of the component into constituent
statements.
Example
The two principal questions to answer are:
- what is a statement?
- which statements are executable?
In general a statement should be an atomic action, that is a statement should be executed completely
or not at all. For instance:
IF a THEN b ENDIF
is considered as more than one statement because b may or may not be executed depending upon the
condition a. The definition of statement used for statement testing need not be the one used in the
language definition.
We would expect statements which are associated with machine code to be regarded as executable.
For instance, we would expect all of the following to be regarded as executable:
- assignments;
- loops and selections;
- procedure and function calls;
- variable declarations with explicit initialisations;
- dynamic allocation of variable storage on a heap.
However, most other variable declarations can be regarded as non executable.
Consider, the following C code:
a;
if (b) {
c;
}
d;
Any test case with b TRUE will achieve full statement coverage. Note that full statement coverage
can be achieved without exercising with b FALSE.

B.7 Branch/Decision Testing
Branch and Decision Coverage are closely related. For components with one entry point 100%
Branch Coverage is equivalent to 100% Decision Coverage, although lower levels of coverage may
not be the same. Both levels of coverage will be illustrated with one example:
The component shall determine the position of a word in a table of words ordered
alphabetically. Apart from the word and table, the component shall also be passed the
number of words in the table to be searched. The component shall return the position of the
word in the table (starting at zero) if it is found, otherwise it shall return “-1”.
The corresponding code is drawn from [K&R]. The three decisions have been highlighted.
int binsearch (char *word, struct key tab[], int n) {
int cond;
int low, high, mid;
low = 0;
high = n - 1;
while (low <= high) {
mid = (low+high) / 2;
if ((cond = strcmp(word, tab[mi d].word)) < 0)
high = mid - 1;
else if (cond > 0)
low = mid + 1;
else
return mid;
}
return -1;
}
In this example each decision has two outcomes corresponding to the true and false values of the
conditions. It is generally possible for a decision to have more than two outcomes.
Branch coverage may be demonstrated through coverage of the control flow graph of the program.
The first step to constructing a control flow graph for a procedure is to divide it into basic blocks.
These are sequences of instructions with no branches into the block (except to the beginning) and no
branches out of the block (except at the end). The statements in a basic block are guaranteed to be
executed together or not at all. The program above has the following basic blocks.
int binsearch (char *word, struct key tab[], int n) {
int cond;
int low, high, mid;
B1 low = 0;
high = n - 1;
B2 while (low <= high) {
B3 mid = (low+high) / 2
if ((cond = strcmp(word, tab[mid].word)) < 0)
B4 high = mid - 1;
B5 else if (cond > 0)
B6 low = mid + 1;
B7 else
return mid;
B8 }
B9 return -1;
}

A control flow graph may be constructed by making each basic block a node and drawing an arc for
each possible transfer of control from one basic block to another. These are the possible transfers of
control:
B1 ->?? 2
B2 -> B3
B2 -> B9
B3 -> B4
B3 -> B5
B4 -> B8
B5 -> B6
B5 -> B7
B6 -> B8
B8 -> B2
This results in the graph
presented in figure B.7. The
graph has one entry point, B1,
and two exit points, B7 and B9. B1 B2 B3 B4 B8
B9 B5 B6
B7
Figure B.7: Control flow graph for binsearch
Of course, the above control flow graph would not necessarily be constructed by hand, but a tool
would normally be used to show which decisions/branches have been executed.
The decisions are given by the basic blocks having more than one exit arrow, namely B2, B3 and B5.
Since each of these three blocks have two exits, we have six decisions to consider.
The branches are given by the arrows in the control flow graph; 10 in total.
For both branches and decisions any individual test of the component will exercise a path and hence
potentially many decisions and branches.
Consider a test case which executes the path B1 -> B2 -> B9. This case arises when n=0, that is,
when the table being searched has no entries. This path executes one decision (B2 -> B9) and hence
provides 1/6 = 16.7% coverage. The path executes 2 out of the 10 branches, giving 20% coverage
(which is not the same as the coverage for decisions).
Consider now a test case which executes the path:
B1->B2->B3->B4->B8->B2->B3->B5->B6->B8->B2->B3->B5->B7
This path arises when the search first observes that the entry is in the first half of the table, then the
second half of that (i.e., 2nd quarter) and then finds the entry. Note that the two test cases provide
100% decision and branch coverage.

These test cases are shown below:
test inputs decisions exercised expected
case word tab n (underlined) outcome
1 chas ‘empty
table’
0 B1 » B2 » B9 -1
2 chas alf
bert
chas
dick
eddy
fred
geoff
7 B1 » B2 » B3 » B4 » B8 »
B2 » B3 » B5 » B6 » B8 »
B2 » B3 » B5 » B7
2
Branch and decision coverage are both normally measured using a software tool.
B.8 Data Flow Testing
Introduction
Data flow testing is a structural test technique which aims to execute subpaths from points where each
variable in a component is defined to points where it is referenced. These subpaths are known as
definition-use pairs (du-pairs). The different data flow coverage criteria require different du-pairs
and subpaths to be executed. Test sets are generated here to achieve 100% coverage (where possible)
for each of those criteria.
Example
Consider the data flow testing of the following component in Ada:
procedure Solve_Quadratic(A, B, C: in Float; Is_Complex: out
Boolean; R1, R2: out Float) is
-- Is_Complex is true if the roots are not real.
-- If the two roots are real, they are produced in R1, R2.
Discrim : Float := B*B - 4.0*A*C; -- 1
R1, R2: Float; -- 2
begin -- 3
if Discrim < 0.0 then -- 4
Is_Complex := true; -- 5
else -- 6
Is_Complex := false; -- 7
end if; -- 8
if not Is_Complex then -- 9
R1 := (-B + Sqrt(Discrim))/ (2.0*A); -- 10
R2 := (-B - Sqrt(Discrim))/ (2.0*A); -- 11
end if; -- 12
end Solve_Quadratic; -- 13
Note that the second line is not a definition (of R1 and R2) but a declaration. (For languages with
default initialisation, it would be a definition.)
The first step is to list the variables used in the component. These are: A, B, C, Discrim,
Is_Complex, R1 and R2.

Next, each occurrence of a variable in the component is listed and assigned a category (definition,
predicate-use or computation-use):
category
line definition c-use p-use
0 A,B,C
1 Discrim A,B,C
2
3
4 Discrim
5 Is_Complex
6
7 Is_Complex
8
9 Is_Complex
10 R1 A,B,Discrim
11 R2 A,B,Discrim
12
13
The next step is to identify the du-pairs and their type (c-use or p-use), by identifying links from each
entry in the definition column to each entry for that variable in the c-use or p-use column. Note that
we cannot form any definition-use pair for R1 and R2 since they only have a definition within the
component.
definition-use pair variable(s)
(start line -> end line) c-use p-use
0 ---> 1 A,B,C
0 ---> 10 A,B
0 ---> 11 A,B
1 ---> 4 Discrim
1 ---> 10 Discrim
1 ---> 11 Discrim
5 ---> 9 Is_Complex
7 ---> 9 Is_Complex

B.8.1 All-definitions
To achieve 100% All-definitions data flow coverage at least one subpath from each variable definition
to some use of that definition (either p-use and c-use) must be executed. The following test set would
satisfy this requirement:
All Definitions INPUTS EXPECTED OUTCOME
test case variable(s) du-pair subpath A B C Is_Complex R1 R2
1 A,B,C 0 --> 1 0-1 1 1 1 T unass. unass.
2 Discrim 1 --> 4 1-4 1 1 1 T unass. unass.
3 Is_Complex 5 --> 9 5- 9 1 1 1 T unass. unass.
4 Is_Complex 7 --> 9 7- 9 1 2 1 F -1 -1
Note that several of the test cases satisfy the requirement for more than one variable, this will apply to
each of the subsequent test sets as well. It can also be seen that the same test inputs satisfy the
subpath execution criteria for several of the du-pairs (again this will apply to the subsequent test sets
as well).
B.8.2 All-c-uses
To achieve 100% 'All-c-uses data flow coverage at least one subpath from each variable definition to
every c-use of that definition must be executed. The following test set would satisfy this requirement:
All-c-uses INPUTS EXPECTED OUTCOME
1 A,B,C 0 --> 1 0-1 1 1 1 T unass. unass.
2 A,B 0 --> 10 0-1-4-7-9-10 1 2 1 F -1 -1
3 A,B 0 --> 11 0-1-4-7-9-10-11 1 2 1 F -1 -1
4 Discrim 1 --> 10 1-4-7-9-10 1 2 1 F -1 -1
5 Discrim 1 --> 11 1-4-7-9-10-11 1 2 1 F -1 -1
B.8.3 All-p-uses
To achieve 100% All-p-uses data flow coverage at least one subpath from each variable definition to
every p-use of that definition must be executed. The following test set would satisfy this requirement:
All-p-uses INPUTS EXPECTED OUTCOME
3 Is_Complex 7 --> 9 7- 9 1 2 1 F -1 -1

B.8.4 All-uses
To achieve 100% All-uses data flow coverage at least one subpath from each variable definition to
every use of that definition (both p-use and c-use) must be executed. The following test set would
satisfy this requirement:
All-uses / All du-paths INPUTS EXPECTED OUTCOME
test case variable(s) d-u pair subpath A B C Is_Complex R1 R2
1 A,B,C 0 --> 1 0-1 1 1 1 T unass. unass.
2 A,B 0 --> 10 0-1-4-7-9-10 1 2 1 F -1 -1
3 A,B 0 --> 11 0-1-4-7-9-10-11 1 2 1 F -1 -1
5 Discrim 1 --> 10 1-4-7-9-10 1 2 1 F -1 -1
6 Discrim 1 --> 11 1-4-7-9-10-11 1 2 1 F -1 -1
8 Is_Complex 7 --> 9 7- 9 1 2 1 F -1 -1
B.8.5 All-du-paths
To achieve 100% All-du-paths data flow coverage every 'simple subpath' from each variable
definition to every use of that definition must be executed. This differs from All-uses in that every
simple subpath between the du-pairs must be executed. There are just two subpaths through the
component that are not already identified in the test cases for All-Uses. These are 0-1-4-5-9-10 and
1-4-5-9-10. Both of these subpaths are infeasible and so no test cases can be generated to exercise
them.
This form of testing needs to define the data objects considered. Tools will typically regard an array
or record as a single data item rather than as a composite item with many constituents. Ignoring the
constituents of composite objects reduces the effectiveness of data flow testing.
B.9 / B.10 / B.11 Condition Testing
Introduction
Branch Condition Testing, Branch Condition Combination Testing, and Modified Condition Decision
Testing are closely related, as are the associated coverage measures. For convenience, these test case
design and test measurement techniques are collectively referred to as condition testing.
Condition testing is based upon an analysis of the conditional control flow within the component and
is therefore a form of structural testing.
Example
Consider the following fragment of code:
if A or (B and C) then
do_something;
else
do_something_else;
end if;

The Boolean operands within the decision condition are A, B and C. These may themselves be
comprised of complex expressions involving relational operators. For example, the Boolean operand
A could be an expression such as X>=Y. However, for the sake of clarity, the following examples
regard A, B and C as simple Boolean operands.
Branch Condition Testing and Coverage
Branch Condition Coverage would require Boolean operand A to be evaluated both TRUE and
FALSE, Boolean operand B to be evaluated both TRUE and FALSE, and Boolean operand C to be
evaluated both TRUE and FALSE.
Branch Condition Coverage may therefore be achieved with the following set of test inputs (note that
there are alternative sets of test inputs which will also achieve Branch Condition Coverage):
Case A B C
1 FALSE FALSE FALSE
2 TRUE TRUE TRUE
Branch Condition Coverage can often be achieved with just two test cases, irrespective of the number
of actual Boolean operands comprising the condition.
A further weakness of Branch Condition Coverage is that it can often be achieved without testing
both the TRUE and FALSE branches of the decision. For example, the following alternative set of test
inputs achieve Branch Condition Coverage, but only test the TRUE outcome of the overall Boolean
condition. Thus Branch Condition Coverage will not necessarily subsume Branch Coverage.
Case A B C
1 TRUE FALSE FALSE
2 FALSE TRUE TRUE
Branch Condition Combination Testing and Coverage
Branch Condition Combination Coverage would require all combinations of Boolean operands A, B
and C to be evaluated. For the example condition, Branch Condition Combination Coverage can only
be achieved with the following set of test inputs:
Case A B C
1 FALSE FALSE FALSE
2 TRUE FALSE FALSE
3 FALSE TRUE FALSE
4 FALSE FALSE TRUE
5 TRUE TRUE FALSE
6 FALSE TRUE TRUE
7 TRUE FALSE TRUE
8 TRUE TRUE TRUE
Branch Condition Combination Coverage is very thorough, requiring 2n test cases to achieve 100%
coverage of a condition containing n Boolean operands. This rapidly becomes unachievable for more
complex conditions.

Modified Condition Decision Testing and Coverage
Modified Condition Decision Coverage (MCDC) is a pragmatic compromise which requires fewer
test cases than Branch Condition Combination Coverage. It is widely used in the development of
avionics software, as required by RTCA/DO-178B.
Modified Condition Decision Coverage requires test cases to show that each Boolean operand (A, B
and C) can independently affect the outcome of the decision. This is less than all the combinations (as
required by Branch Condition Combination Coverage).
For the example decision condition [A or (B and C)], we first require a pair of test cases where
changing the state of A will change the outcome, but B and C remain constant, i.e. that A can
independently affect the outcome of the condition:
Case A B C Outcome
A1 FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE
A2 TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE
Similarly for B, we require a pair of test cases which show that B can independently affect the
outcome, with A and C remaining constant:
Case A B C Outcome
B1 FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE
B2 FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE
Finally for C we require a pair of test cases which show that C can independently affect the outcome,
with A and B remaining constant:
Case A B C Outcome
C1 FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE
C2 FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
Having created these pairs of test cases for each operand separately, it can be seen that test cases A1
and B1 are the same, and that test cases B2 and C1 are the same. The overall set of test cases to
provide 100% MCDC of the example expression is consequently:
Case A B C Outcome
1 (A1,B1) FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE
2 (A2) TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE
3 (B2,C1) FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE
4 (C2) FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
In summary:
A is shown to independently affect the outcome of the decision condition by test cases 1 and 2;
B is shown to independently affect the outcome of the decision condition by test cases 1 and 3;
C is shown to independently affect the outcome of the decision condition by test cases 3 and 4.

Note that there may be alternative solutions to achieving MCDC. For example, A could have been
shown to independently affect the outcome of the condition by the following pair of test cases:
Case A B C Outcome
A3 FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
A4 TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE
Test case A3 is the same as test case C2 (or 4) above, but test case A4 is one which has not been
previously used. However, as MCDC has already been achieved, test case A4 is not required for
coverage purposes.
To achieve 100% Modified Condition Decision Coverage requires a minimum of n+1 test cases, and a
maximum of 2n test cases, where n is the number of Boolean operands within the decision condition.
In contrast, Branch Condition Combination Coverage requires n2
test cases. MCDC is therefore a
practical compromise with Branch Condition Combination Coverage where condition expressions
involve more than just a few Boolean operands.
Other Boolean Expressions
One weakness of these condition testing and test measurement techniques is that they are vulnerable
to the placement of Boolean expressions which control decisions being placed outside of the actual
decision condition. For example:
FLAG := A or (B and C);
if FLAG then
do_something;
else
do_something_else;
end if;
To combat this vulnerability, a practical variation of these condition testing and condition coverage
techniques is to design tests for all Boolean expressions, not just those used directly in control flow
decisions.
Optimised Expressions
Some programming languages and compilers short circuit the evaluation of Boolean operators.
For example, the C and C++ languages always short circuit the Boolean "and" (&&) and "or" (||)
operators, and the Ada language provides special short circuit operators and then and or else. With
these examples, when the outcome of a Boolean operator can be determined from the first operand,
then the second operand will not be evaluated.
The consequence is that it will be infeasible to show coverage of one value of the second operand. For
a short circuited "and" operator, the feasible combinations are True:True, True:False and False:X,
where X is unknown. For a short circuited "or" operator, the feasible combinations are False:False,
False:True and True:X.
Other languages and compilers may short circuit the evaluation of Boolean operators in any order. In
this case, the feasible combinations are not known. The degree of short circuit optimisation of
Boolean operators may depend upon compiler switches or may be outside the user's control.
Short circuited control forms present no obstacle to Branch Condition Coverage or Modified
Condition Decision Coverage, but they do obstruct the measurement of Branch Condition
Combination Coverage. There are situations where it is possible to design test cases which should
achieve 100% coverage (from a theoretical point of view), but where it is not possible to actually
measure that 100% coverage has been achieved.

Other Branches and Decisions
The above description of condition testing techniques and condition coverage measures is given in
terms of branches or decisions which are controlled by Boolean conditions. Other branches and
decisions, such as multi-way branches (implemented by "case", "switch" or "computed goto"
statements), and counting loops (implemented by "for" or "do" loops) do not use Boolean conditions,
and are therefore not addressed by the descriptions.
There are two options available.
The first option is to assume that the branch or decision is actually implemented as an equivalent set
of Boolean conditions (irrespective of how the design is coded), to design test cases which would
exercise these conditions using one of the condition testing techniques, and to measure coverage as if
the equivalent Boolean conditions were actually coded.
The second option is to only use a condition testing test case design technique and a coverage
measure as a supplement to branch testing and branch or decision coverage. Branch testing will
address all simple decisions, multi-way decisions, and all loops. Condition testing will then address
the decisions which include Boolean conditions.
In practice, a set of test cases which achieves 100% coverage by one of these options will also achieve
100% coverage by the other option. However, lower levels of coverage cannot be compared between
the two options.
B.12 LCSAJ Testing
Introduction
An LCSAJ (which stands for Linear Code Sequence And Jump) is defined as a linear sequence of
executable code commencing either from the start of a program or from a point to which control flow
may jump and terminated either by a specific control flow jump or by the end of the program. It may
contain predicates which must be satisfied in order to execute the linear code sequence and
terminating jump.
Example
Some reformatting may be needed to allow LCSAJs to be expressed in terms of line numbers. The
basic reformatting rule is that each branch must leave from the end of a line and arrive at the start of
a line.

Consider the following program which is designed to categorise positive integers into prime and non-
prime, and to give factors for those which are non-prime. Note that integer division is used, so Num
DIV 2 will give a value of 2 when Num = 5, for example. The code on line 5 calculates the
remainder left after Factor is divided into Num. For example, if Factor is 5 and Num is 13, the
expression evaluates to 3. For reasons of simplicity, the program makes no checks on the input.
1 READ (Num);
2 WHILE NOT End of File DO
3 Prime := TRUE;
4 FOR Factor := 2 TO Num DIV 2 DO
5 IF Num - (Num DIV Factor)*Factor = 0 THEN
6 WRITE (Factor, ` is a factor of', Num);
7 Prime := FALSE;
8 ENDIF;
9 ENDFOR;
10 IF Prime = TRUE THEN
11 WRITE (Num, ` is prime');
12 ENDIF;
13 READ (Num);
14 ENDWHILE;
15 WRITE (`End of prime number program');
Deriving LCSAJs
To progress methodically, firstly list the table of branches as shown below. These are listed with a
note of the necessary conditions to satisfy them.
(Note that our convention is to consider the transfer of control as being to the line after the line
indicating the end of a control structure. An alternative is to regard control as being transferred to the
end line; this would give different line numbers in the LCSAJs, but they would be essentially the
same. The branching structure of loops is language dependent and may be different from that used
here.)
(2->3) : requires NOT End of File
(2->15) : Jump requires End of File
(4->5) : requires the loop to execute, i.e. Num DIV 2 is greater than or equal to 2
(4->10) : Jump requires the loop to be a zero-trip, i.e. Num DIV 2 is less than 2
(5->6) : requires the IF statement on line 5 to be true
(5->9) : Jump requires the IF statement on line 5 to be false
(9->5) : Jump requires a further iteration of the FOR loop to take place
(9->10) : requires the FOR loop to have exhausted
(10->11) : requires Prime to be true
(10->13) : Jump requires Prime to be false
(14->2) : Jump must always take place
From this list, find the LCSAJ start points. These are the start of the component (line 1) and lines to
which control flow can jump from other than the preceding line (lines 2, 5, 9, 10, 13 and 15). For
example, if the IF statement on line 10 is false, control will jump from line 10 to line 13.

The first LCSAJ starts at line 1. The first possible jump following line 1 is (2->15), so our first
LCSAJ is (1, 2, 15).
There are other LCSAJs starting from line 1. If we had taken the (2->3) branch, we would have
continued executing a linear code sequence with line 3. The next possible jump is (4->10), so our
second LCSAJ is (1, 4, 10).
Again, we could have taken the (4->5) branch at this point. At line 5, there is a choice of a jump to
line 9 or a branch to the next line. At line 9, there is the choice of a jump back to line 5 or a branch to
the next line. At line 10, there is the choice of a jump to line 13 or a branch to the next line. The
linear code sequence can extend as far as line 14, where control flow must return to line 2 to test the
WHILE condition.
There are 6 LCSAJs starting from line 1. They are (1, 2, 15), (1, 4, 10), (1, 5, 9), (1, 9, 5), (1, 10, 13),
and (1, 14, 2). To execute LCSAJ (1, 14, 2) requires a total of 5 branches to execute in sequence,
namely (2->3), (4->5), (5->6), (9->10), (10->11) followed by the jump (14->2).
Continue the search for each LCSAJ start line. Since the outer loop will always transfer control from
line 14 to line 2, there will be a set of LCSAJs which start from line 2 rather than from line 1. The
reasoning for how far they go is exactly the same as for the LCSAJs starting from line 1, so the set of
LCSAJs starting from line 2 is (2, 2, 15), (2, 4, 10), (2, 5, 9), (2, 9, 5), (2, 10, 13), and (2, 14, 2).
The complete set of LCSAJs are shown in the next clause. Note that the last LCSAJ is given as (15,
15, exit). We can start from line 15 because it is possible to jump to line 15 when the WHILE
condition on line 2 is false. The convention is that any linear code sequence reaching the last line of
the component has a `jump' to the program exit.
Test Cases
In this example, some test cases are used as a starting point. When these tests are analysed for
LCSAJ coverage, a number of LCSAJs are shown as not covered.
The initial test input consists of one prime number (5), one non-prime number (6), and a special case
number (2). All numbers are input to the component at once in a single test (without ending the
program and restarting it). The initial test case set is:
Test Case Input Expected Outcome
1 5 5 is prime
6 2 is a factor of 6
3 is a factor of 6
2 2 is prime
End of prime number program

LCSAJ Coverage Analysis
The LCSAJs are shown below, together with coverage achieved by the initial test. Asterisks are used
to highlight those LCSAJs which have not yet been covered. LCSAJ coverage is normally measured
using a software tool.
LCSAJ
START
LINE
FINISH
LINE
JUMP TO
LINE
TIMES
EXECUTED
1 2 15 0 ***
1 4 10 0 ***
1 5 9 1
1 9 5 0 ***
1 10 13 0 ***
1 14 2 0 ***
2 2 15 1
2 4 10 1
2 5 9 0 ***
2 9 5 1
2 10 13 0 ***
2 14 2 0 ***
5 5 9 0 ***
5 9 5 0 ***
5 10 13 1
5 14 2 0 ***
9 9 5 0 ***
9 10 13 0 ***
9 14 2 1
10 10 13 0 ***
10 14 2 1
13 14 2 1
15 15 exit 1
Number of LCSAJs 23
Number executed 9
Number not executed 14
LCSAJ Coverage 39%

Additional tests may now be devised to maximise the LCSAJ Coverage. These are described below.
LCSAJ Comments
(1, 2, 15) A new test is needed with no data, so the End of File is found immediately.
(1, 4, 10) A new test is needed with a number less than 4 as first in the list.
(1, 9, 5) A new test is needed with an even number greater than 5 as first in the list.
(1, 10, 13) A new test is needed with the number 4 as first in the list.
(2, 5, 9) This will be executed with an odd number greater than 4 which is not the first in the
list.
(2, 10, 13) This will be executed with the number 4 which is not the first in the list.
(5, 5, 9) This will be executed by a number greater than 6.
(5, 9, 5) This will be executed by an odd non-prime number greater than 7.
(9, 9, 5) This will be executed by a number greater than 7.
(9, 10, 13) This will be executed by an odd non-prime number greater than 8.
Infeasible LCSAJs
After executing line 7, Prime has the value false. The branch from line 10 to 11 requires Prime to be
true. Hence, the following 3 LCSAJs whose linear code sequence contains at least the section from
line 7 to line 11 are infeasible: (1, 14, 2), (2, 14, 2) and (5, 14, 2).
The remaining LCSAJ (10, 10, 13) is also infeasible. This LCSAJ requires Prime to be false on line
10. However, for the LCSAJ to start at line 10, it is necessary to jump from line 4 to line 10, i.e. a
zero-trip loop. This implies that line 3 has been executed in the previous LCSAJ, setting Prime to
true. This LCSAJ is not infeasible by itself but it is infeasible in any combination with others.
New Test Sets
Test Case Input Expected Output LCSAJs executed
2 <none> End of prime number
program
(1, 2, 15)
3 2 2 is prime (1, 4, 10)
4 2 is a factor of 4 (2, 10, 13)
End of prime number
program
4 8 2 is a factor of 8 (1, 9, 5)
4 is a factor of 8 (5, 5, 9)
End of prime number
program
5 4 2 is a factor of 4 (1, 10, 13)
11 11 is prime (2, 5, 9)
(9, 9, 5)
(5, 5, 9)
(9, 10, 13)
End of prime number
program

By running these extra tests, LCSAJ coverage is maximised with 19 of 23 LCSAJs executed, a
measure of 83%.
B.13 Random Testing
Introduction
This black box technique requires no partitioning of the component’s input domain, but simply
requires test inputs to be chosen from this input domain at random. We illustrate the technique by
means of an example.
Example
Consider a component that transforms coordinates, with the following specification:
The component shall transform the Cartesian coordinates (x,y) for screen
position into their polar equivalent (r,H) using the equations: r= sqrt (x2
+y2
)
and cos H = x/r. The origin of the Cartesian coordinates and the pole of the
polar coordinates shall be the centre of the screen and the x-axis shall be
considered the initial line for the polar coordinates progressing counter-
clockwise. All inputs and outputs shall be represented as fixed-point numbers
with both a range and a precision. These shall be:
Inputs
x - range -320..+320, in increments of 1/26
y - range -240..+240, in increments of 1/27
Outputs
r - range 0..400, in increments of 1/26
H - range 0..((2*pi)-1/26
), in increments of 1/26
No information is available about the operational distribution of the inputs to the component, so a
uniform distribution is used. For each test case a random test input value is selected for both x and y,
using the definitions provided in the component specification and based on a uniform distribution
across their defined ranges. From the definitions we can see that in any one random test case x can
take one of 40,961 values, while y can take one of 61,441 values. Care should be taken if using an
expected operational distribution rather than a uniform distribution. An expected distribution that
ignores parts of the input domain can lead to unexpected error conditions being left untested.
Random testing may be performed either manually or using automated test tools. Random testing is
most cost-effective when fully automated as then very many tests can be run without manual
intervention. However, to achieve full automation it must be possible to:
• automatically generate random test inputs; and
either • automatically generate expected results from the specification;
or • automatically check test outputs against the specification.
The automatic generation of random test input values is not difficult using a pseudo-random number
generator as long as the component’s inputs are well-defined. If the test input values are produced
using a pseudo-random number generator, then these values do not need to be recorded explicitly as
the same set can be reproduced. This is normally possible if a 'seed' value has been used to prime the
pseudo-random number generator and this value is recorded.

The automatic generation of expected outputs or the automatic checking of outputs, is however more
problematic. Generally it is not practicable to automatically generate expected outputs or
automatically check outputs against the specification, however for certain components it is possible,
such as where:
• trusted independently-produced software that performs the same function as the component
under test is available (presumably not meeting the same constraints such as speed of
processing, implementation language, etc.);
• the test is concerned solely with whether the component crashes or not (so the expected
result is ‘not to crash’);
• the nature of the component’s output makes it relatively easy to check the result. An
example of this is a sort function where it is a simple task to automatically check that the
outputs have been sorted correctly;
• it is easy to generate inputs from the outputs (using the inverse of the component’s function).
An example of this is a square root function where simply squaring the output should
produce the input.
The coordinate transformation component can be checked automatically using the inverse function
approach. In this case, rcosH=x can be obtained directly from the component’s specification. By
some analysis rsinH=y can also be deduced. If these two equations are satisfied to a reasonable
numerical tolerance then the component has transformed the coordinates correctly.
Even when full automation of random testing is not practicable its use should still be considered as it
does not carry the large overhead of designing test cases as required by the non-random techniques.
While no coverage measure is defined, a completion criterion can be set as a target level of probability
of non-conforming outcome (e.g. 0.001) together with confidence interval bounds (say 95%).
For components with larger input sets than this small example the “Symbolic Input Attribute
Decomposition” (SIAD) tree (ref: Quality Programming, C-K Cho, 1987, ISBN 0-471-84899-9) is a
useful method for organising the input domain for random sampling before test case design.
B.14 Other Testing Techniques
Any techniques not explicitly defined that are used should be sent to the editors to be considered for
inclusion in a later version of the Standard. These details can be submitted in a variety of ways, as
described in clause E.1

Annex C Test Technique Effectiveness (informative)
Up to this point the Standard has provided no guidance on either the choice of test case design
techniques or test completion criteria (sometimes known as test adequacy criteria), other than that
they should be selected from clauses 3 and 4 respectively. The main reason for this is that there is no
established consensus on which techniques and criteria are the most effective. The only consensus is
that the selection will vary as it should be dependent on a number of factors such as criticality,
application area, and cost. Research into the relative effectiveness of test case design and
measurement techniques has, so far, produced no definitive results and although some of the
theoretical results are presented below it should be recognised that they take no account of cost.
There is no requirement to choose corresponding test case design and test measurement techniques.
In fact it is good practice to use functional test case design techniques and structural test measurement
techniques. Functional techniques are effective at detecting errors of omission, while structural
techniques can only detect errors of commission. So a test plan could typically require boundary
value analysis to be used to generate an initial set of test cases, while also requiring 100% branch
coverage to be achieved. This diverse approach could, presumably, lead to branch testing being used
to generate any supplementary test cases required to achieve coverage of any branches missed by the
boundary value analysis test case suite.
Ideally the test coverage levels chosen as test completion criteria should, wherever possible, be 100%.
Strict definitions of test coverage levels have sometimes made this level of coverage impracticable,
however the definitions in clause 4 have been defined to allow infeasible coverage items to be
discounted from the calculations thus making 100% coverage an achievable goal.
With test completion criteria of 100% (and only 100%) it is possible to relate some of them in an
ordering, where criteria are shown to subsume, or include, other criteria. One criterion is said to
subsume another if, for all components and their specifications, every test case suite that satisfies the
first criterion also satisfies the second. For example, branch coverage subsumes statement coverage
because if branch coverage is achieved (to 100%), then statement coverage is always guaranteed to be
achieved (to 100%) as well.
It should be noted that the 'subsumes' relation described here strictly links test coverage criteria
(rather than test case design techniques) and so only provides an indirect indication of the relative
effectiveness of test case design techniques.
Not all test coverage criteria can be related by the subsumes ordering and the functional and structural
criteria are not related at all. This leads to a partial ordering of criteria, illustrated in figure C.1,
where an arrow from one criterion to another indicates that the first criterion subsumes the second.
Where a test coverage criterion does not appear in the partial orderings then it is not related to any
other criterion by the subsumes relation.

B
S
MCDC
BC
L
All Paths
DU
DPU
DCU
where:
B - Branch coverage/Decision coverage
BC - Branch Condition coverage
BCC - Branch Condition Combination coverage
DCU - All C-uses coverage
DPU - All P-uses coverage
DU - All du-paths coverage
L - LCSAJ coverage
MCDC - Modified Condition Decision coverage
S - Statement coverage
BCC
Figure C.1 Partial Ordering of Structural Test Coverage Criteria
Despite its intuitive appeal the subsumes relation suffers a number of limitations that should be
considered before using it to choose test completion criteria:
• Firstly it relates only a subset of the available test completion criteria and inclusion in
this subset provides no indication of effectiveness, so other criteria not shown in figure
C.1 should still be considered.
• Secondly, the subsumes relation provides no measure of the amount by which one
criterion subsumes another and subsequently does not provide any measure of relative
cost effectiveness.
• Thirdly, the partial orderings only apply to single criteria while it is recommended that
more than one criterion is used, with at least one functional and one structural criterion.
• Finally, and most importantly, the subsumes relation does not necessarily order test
completion criteria in terms of their ability to expose errors (their test effectiveness). It
has been shown, for instance, that 100% path coverage (when achievable) may not be as
effective, for some components, as some of the criteria it subsumes, such as those
concerned with data flow. This is because some errors are data sensitive and will not be
exposed by simply executing the path on which they lie, but require variables to take a
particular value as well (E.g. An 'unprotected' division by an integer variable may
erroneously be included in a component that will only fail if that variable takes a
negative value). Satisfying data flow criteria can concentrate the testing on these
aspects of a component's behaviour, thus increasing the probability of exposing such
errors. It can be shown that in some circumstances test effectiveness is increased by
testing a subset of the paths required by a particular criteria but exercising this subset
with more test cases.
The subsumes relation is highly dependent on the definition of full coverage for a criterion and
although Figure C.1 is correct for the definitions in clause 4 of this Standard it may not apply to
alternative definitions used elsewhere.

Annex D Bibliography (informative)
The following have been referenced in this Standard:
Chow, T. S. Chow, Testing Software Design Modelled by Finite-State Machines, IEEE Transactions
on Software Engineering, Vol. SE-4, No. 3, May 1978.
IEEE 829, ANSI/IEEE 829 - 1998 (Software Test Documentation).
IEEE 1008, ANSI/IEEE 1008 - 1987 (Software Unit Testing).
K&R, Brian W Kernighan and Dennis M Richie, The C Programming Language, Second Edition,
Prentice-Hall Software Series, 1988.

Annex E Document Details (informative)
E.1 Method of commenting on this draft
Comments are invited on this draft so that the document can be improved to satisfy the requirement
of an ISO standard.
When making a comment, be sure to include the following information:
- your name and contact details (address, telephone number, etc.);
- the version number of the standard;
- exact part of the standard;
- supporting information, such as the reason for a proposed change.
You can submit comments in a variety of ways, which in order of preference are as follows:
a) by post to Stuart Reid, Cranfield University DoIS/CISE, RMCS, Shrivenham, Swindon,
Wilts, SN6 8LA, UK.
b) by fax to +44 1793 785366 (telephone +44 1793 785490).
c) by E-mail to Stuart.Reid@rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk.
E.2 Status
This standard has been amended as a result of the inspection carried out on May 4th 1995 and the
comments received from external reviewers.
It has also had contact details updated in April 2001.
E.3 Availability
This standard is available on the World Wide Web at the following URL:
http://www.testingstandards.co.uk/.

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