![6 P A R T O N E
siderable merit. His elegant constructions . . .carry the general
methods into branches of astronomical theory where they had not
previously been applied."
Our story really opens during the Thirty Years War with Wilhelm
Schickard (1592-1635), who was a professor of astronomy, math-
ematics, and Hebrew in Tiibingen. Some years ago (1957) Dr.
Franz Hammer, then assistant curator of Kepler's papers, discovered
some letters from Schickard to Kepler- both of whom were from
Wiirteinberg-containing sketches and descriptions of a machine
Schickard had designed and built in 1623 to do completely auto-
inatically the operations of addition and subtractiori and, partially
automatically, multiplication and division. The first letter was
dated 20 September 1623, and a subsequent one 25 February 1624.
In the first one, Schickard wrote of the machine that it "immediately
computes the given numbers automatically, adds, subtracts, multi-
plies, and divides. Surely you will beam when you see how [it]
accumulates left carries of tens and hundreds by itself or while
subtracting takes something away from them. . .
In his letter of 1624 fie wrote: "I had placed an order with a local
man, Johann Pfister, for the construction of a machine for you; but
when half finished, this machine, together with some other things
of mine, especially several metal plates, fell victim to a fire which
broke out unseen during the night. . . . I take the loss very hard,
now especially, since the mechanic does not have time to produce
a replacement soon." "
No copy of the machine is extant but Professor Bruno, Baron von
Freytag-Liiringhoff with the help of a master mechanic, Erwin
Epple, as well as some others, reconstructed the instrument from
the information in the letters and a few working models were made.
The device is ingenious, and it is a great pity that its existence
was not known to the world of his day -unfortunately for the world
Schickard and all his family died in the plagues brought about by
Kcnnedy, Isis, vol. 43, p. 50. See also 11. J. deS. Price, "An Ancient Greek Com-
puter," Scientific American, 200:6 (1959),pp. 60-67.
Quoted in B. von Freykag-1,ijringhoA; "Wilhelnl Schickards Tiibinger Rechen-
maschine von 1623 in Tiibinger.,Rathaus," Kleirae Tiibinger Schriften, I-feft 4, pp.
1-12. See also von Freytag, "Uber der erste Rechenmaschine," P.hysikalische
Rliiftcr~, . ~ r l . 41 (1958), 111,. 3(51-3(35. ". . . clrlae datos numcros statim ar~tomatllos
computet, acldat, subtrahat, multiplicet, dividatque. Rideres clare, si praesens
cerneres, quomodo sinistros denarium vel centenarium supergressos sua sponte
coacervet, aut inter subtrahendeum ah eis aliquid suffuretur. . . ."
lhid., "Et curnvelxnr tibi i;~lnexcnrl,l;ir co~~fieri
al>rtclJob. t'fistcrun~nostriltern,
sed illud semiperfecturn, uno curn aliis quibusdam meis, praecipue aliquot tabellis
aeneis conflagravit ante triduum in incendio noctu et ex improvisibi coorto. . . ."](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-23-320.jpg)
![FOOTNOTES:
[1] An Edition de luxe, containing 14 extra plates from rare engravings in the
British Museum, and bound in Roxburgh style, may be had, price 10s. 6d.
[2] According to another and generally excellent authority that event occurred in
Lincoln eight years later.
[3] It is interesting to trace what may be called the technical descent of these
artists. Thus, Aliamet was a pupil of J. P. Le Bas, who studied under Nicholas
Tardieu, who learnt his art from Le Pautre and Jean Audran. The master of the last
was his uncle Gerard of the same name, who, again, was instructed by his own father
Claude and his uncle, Charles Audran, all of them men in the foremost ranks of the
engravers. Charles, the first of the great family of “graveurs” named Audran, formed
his style upon that of Cornelius Bloemaert, a member of another famous line of artists
on metal, well known by his superb plate of Guercino’s “St. Peter raising Tabitha
from the Dead,” and transcripts of Raphael’s, Titian’s, Parmigiano’s and his own
father’s (Abraham Bloemaert’s) pictures. Now, to trace the stream of skill a little
farther, and, it must be admitted, to find it getting shallow at this point, let us add that
Cornelius Bloemaert’s master was Crispin de Pass, the younger, about whom centres
the third family of engravers to whom we have occasion to refer in this long line of
tutorage. This De Pass had a brother, William, who came to England, as also did a
third brother, Simon, the reproducer of so many “Van Dycks” and “Van Somers.”
Crispin de Pass the younger studied his craft under his father, Crispin the elder, who
had for a master Theodore Cuernhert, beyond whom, as he was born in 1522, it is
needless to carry our recollections, or trace the art-genealogy of the instructor of John
Landseer—who, almost three hundred years after the line is first brought into sight
here, taught his sons Edwin, Charles, and Thomas.
[4] Boydell and Macklin maintained so close a rivalry that they contended not
only as publishers but by means of picture exhibitions, the former as promoter of the
“Shakespeare Gallery,” the latter as proprietor of the “Gallery of the British Poets.”
These exhibitions contained originals of the engravings which both “patrons”
published.
[5] A relation, probably, of the distinguished surgeon, one of whose benevolent
labours was that of trying to revive the hanged Dr. Dodd. See Wraxall’s “Posthumous
Memoirs,” 1836, ii. 28.
[6] This picture is now in the possession, says Mr. Tom Taylor in “Life and Times
of Sir Joshua Reynolds,” of Mr. Gosling, of Portland Place.
[7] Queen Anne Street East was the thoroughfare now called Langham Street and
Foley Street, and distinct from Queen Anne Street West, where Turner lived, which
retains its name. When Portland Place was extended to Oxford Street, and the new
thoroughfare became part of the freshly made Regent Street, Foley House, which till](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-33-320.jpg)
![then closed the southern end of Portland Place, was removed. The gardens of this
house had separated Queen Anne Street West from Queen Anne Street East; the latter
extended to Cleveland Street, and when the changes in question were complete,
received the name of Foley Street, which it now bears with the addition of Langham
Street. The numbers have been altered. At the back of the present 33, Langham Street
is a fine large room with a north light, used as a studio by Mr. Eyre Crowe, A.R.A. In
regard to Landseer’s birthplace see a note to Chapter II., below.
[8] This defect was the more remarkable because the French Academy, on which
the English one relied for some of its rules, as well as the Academies of Milan,
Venice, Florence and Rome, admitted engravers to the highest grades. The effect of
British narrowness was to drive Woollett, Sharp, and Strange from the ranks of the
Royal Academy, and to evoke from the last of these noteworthy artists an important
criminatory tract called “An Inquiry into the Rise,” &c., “of the Royal Academy of
Arts,” 1775.
[9] “Diary,” &c., of H. C. Robinson, 1869, i. 505-6.
[10] Evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Arts,
&c., 1836. Question and Reply, No. 2046.
[11] “The Literary Gazette,” No. 1834.
[12] For this locality, see above. The number, 83 for 33, may or may not be a
misprint. On this point the testimony of Mrs. Mackenzie is all-important, as conveyed
thus to the author:—“The house in which my brothers were born stands in the bend of
Foley Street, not far from Portland Street; and at the time my father lived in it there
was a long garden where the dog was kept. Among some old letters of my mother’s I
found the enclosed little note, showing that before my father’s marriage he lived in
Queen Ann Street, altered to Foley Street afterwards, but not the same house, but a
smaller one nearer Cleveland Street, which house, when my father left, was occupied
by Mr. F. Lewis, father of John Lewis, who was born there.—Yours truly, Emma
Mackenzie.”
[13] Mrs. Mackenzie (born Emma Landseer) has a capital drawing, made in these
fields, of a hollow oak, with horses gathered about it, and standing gaunt and
branchless in a field, which was doubtless executed at the time in question, and from
this tree, which still remains (1880).
[14] At South Kensington is a very interesting collection of early drawings and
etchings, of various dates, by Edwin Landseer. These were, for the most part,
presented to the nation with the Sheepshanks Gift of Pictures and Drawings. Some of
them, we believe, came with the Vernon Gift, and many were undoubtedly for a
considerable time in the possession of Mr. Vernon before they passed into the hands
of Mr. Sheepshanks. In the Exhibition of Landseer’s works, held at the Royal
Academy in 1874, were several sketches executed when he was ten years old. See
No. 133, likewise Nos. 136, 139.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-34-320.jpg)
![[15] It ought to be noted here that the Queen has a considerable number of
drawings by Sir E. Landseer, which, with examples from other collections, have been
carefully described by Mr. Cosmo Monkhouse, in a richly illustrated work called
“The Studies of Sir E. Landseer,” n. d.
[16] Mr. Algernon Graves’s excellent catalogue of the works of Sir E. Landseer
enumerates, under “Etchings,” p. 40, a class of examples of this nature, the earliest
instance of which is dated 1809, and appears to be that named at the beginning of the
next paragraph of our text as “Heads of a Lion and Tiger.”
[17] The author is indebted to Sir Edward Cust for a correction of statements on
this head, made in a former edition of this work. As Sir Edward’s letter is interesting
on its own account, the reader will accept it entire:—
“Leasowe Castle, near Birkenhead, Oct. 21, 1874.
“Sir,—I am induced to believe that you will thank me for pointing out to you some errors
in your ‘Memoirs of Sir E. Landseer’ in a matter in which I am naturally well conversant.
“At page 32 you speak of ‘the etching of Mr. Thomas Landseer of an Alpine mastiff of the
great St. Bernard breed’ that had been ‘imported to this country by a gentleman residing in the
neighbourhood of Liverpool,’ and by a note to this you refer to the Exhibition at Spring
Gardens in 1817 of ‘Brutus,’ the property of W. H. Simpson, Esq., as following another and
that is asserted to be an earlier work of Landseer’s—‘a mule’ in 1815.
“At page 60 you speak of ‘the magnificent dog to which we have formerly referred’ as ‘the
property of a gentleman in Liverpool or a Mr. Bullock, having reference to the famous picture,
‘Travellers in the Snow.’
“Without giving any opinion as to ‘the minor works of the painter,’ when ‘he was little
more than an infant,’ of which of course I know nothing, but I unhesitatingly claim a
precedence of the dog before the Mule and Pointer of W. H. Simpson, Esq., in 1815, as well
from the facts I will state as from the intercourse with Sir Edwin Landseer himself. ‘The dog’
was the property of my mother-in-law, who resided here, and who received it in 1814 from a
Swiss gentleman who had obtained ‘Lion’ and another direct from the Monastery of St.
Bernard. You will perceive that Thomas Landseer records, in his etching ‘from the drawing by
his brother Edwin, that he did it, aged thirteen;’ as he was born in 1802, consequently, the
etching was made in 1815. Now, Sir Edwin himself told me that it was his first work, and of
course could not forget any of the circumstances; ‘that he met the dog in London streets under
the care of a man servant, whom he followed to Mrs. L. W. Borde’s residence, who permitted
him to make a sketch of it.’ Your remark that the drawing was done by Sir Edwin when he was
nineteen years of age, and in the year 1821, is clearly a mistake, for ‘Lion’ was never in
London since 1815, and died in 1821. There were several litters of puppies in that interval, one
of which, a brindled dog that was named ‘Cæsar,’ is with ‘Lion’ in the picture of ‘Travellers in
the Snow,’ and I myself sold this one at Tattersall’s, where he fetched thirty-five guineas at
open sale, but I never heard who bought him. The breed is now quite extinct.
“I had the pleasure of often speaking with Sir Edwin on this subject, and he told me he had
the original sketch somewhere, and that if he could find it I should have it, but of course this
was some years ago.
“Yours truly,
“Edwd. Cust.”](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-35-320.jpg)
![[18] At Landseer’s sale, 1874, lot 316, “Old Brutus” realized 630l. It must not be
forgotten that there are many pictures and studies which bear the names of this dog,
and that of his son, another “Brutus.” See below.
[19] In 1874 “A French Hog,” 1814, belonged to the late Mr. J. Hogarth, who then
owned another early picture of Sir Edwin’s, called “British Boar,” 1814, which is
doubtless the same as the “English Hog” of the text; the animal belonged to Squire
Western. As these works were painted in 1814 and etched by E. Landseer in 1818, we
have but to remember the national circumstances of that period in order to recognize
them as political satires.
[20] The “H.” is always understood as indicating an Honorary Exhibitor, in which
capacity the young artist is thrice represented in the catalogue of this the Academy
Exhibition for 1815. See below. “Queen Anne Street East” had become “Foley Street”
between 1802 and 1815. Landseer, as his sisters tell me, was accepted as an
“Honorary Exhibitor” on account of his youth, which was supposed to preclude him
from being considered an artist in full.
[21] See “Autobiographical Recollections of the late C. R. Leslie, R.A.” 1860, vol.
ii. p. 44.
[22] At the Academy Exhibition, Winter, 1874, No. 144. was “Sir E. Landseer
when a Boy.” Drawn by J. Hayter, Esq. Pencil, J. Hayter, Esq.
[23] There appear to be doubts of the extent of E. Landseer’s obligations to
Haydon, and the terms employed by the former on this subject (see his
“Correspondence,” 1876, ii., p. 288) affirm that the writer had been serviceable to
Landseer in making him known, rather than by direct teaching:—“I lent him my
dissections from the lion, which he copied, and when he began to show real powers, I
took a portfolio of his drawings to Sir George Beaumont’s one day at a grand dinner,
and showed them all round to the nobility when we retired to coffee. When he painted
his “Dogs,” I wrote to Sir George and advised him to buy it.” “In short, I was
altogether the means of bringing him so early into notice. These things may be trifles,
but when I see a youth strutting about and denying his obligations to me, I may as
well note them down.” “His genius was guided by me.” Again, p. 318 of the same
volume, Haydon averred:—“My influence upon English art has certainly been
radical. Edwin Landseer dissected animals under my eye, copied my anatomical
drawings, and carried my principles of study into animal painting. His genius, thus
tutored, has produced sound and satisfactory results.” P. 472 of the same repeats the
same claims, and discriminates between the degree of instruction said to have been
given to the Landseers generally:—“This was the principle I explained to my pupils;
to Eastlake first, and to the Landseers and others afterwards. To Edwin I lent my
anatomical studies of the Lion, which guided him to depict dogs and monkeys.
Charles and Thomas, Bewick, Harvey, Prentice, Lance, were all instructed in the
same principle.” We may add that Mrs. Mackenzie (born Landseer) still owns a
human skeleton which was prepared and articulated by her brothers, Thomas and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-36-320.jpg)
![Charles, who occupied a studio at Blenheim Steps, Oxford Street, where they
dissected a “subject.”
[24] Forty years before these recollections of ours begin, Foley Street, of the
history of which we have already written, was comparatively splendid, and inhabited
by persons of distinction. Fuseli had lived in Queen Ann Street East. The
neighbourhood was much affected by artists. Mulready had lodged in Cleveland
Street, not far off; Newman Street, always artistic, but now so dull and grimy, was
then thronged with painters and sculptors; Benjamin West had built himself a gallery
there; Stothard (at No. 28) and Banks were numbered among its past, and then
present inhabitants. A. E. Chalon was living at No. 71 in Great Titchfield Street; Shee
was in Cavendish Square, in the house which had been occupied by F. Cotes and G.
Romney; Collins, who was born in Great Titchfield Street, was then at 118, Great
Portland Street, and had a house in New Cavendish Street in 1815; Northcote still
worked in his gloomy den, 39, Argyll Street; and Edridge, then a fashionable
miniature-painter, was at 64, Margaret Street, Cavendish Square; Constable at 63,
Upper Charlotte Street, now 76, Charlotte Street, next house on the north side to the
church; W. Daniell resided in Cleveland Street, No. 9. Thompson was at No. 11;
James Ward at 6, Jackson at 7, Dawe at 22, and Howard at No. 5, in Newman Street;
Leslie, as well as Flaxman, in Buckingham Street, Fitzroy Square; the former, with
Allston, was at No. 8, the latter at No. 7; Hilton was not remote, at 10, Percy Street;
De Wint in the same house; James Heath in Russell Place, Fitzroy Square, No. 15;
Hazlitt, then painting portraits in considerable numbers, lived at 109, Great Russell
Street, Bloomsbury. Even so early in the century as the period of which we now
write, some painters had flown to the then far west region of Kensington; thus, Wilkie
sought the quiet of Phillimore Gardens; and Mulready had settled in the Gravel Pits
on the Bayswater Road.
[25] See, on a later page of this volume, Mr. Ruskin’s criticism on “Shoeing,”
quoted with the account of the pictures painted in 1846.
[26] It has been stated, and probably with truth, that Edwin Landseer obtained a
medal, or a silver palette, from the Society of Arts, and at an earlier date than that in
question here. But as artists rarely set much store on lay awards of similar kinds to
this, it is only necessary to mention this matter. Contributing a work in a competition
like that in view can hardly be classed with the act of exhibiting pictures in the Royal
Academy.
[27] It is amusing to see how Wilkie puts the Scotchman first in this note, and of a
piece with that story of his having, when a “hanger” of one of the Royal Academy
exhibitions, actually filled the “line,” or best part of the whole wall-space in the best
room, with pictures by Scotch artists. This piece of injustice was too shameless to be
allowed to stand, so when Wilkie’s fellow “hangers” discovered the attempted trick,
he was told, “This will never do, we must change all this;” and that was done. At
another time Wilkie was observed to be carrying a picture through the rooms, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-37-320.jpg)
![trying to fix it into one place after another, always proceeding from a good to a better
position, until attention was attracted by his earnestness, and the question asked, why
he was so anxious to promote the work in question. “Oh,” he replied, with exquisite
sang-froid, “It’s Geddes’s!”
[28] Etty’s pictures of this year were, 59, “The Blue Beetle; Portraits:” 232,
“Portrait of the Rev. W. Jay of Bath;” 320, “Ajax Telamon;” and, 375, “A Study.”
[29] The “Elymas” was not one of the Cartoons exhibited in 1818, the two shown
in that year being “The Beautiful Gate” and “Christ’s Charge to Peter.” “Elymas”
appeared in 1817.
[30] At a later date, when appointments were given to Dyce and others to
superintend the Schools of Design, Haydon—who believed himself not only the
originator of all modern English movements for promoting the Fine Arts, but the one
competent authority respecting them—was bitterly indignant that he was not invited
to accept the directorship of the new institution. He asserted the peculiar
incompetence of Dyce, and spoke very frankly of his colleagues. See Haydon’s
“Correspondence,” 1876, ii., p. 475. No doubt Haydon rightly estimated his own
powers in this respect; his real vocation was teaching, which was at that time a
faculty rarer than it is now, when we are by no means overstocked with good
teachers, practical or literary, in art. He was never so happy as when giving technical
counsel, or in lecturing; his published “Lectures” are probably the most practical and
potent of their class.
[31] On Mr. Charles Christmas, Sir Edwin’s brother-in-law, see “Notes and
Queries,” 5th series, XII. 383. By this it appears that he was an animal painter, who,
discovering the superiority of E. Landseer in that line, gave up the race. There were
two brothers of this name, Thomas and Charles, (see before). The latter was not a
painter, but, we believe, an architect.
[32] The phrase, “lay-element” is already, 1880, passing out of recognition; when
this book was formerly published it was in vogue, and understood to refer to those
gentlemen who were willing to share the honours of the Royal Academicians;
conferring, in return, the prestige which was due to their “distinguished social
position and love of art.” These persons were the “lay-element” of the Commission of
the Royal Academy. See “Report,” 1864.
[33] Our readers will recollect that, owing to the protest of Sir Edwin Landseer
and others, the idiotic practice has abated of cropping from dogs’ ears those flaps
which kindly nature placed to keep earth from the organs of earth-burrowing
creatures.
[34] Since Landseer’s death this house and studio have been occupied by Mr. H.
W. B. Davis, R.A.
[35] This example of extraordinary facility in artistic work may be paralleled, if
not surpassed, by the feat which Smith, in his “Nollekens,” ii. p. 143 relates of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-38-320.jpg)
![Sherwin, who engraved, in four days (!), the fine plate from the portrait of the Earl of
Carlisle, now at Castle Howard, by Romney. Sherwin engraved Mrs. (“Perdita”)
Robinson’s portrait at once upon the copper, without a drawing.
[36] “Art Journal,” where the picture is represented by an engraving.
[37] Mr. William Russell was Accountant-General of the Court of Chancery, fourth
son of Lord William Russell, who, May 6, 1840, was murdered by B. E. Courvoisier,
his valet.
[38] It has been said that many years ago the Queen and her Consort made
etchings after Landseer’s designs, especially from parts of “Bolton Abbey.” Her
Majesty and her Consort made at least a dozen etchings from other works of
Landseer’s. (See Mr. Algernon Graves’s Catalogue, p. 41.) Speaking of copies of
engravings from pictures by our artist, it may be mentioned that many of foreign
origin, including a large proportion of piracies, have appeared; among these are,
repeatedly, “Bolton Abbey;” “Favourites” (1835), ponies belonging to the Duke of
Cambridge; “Dogs of the Great St. Bernard;” “Dignity and Impudence;” “The Return
from Hawking;” “Laying down the Law;” “The Lion Dog of Malta;” “A
distinguished Member of the Humane Society,” and “A Jack in Office.”
[39] One of the finest and most pathetic of Mr. Ruskin’s criticisms applies to this
picture so happily that we ought to quote it here:—“Take, for instance, one of the
most perfect poems or pictures (I use the words as synonymous) which modern times
have seen—the ‘Highland Shepherd’s Chief Mourner.’ Here the exquisite execution
of the crisp and glossy hair of the dog, the bright sharp touch of the green bough
beside it, the clear painting of the wood of the coffin and the folds of the blanket, are
language—language clear and expressive in the highest degree. But the close pressure
of the dog’s breast against the wood, the convulsive clinging of the paw which has
dragged the blanket off the trestle, the total powerlessness of the head laid, close and
motionless, upon its folds, the fixed and tearful fall of the eye in its utter
hopelessness, the rigidity of repose which marks that there has been no motion nor
change in the trance of agony since the last blow was struck on the coffin-lid, the
quietness and gloom of the chamber, the spectacles marking the place where the Bible
was last closed, indicating how lonely has been the life—how unwatched the
departure of him who is now laid solitary in his sleep;—these are all thoughts—
thoughts by which the picture is separated at once from hundreds of equal merit, as
far as mere painting goes, by which it ranks as a work of high art, and stamps its
author not as a neat imitator of the texture of a skin, or the fold of a drapery, but as the
man of mind.”—“Modern Painters,” ii., 1851, p. 8.
[40] On this picture Mr. Ruskin delivered an admirable criticism:—“Again, there
is capability of representing the essential character, form, and colour of an object,
without external texture. On this point much has been said by Reynolds and others;
and it is, indeed, perhaps, the most unfailing characteristic of a great manner of
painting. Compare a dog of Edwin Landseer with a dog of Paul Veronese. In the first,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-39-320.jpg)
![the outward texture is wrought out with exquisite dexterity of handling, and minute
attention to all the accidents of curl and gloss which can give appearance of reality,
while the hue and power of the sunshine, and the truth of the shadow on all these
forms is necessarily neglected, and the larger relations of the animal as a mass of
colour to the sky or ground, or other parts of the picture, utterly lost. This is Realism
at the expense of Ideality, it is treatment essentially unimaginative.” In a note to this
paper the critic added:—“I do not mean to withdraw the praise I have given, and shall
always be willing to give, such pictures as the ‘Highland Shepherd’s Chief Mourner,’
and to all in which the character and inner life of the animals are developed. But all
lovers of art must regret to find Mr. Landseer wasting his energies on such inanities as
the ‘Shoeing,’ and sacrificing colour, expression, and action to an imitation of a
glossy hide,”—“Modern Painters,” ii., 1846, p. 194. There is a grain of fallacy mixed
with the noble truth of this—it did not follow that the sacrifices here enumerated were
due to love for painting the horse’s glossy hide. The picture was defective as stated
here, but not because of the realism it exhibited. The defects were inherent, not due to
the imitation. Lacking the nobler qualities, the meaner ones became unworthily and
ungracefully prominent. The superb tour de force in the painting of the feathers of
“Spaniels of King Charles Breed” (see above) does not appear mean, although it is at
least equal in successful imitation to the hide in question.
[41] His name “in the world” was “Neptune;” “in society” his female companion’s
name was “Venus.”
[42] Several of the descriptions here given have been adapted from fuller ones
made by the author before the pictures, and for previous publication in the Athenæum
journal, during a long series of years. They thus partake of the character of studies
from nature.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/91936-250314200344-513853b9/85/The-Computer-from-Pascal-to-von-Neumann-Herman-H-Goldstine-40-320.jpg)
The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann Herman H. Goldstine
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- 5. The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann Herman H. Goldstine Digital Instant Download Author(s): Herman H. Goldstine ISBN(s): 9781400820139, 1400820138 Edition: Course Book File Details: PDF, 24.45 MB Year: 1993 Language: english
- 8. The Computer / Heslnan B. Goldstine Sroni Pascal to volt Neumaun 121.incetonUniversity l'rcss
- 9. TOAdele But if the while I think on thee, dear friend, All losses are restored, and sorrows end. Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Chichester, West Sussex Copyright O 1972by Princeton University Press New preface O 1993 Princeton University Press All Rights Resewed Library of Congress Card No. 70-173755 ISBN 0-691-08104-2(hardback) ISBN 0-691-02367-0(paperback) First Princeton Paperback printing, 1980 Fifth paperback printing, with a new preface, 1993 Princeton University Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources Printed in the United States of America
- 10. Contents Preface (1893) Preface PART ONE: The Elistorical Rackground up to World War I1 I. Beginnings 2. Cllarles Babhage and His Analytical Engine 3. The Astronolnical Ephemeris 4. The Universities: Maxwell and Boole 5, Integrators and Planin~c.ters 6. Michelsori, Fourier Coc~ffic~ients, and the Gibbs Phenomenon 7. Boolean Algebra: x2 = xx = x 8. Billings, IIollerith, and the. Census 9. Rallistics ancl the Rise of the Great Mathematicians 10. Blish's Differential Analyzer and Other Analog IJcvices 11. Adaptation to Scientific Needs 12. Renascenrbe and Triumph of Digital Means of Computation PART TWO: Wartime Developments: ENIAC and EDVAC 1. Electronic, EAi~rts prior to the EN1AC 2. The Ballistic Research Laboratory 3. Differencc?~ between Analog and Digital Machines 4. Beginnings of the ENIA(: 5. The ENIAC as a Matl~errraticalInstrument 6. Jolln von Nel~mann ant1 the Computer 7. Beyond the ENIAC 8. Tlte Structure of the EDVAC 9. The Spread of Ideas 10. First Calculations on the ENIAC PART THREE: Post-World War 11: The von Neumann Machine and The Institute for Advanced Study 1. Post-EIIVAC Days 2. The Institute for Advanced Study Computer
- 11. vi C O N T E N T S 3. Automata Theory and Logic Machines 4. Numerical Mathematics 5. Nun~erical Meteorology 6. Engineering Activities and Achievements 7. The Computer and UNESCO 8. The Early Industrial Scene 9. Programmi~~g Languages 10. Conclusions APPENDIX: World-Wide Developments
- 12. Illustrations ( follotoitlg page 120) 1. Reconstruction of inacbhi~~c designed and built in 1623by Wil- helm Scl~ickard of T ~ i b i ~ ~ g e n . (PIIOT: IBM) 2. Calculating rnacllirrc built by Blaise Pascal in 1642. (I>IIOT: IBkl) 3. Cal(w1atos invented by the 1,eibniz in 1673.(PHOT: IBRZ) 4. Difference Et~ginc of Chailes 13abl)age. (PI-JOT:IBM) 5, Automated loom of Josel)li Marie Jacquard. (PHOT: IUM) 6. Difference engine huilt in 1853 by Pehr Gcorg Scheutz of Stockliolm, (rrro~: IRh1) 7. Lord Kelvill's tidc predictor. (PIIOT: Reproduced by courtesy of the Natiot~itlMllseum of Science and Industry, London) 8. I-Iollerith tabl~latingequipment used in the Eleventh Ceilsus of the Uriited States in 18190. (~~ro'r: IBM) 9. The Michelson-Stratton I ~ r ~ n o u i c analyzer. (Ptrorr:IBM) 10. The differential analyzer ;tt the Moore School of Engineering, 1935. ( ~ r x o ~ : 'I'lie Smithsonia~~ Institutiol~) I I. f-Zar7ard-IRh4hlask I, the Anto~natic Sequence Controlled Cal- culator. (PI-lorr: IBM) 12. View of part of the I ~ N I A ~ ~ , the first electronic digital computer, operational in 1)ecernlx~r1945. (1~1ro.r: The Sinithsonian Insti- tution) 13. Setting tllc function switc,l~cs 011 the ENIAC. (PI-IO'I':The Smith- sonian I~istitution) 14. John von Ncurnann and J. Ro1)ert Oppenheirner at tlte dedica- tion of the I~~stitute for Advanced Stt~dycomputer, 1952. (PHOT: Alai~ W. Ricllartls)
- 14. It is now over twenty years since the first edition of this book appeared; in that period the world has been totally changed by the impact of the conipllter on our ways of thinking and acting. We all know, or at least sensc, the many ways in which computer technology and its applications have modified our lives and ways of thought. They are so m:~nifoldthat it would serve no useful purpose for me to detail examples here. Before examining some of the changes, let us first see what- if anything-has stayed invariant since the beginnings of the modern computcr period. Perhaps most remarkable from our point of view is that the basic logical structure of the computer has by and large remained unaltered since its inception. This means that thc logical design ideas discussed in this volume still have the same basic validity that they did when originally formu- lated. Let us now look hastily at those things which have altered. Many of the enorn~olls advances have been made possible by two marvelous technological developments: it was realized that the computer really processed information, not just numbers; and new hardware was invented that changed the entire inner economy of the computer, making it so inexpensive that it is now acces- sible to the average: person, not just to the scientist. The computcrs discussed in this book were based on a comput- ing economy of very speedy arithmetic operations and very little speedy memory. This led to a need for numerical analytic tech- niques to suit that economy. Our numerical orientation domi- nated our thinking in the field's incipient days. Indeed, we envisioned the computer as the tool that wotld free people from the drudg- ery of scientific computation. This was the case, even though Alan Turing had already begun to move beyond the purely math- ematical whcn he dcvised his well-known test to determine whether a human or a computer was responding to an interrogation. This mathematical approach gave way during the decades since this book first appeared to informationally oriented points of view. Thus the world has nioved into our present era both be- cause of wonderful new tec~hnologicaladvances in the form of
- 15. x P R E F A C E (1993) cheap, powerful, and fast circuits and through the adoption of the simple idea that the key thing to process was information, not numbers. Thus the bit gave way to the byte. We need to say just a few more words about our present com- putational environment, made possible by an incredible series of advances in technology: each year the price of a byte of memory has become so much cheaper that even the ubiquitous typewriter of James Barrie's "The Twelve-Pound Look" is now more prop- erly found in a museum rather than an office. The so-called desk- top computer or PC is capable of doing virtually everything the typewriter could do and much more, at a comparable price; fur- ther, desk-top technology affects virtually every product we buy. Even our children in the earliest grades are using these instru- ments meaningfully. We are thus all participants-whether we like it or not-in the Computer Revolution. The other great realization has been that the basic structure of the computer, now known as the von Neumann architecture but described by Burks, von Neumann, and myself, is so powerful that many of the manifold tasks of the business world can be met by very efficient computers that greatly increase the productivity of virtually every employee in every store and company. It is only just now that we hear of the advent of highly parallel computers which represent a new architectural type, built up by yoking together concurrently many von Neumann-type machines. Such machines are not discussed in the succeeding pages. Although the ENIAC was also a parallel machine, these new machines represent an enormous step beyond it. H.H.G. Philadelphia, Pa. March 1992
- 16. Preface ?'his work divides rather n'iturally into three parts. There is the pre-World War TI era; t l ~ e war period, particu1:irly at the Moore School of Electrictd I.:~iginec~rillg, University of Pennsylvania; and the postwar years at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, throng11 1957. I was corlcernc:d '1s a principal in the last two periods, and the reader will undoubtc~dly notice the stylistic differences that this has occasioned. It seemed to me in writing the text quite n a t ~ ~ r a l to rccorcl events ;is I viewed them then. Of course, the writing of a Ilistory by a l)articil>antin the events is at best a tricky b ~ ~ s i n e s s si1lc.e it may bring into the account some measure of personal bias. In nlitigation it may be said, though, that it does provide ii detailed, precise understanding of the people and of the events that actilally took place. Such an understanding is very dificillt fi~r ii non-p:irticiyant. I tl~ereforeclecidecl it was worthwhile to write this act>ountwith all the objectivity I could, with occasional warnings to thc readcr about possible traps await- ing him on his pc>regrinationthrough the period. Therc are, of course, at least two basic ways in which the history of appasatus can 11cwrittc.n: by co~~centrating on the equipment or on the ideas and the people who conceived them. I have chosen rather arbitrarily to give the idcas ant1 thr people first place, per- haps hccause I find that ay)proach mortxinteresting personally. In any event, I have tdso tried to say enough about the apparatus to make it intelligible without 1)ecomingoverly technical. The reader will find ever so oftcn that tht. cliroriological narrative is interrupted by excursi in which I have attempted to explain sonic technical pojr~tso as not to leilvc the t.c.adel. uninformed as to its nature. It is to be hogetl that thest. interpolations do not unduly retard the iiccount. Rather fortuitol~sly,I came o ~ i t of the war with an extraordinarily large set of person'd files covering the period 1842-1946, so that the documentation for tl~esi.yeills is extremely complete. To a somcwhat lesscr cxtent, I ltegt files for the l)eriod 1946-1957 and have l ~ c e nfortr~nateirl I~avi~lg had access to other files for the
- 17. xii PREFACE period at the Institute for Advanced Study. Thus the account given here is based soundly on the relevant documents of the times and does not depend merely on the memories of an individual, All this documentary material -letters, reports, etc.-is being turned over by me to the library of Hampshire College in Amherst, Massachu- setts, so that future scholars may have full access to these papers. In this connection I wish to acknowledge the many courtesies extended as well as documents furnished me by Prof. Arthur W. Burks of the University of Michigan, by Mr. Henry Halliday, Esq. of Minneapolis, and by Dr. Carl Kaysen, the Director of the Insti- tute for Advanced Study, who made the Institute's files available to me. I also wish to acknowledge the patient, tireless, and good- natured help of my secretary, Mrs. Doris Crowell. I further wish to make suitable mention of all the help given me by Mr. Richard Luxner, reference librarian of the Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, New York. He was invaluable to me in procuring books, journal articles, etc. Finally, I wish most of all to thank Mr. Thomas J. Watson, Jr, for appointing me an IBM Fel- low so that I have had the freedom to work on this history for the last several years. I must acknowledge many valuable conversations with friends and with members of my family who patiently listened to me and gave freely of their advice and opinion. Equally, I wish to express my thanks to Princeton University Press for all its efforts in making this book possible and stylistically attractive. H. El. G . Yorktown Heights, N.Y. January 1972
- 18. Part One Tlle I-Iistorical Background 111, to World War IJ
- 20. Chapter 1 'I'here is of corlrse never an initial point for any history prior to which nothing of relevance happenecl and subsequent to which it did. It seems to be the n a t ~ ~ r e of man's intellectual activity that in most fields onc can always find by sufficiently diligent search :I n~oreor less uikending regression back in time of early efforts to study a problem or at least to give it some very tentative dimen- sions. So it is with our field. Since this is the case, I llave chosen somewhat arbitrarily to make oldy passing rrkferences to tlie l~istoryof computers prior to 1600 and to say only thc hriefest word about the period before 1800. In fact, the only remarks I wish to make about this period are largely anticipatory ones to my main theme which concerns the early elec- tronic digital calculators. The only excuse for this arbitrariness is that to say Inore on these earlier periods would add very little to our total knowledge of the electronic co~nputer. I shall digress on a few occasions ljecause of tlie colorfulness of one or another of the intellectual fig~lresinvolved or because it seems desirable to establish in our ininds some feeling for the intellectual, cultural, or social background of a given period. Perhaps, however, this choice is not cornpletely arbitrary. If we accept tlle q ~ ~ i t e reasonal~le point of view of scholars such as Need- ham,' we see that in a real sense the date of 1600 may be viewed as a watershed in scientific history. Prior to C:alileo (1564-1642) there were of course intellect~ralgiants, but his great c:ontribution was to ~nathematicize the physical sciences. Many great scientists before him hat1 ilivestigated nature and ir~ade measurements, but the world needetl Galileo to ~ i v e these data "tlie ~nagic touch of mathematical fi)rrn~llation.'' It is worth recallirig that prior to this time the state of mathematics in Europe was not substantially more advanced than that in the Anib world, based as it was on European and Chinese ideas and concepts. Thelh suddenly, as u result of a bringing together of Josupl, Needharn, Scietlcc? i i i ~ d (:ivilisrrtion in Chinu, vol. 3 (Cambridge, 1859), pp. 155ff.
- 21. 4 PART ONE mathematics and physics, something happened in Europe that started science on the path that led from Galileo to Newton. This melding of practical and empirical knowledge with mathematics was the magic touchstone. In about 1580 Francois Vieta (1540- 1603) in an earth-shaking discovery introduced the use of letters for unknowns or general parameters into mathematics. The subjects we now call algebra and arithmetic were called by him logistica speciosa and logistica nurnero~a,~ respectively. He was followed, from our point of view, by John Napier, Laird of Merchiston (1550- 1617), who in 1614 invented logarithms and who also was perhaps the first man to understand, in his Rabdologia in 1617, the use of the decimal point in arithmetical operations 3; and by Edmund Gunter (1581-1626), who in 1620 invented a forerunner of the slide rule, which was actually invented by William Oughtred (1575- 1660) in 1632 and independently by Richard Delamain, who also published the first account of the instrument in 1630.*The dis- covery of Ben6 Descartes (1596-1650) of analytical geometry in 1637 is perhaps the next great milestone on the road to the joint discovery of the calculus by Newton and Leibniz. The last stepping stone in that great chain lying between Descartes and Newton and Leibniz is, for our parochial purposes, Pascal's adding machine in 1642. As Needham says in speaking of the great intellectual revolution that pushed Europe so far ahead of the Arabs, Indians, and Chinese, "No one has yet fully understood the inner mechanism of this de- velopment." The mechanism that led to this forward thrust was the confluence of two formerly separate mathematical streams: of algebra, from the Indians and Chinese, and of geometry, from the Greeks. Again, according to Needham, "the marriage of the two, the application of algebraic methods to the geometric field, was the greatest single step ever made in the progress ofthe exact sciences." In this great panoply of stars it was Galileo, as we have said, who produced the other great confluence of streams of ideas. He brought together the experimental and mathematical into a single stream "which led to all the developments of modern science and tech- nology." These are the reasons why we have started our account when we did. It is the proper time in the intellectual history of our culture to do so. F. Cajori,A History of Mathematics (New York, 1893),pp. 138-139. Ihid.,p. 148. 4See D. E. Smith, A Source Book of Mathematics, voi. 1 (1959), pp. 156-164. Oughtred also invented the symbol x for multiplication. Needham, op. clt., p. 156.
- 22. In starting at this place we arc of course not doing justice to the interesting devices introt1ucc:d by Moslem scieritists very much earlier. The al~tlior is I ~ I L I C ~ I intle1)ted to l'rofessor Otto Neugebauer, the historian of ancient astrol~oniy and mathematics, for calling his attentiori to sornc special-p~irposeinstnlments invented by an Ira~iianastronomer arid rriathelnatician of the fifteenth century, Jamshid ben Mas'iid ben Mahrniid Ghi5th ed-Din al-K5shi (1393- 1449).He was the hcad of :irr astronomical observatory at Sarnarkand that was set I I ~ by Ulltgh 13eg, 'l'amerlane's g r a n d ~ o n . ~ Al-Kiishi was apparently a hloslem mathematician who made I' contributioris of a minor n a t ~ ~ r e det~iing with the summation of the fourth powers of the natllral nnnibers, trigonometric computations, approximations. . . . To him is d i ~ e the first use of a decirnal frac- 9 , tion; . . . the vall~e of 2 7 r to sixteen decinlal places. I-fisinstruments were aids to 170th astrolog(lrs and astronomers in simplifying their calculations. IIis "Plate of' Corijunctions" was a Incans for finding when two planets wollld he in conjunc~tion, i.e., when they have the same longit~lde.Such times were considered to be of peculiar importance by astrologers, arid their days of occurrence could be determined from almanacs. The11 al-Kiishi's plate was used to find the exact hour of occurrence. His lunar eclipse computer was an ingenious device for simplify- ing the calculation of the inrportaut tirnes associated with lunar eclipses. The method used gives an approximate solution which bears "a sufficiently close reliition to reality to be useful." Finally, his planettir)~ co~nputer was an i~lstrument for determin- ing the longitudes of the suit, t l ~ e moon, and the visible planets. In Kennedy's worcls: "Al-Kiislri's instrument is now seen to be part of an extensive alid more or It-sss continuous tlevelopment of me- chanico-graphical scale models of the Ptolemaic system. This develo~riient WAS alreatfy well ullderway in classical times. Bronze fragments of what was proba1)ly a Creek planetarium of about 30 n.c. have been recwvercd froill the Mediterranean. . . . T l ~ e exist- ence of a planetarium inventc~tl I,)? Archimedes. . . . The Hypotyp- osis Astronomiccrrnm Yositiot~zcmof Proclus Viadocht4s (ca. A.D. 450) . . . description of' a device for finding the longitude and equation of the sun. . . . 111all this the work of al-Kashi is of con- e E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Ki~slli's'Plate oi Conjr~nctions,'" I.si.s,v01. 38 (1947),1111. 56- 511; "A Fifteenth-Ce~~tnry Planetary Colnputer: xl-K5sl1i's Tahaq (11-MnnZteq,"parts I ant1 11, Isis, iol. 41 (1950), pp. 180-183, iind VOI. 43 (1952), pp. 41-50; "A Fifteenth Century Lr111arEclipse <;omputel.," Scrij~ta Matltemutica, vol. 17 (1951), pp. 91-97; and The Planetary EqU(1tOriUinof jomsilid Ghiuth al-Din (11-KGshi(Princeton, 1960).
- 23. 6 P A R T O N E siderable merit. His elegant constructions . . .carry the general methods into branches of astronomical theory where they had not previously been applied." Our story really opens during the Thirty Years War with Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635), who was a professor of astronomy, math- ematics, and Hebrew in Tiibingen. Some years ago (1957) Dr. Franz Hammer, then assistant curator of Kepler's papers, discovered some letters from Schickard to Kepler- both of whom were from Wiirteinberg-containing sketches and descriptions of a machine Schickard had designed and built in 1623 to do completely auto- inatically the operations of addition and subtractiori and, partially automatically, multiplication and division. The first letter was dated 20 September 1623, and a subsequent one 25 February 1624. In the first one, Schickard wrote of the machine that it "immediately computes the given numbers automatically, adds, subtracts, multi- plies, and divides. Surely you will beam when you see how [it] accumulates left carries of tens and hundreds by itself or while subtracting takes something away from them. . . In his letter of 1624 fie wrote: "I had placed an order with a local man, Johann Pfister, for the construction of a machine for you; but when half finished, this machine, together with some other things of mine, especially several metal plates, fell victim to a fire which broke out unseen during the night. . . . I take the loss very hard, now especially, since the mechanic does not have time to produce a replacement soon." " No copy of the machine is extant but Professor Bruno, Baron von Freytag-Liiringhoff with the help of a master mechanic, Erwin Epple, as well as some others, reconstructed the instrument from the information in the letters and a few working models were made. The device is ingenious, and it is a great pity that its existence was not known to the world of his day -unfortunately for the world Schickard and all his family died in the plagues brought about by Kcnnedy, Isis, vol. 43, p. 50. See also 11. J. deS. Price, "An Ancient Greek Com- puter," Scientific American, 200:6 (1959),pp. 60-67. Quoted in B. von Freykag-1,ijringhoA; "Wilhelnl Schickards Tiibinger Rechen- maschine von 1623 in Tiibinger.,Rathaus," Kleirae Tiibinger Schriften, I-feft 4, pp. 1-12. See also von Freytag, "Uber der erste Rechenmaschine," P.hysikalische Rliiftcr~, . ~ r l . 41 (1958), 111,. 3(51-3(35. ". . . clrlae datos numcros statim ar~tomatllos computet, acldat, subtrahat, multiplicet, dividatque. Rideres clare, si praesens cerneres, quomodo sinistros denarium vel centenarium supergressos sua sponte coacervet, aut inter subtrahendeum ah eis aliquid suffuretur. . . ." lhid., "Et curnvelxnr tibi i;~lnexcnrl,l;ir co~~fieri al>rtclJob. t'fistcrun~nostriltern, sed illud semiperfecturn, uno curn aliis quibusdam meis, praecipue aliquot tabellis aeneis conflagravit ante triduum in incendio noctu et ex improvisibi coorto. . . ."
- 24. t1if:Tliirty Years War. I t is i~itel.c~stiiig to speculate on how his irlve~i- tion might have i ~ l f uonccd IJ;lscal and Leibniz if war had not de- st14oyedboth Scl-iickardant1 his n~achine. I-Ie must have been a man of many and great tale~~ts; Kopler said of him: ''a fine mind and a great frit:nd of matliernatics; . . . he is a very diligent rnecha~~ic and at the sarne tirnt: an expert or1 oriental langu;ges." Our next great figtire is Rlaise I'ascal (1623-1662) who, along with his 1na11yother acts of genius, had designed and h ~ ~ i l t a small ar~d simple macl~int:in 1642-1644 when Ile was about twenty years old. I-Tis rnachir~eformed tlie prototype for several machines built in France, b ~ ~ t all these reprc:sented devices of considerable sim- plicity in terms of their f~~r~ction, which was to effect b y countirlg the fundamental operatioris of addition and s~~l~traction. In fact the instrument was in solnc: sense not as advanced as Schickard's in that it coultl not do the non-li~iear operatiolis: multiplication and division. Apparently hoth he and liis contemporaries viewed this machine as a most rernurka1)lc :~cliievemel~t. A version built in 1652 arlcl signed b y I'ascal is in tlie Conservatoire des Arts et Mktiers in Paris, and a copy of it is in tht: Scieiice Museum in South Kensiug- tori, Lonclol-1.The inac1.1inewas described in detail by Diderot in his famous Enc!/clog~c'die. Some thirty years later Cottfried Williehn Leil~riiz(1646-1716), another of the great uriiversalists of his or il~deecl of a11 time, in- vented a device now kri~wri as the L,eib,tzizwheel and still iri use in some machines. The meclia~iisn~ enabled hirn to 11uild a machine which slllyassetl l'ascal's in that it could do not only aclditior~ and sul.)traction fully al~tornatically but also multiplication and division. I.,eibniz said in comparing his device with Pascal's: "111 tlie first place it sho11lclbc 11nderstooc1 that there are two parts of the ma- chine, ol1e dcsigned for additio~~ (subtraction) the other for multi- plicatiorl (division) ant1 that they should fit together. The adding (subtractillg) mncl~inecoiricictcs completely wit11 the calculating box of Piiscal." Tl~is device was viewed with thc greatest interest both 11y the Acad6mie tles Sciences in Paris and by the Royal So- ciety in London, t-o wliicli 1,clil)niz was elccted a Fellow in 1673, the year his machine was conipleted and exhibited in Loi~don.'~ Pascal is reputed to have bl~ilt his machilie as an aid to his father lo Leibniz's tlevicc c~~al-)lctl his rn;tcliir~eto perform the operation of multiplica- tion antot~~atically hy repealed adtlitions. His idea V;IS apparently re-illvented in 1820 by Chiulrs Xavier cle Col~nar o f Alsace. Another interesting development was hy a Frenchman, I,hot~ 13oll6e, who b ~ ~ i l t into his rnacliitie a device fol. s t o r i ~ ~ g the multiplication table ant1 thc:rt:l.)y o1,viating t l ~ e need for rcpcatect additions;
- 25. 8 PART O N E who was the discoverer of a famous curve known as the lima~on but who had need for help in computation." In fact his father, Etienne, was a high official in Basse-Normandie, and following a revolt over taxes he reorganized the tax structure of the area.12 Curiously at this time the ability to do arithmetic was not gen- erally to be found even among well-educated men. We thus find even such men as Pepys having, as a member of the Admiralty, to teach himself the multiplication tables. Perhaps therefore it was this general state of arithmetical knowledge rather than great filial piety that prompted Pascal to lighten his parent's burden. In any case, it was Leibniz who summed up the situation very well indeed when he wrote: "Also the astronomers surely will not have to continue to exercise the patience which is required for computation. It is this that deters them from computing or correc ing tables, from the construction of Ephemerides, from working on hypotheses, and from discussions of observations with each other. For it is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labor of calculatiorl which could safely be relegated to any- one else if machines were used." l3 This notion which already had received such explicit formulation 300 years ago is in a very real sense to be the central theme of our story. It is ftllly in keeping with the genius of Leibniz that even when the field of computing was so very much in its infancy he already understood the point of the matter with such astonishing clarity. It is also of interest to realize that in the 1670s he had a third copy of his machine built for Peter the Great to send to the . - - - - - - this machine was first exhibited by Bo1li.e in 1887 in Paris. He also played an im- portant role in the development of the automobile. Through the kindness of Dr. W. M. Turski of the Polish Academy of Sciences, I learned of still another interesting machine, or rather series of machines, developed by a Polish scholar, Abraham Stern (1769-1842). IIis rnachines handled the four arithmetic operations plus square root in a six-digit unit. The most advanced model was described in a public lecture at the Societas Scientiarum Varsoviensis on 30 April 1817 and was published in vol. VII of the annals of that society. A number of other interesting machines followed after Leibniz's. The interested reader rnay consult H. Taton, Le Culcul nte'cunique (Paris, 1949); I?. J. Murray, The Theory of Mathematical Machines (New York, 1960); M. d'Ocagne, Le Calcul simpli$lfiQ (Paris, 1905); or W. de Beauclair, Rechnen mit Masclzinen, Eine Bilrlgeschicltte der Rechentechnik (Braunschweig, 1968). Another source con- taining English trailslations of Pascal's and Leibniz's papers is Smith, op, cit., pp. 165-181. l1 See R. C. Archibald, "Seventeenth Century Calculating Machines," Mathe- matical Tables and Other Aids to Computcition, vol. 1(1943),pp. 27-28. R. Taton, 01,. cit., p. 19. I3 Quoted in Smith, op. cit.
- 26. Other documents randomly have different content
- 27. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF PICTURES BY SIR EDWIN LANDSEER, MENTIONED IN THIS VOLUME. PAGE 1809 to 1814 Drawings and Etchings made before Edwin Landseer was thirteen years of age 20- 28 1815. Portrait of a Mule 29 Portraits of a Pointer Bitch and Puppy 29 1817. Portrait of “Brutus” 41 Portrait of an Alpine Mastiff 42 1818. Fighting Dogs getting Wind 42 Portrait of a Donkey 44 White Horse in a Stable 44 1819. The Cat disturbed 47 1820. Alpine Mastiffs re-animating a distressed Traveller 47 A Lion disturbed at his Repast 48 A Lion enjoying his Repast 48 1821. Seizure of a Boar 48 A prowling Lion 48 The Ratcatchers 48 Pointers To-ho! 50 1822. The Larder invaded 51 The watchful Sentinel 51 1824. Neptune 52 The Cat’s Paw 52 1825. Taking a Buck 55- 59 The Widow 55 The Poacher 55 Portrait of Lord Cosmo Russell 59 1826. The Dog and the Shadow 59 The Hunting of Chevy Chase 55- 60 1827. The Chief’s Return from Deer-stalking 61
- 28. The Monkey who had seen the World 61 Scene at Abbotsford 62 1829. The illicit Whisky-still in the Highlands 62 A Fireside Party 62 1830. The Stone-breaker’s Daughter 68 1831. High Life 63 Low Life 63 Waiting for the Deer to rise. (Poachers Deer-stalking) 63- 69 Too Hot 63 1832. A Lassie herding Sheep 63 Spaniels of King Charles’s breed 64 Hawking 69 Waiting for the Countess 69 1833. The Harvest in the Highlands 69 Jack in Office 69 1834. The Naughty Boy 70 Suspense 72 Highland Shepherd-dog rescuing a sheep from a snowdrift 72 Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time 72 A Highland Breakfast 74 1835. The Drover’s departure 74 A Sleeping Bloodhound 75 1836. Comical Dogs 76 Odin 76 1837. The Highland Shepherd’s Chief Mourner 77 The Shepherd’s Grave 77 1838. Portraits of the Marquis of Stafford and Lady Evelyn Gower 78 The Life’s in the old Dog yet 78 A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society 79 1839. Dignity and Impudence 79 Van Amburgh and his Animals 80 1840. The Lion-dog of Malta 81 Roebuck and rough Hounds 82 Laying down the Law 82 1842. Otters and Salmon 83 The Highland Shepherd’s Home 84 Eos 85 Pair of Brazilian Monkeys 85
- 29. Breeze 85 1843. The Defeat of Comus 83- 85 Not Caught yet 87 The Sanctuary 85 1844. Otter Speared 83 1844. Shoeing 88 Coming Events cast their Shadows before them; or, the Challenge 85- 88 1845. The Shepherd’s Prayer 89 1846. Peace, War 89 The Stag at bay 90 1847. The Drive 90 Portrait of Van Amburgh 90 1848. A random Shot 90 Alexander and Diogenes 90 Old Cover Hack 91 Sketch of my Father 92 1849. The Free Church 92 Evening Scene in the Highlands 92 1850. Dialogue at Waterloo 93 1851. The Monarch of the Glen 94 Geneva 94 The last Run of the Season 94 Titania and Bottom 94 A Highlander in a Snowstorm 95 Lassie 95 1853. The Combat 95 Night 95 Morning 95 The Children of the Mist 95 1856. Saved 97 1857. Scene in Brae-mar 97 Rough and Ready 97 Uncle Tom and his Wife for Sale 97 The Maid and the Magpie 97 Deer browsing 98 Twa Dogs 98 Portrait of Sir Walter Scott 99
- 30. 1859. Doubtful Crumbs 99 A kind Star 99 The Prize Calf 99 1860. Flood in the Highlands 100 1861. The Shrew tamed 103 The Fatal Duel 104 Scenes in the Marquis of Breadalbane’s Highland Deer Forest 104 1864. Man proposes, God disposes 105 1864. A Piper and a pair of Nutcrackers 106 Well-bred Sitters 106 The Connoisseurs 106 Déjeûner à la Fourchette 107 Adversity 107 Prosperity 107 1866. Lady Godiva’s Prayer 107 Mare and Foal 107 Odds and Ends 107 1867. Wild Cattle at Chillingham Park 108 1869. A Swannery invaded by Sea Eagles 108
- 31. INDEX OF NAMES. Bell, Mr. Jacob, 56, 75 Boydell’s Shakespeare, 5 Byrne, William, 2 Christmas, Mr. T., 46 Cust, Sir Edward (letter from), 24 Fuseli, 42 Haydon, 32 Hayter, J., 30 Hunt, W. H., 19 Landseer, Charles, 14 “ John, 2-12 “ Thomas, 4, 13 Leslie, C. R., 30, 65 Lewis, C. G., 54 Macklin’s Bible, 6 Mackenzie, Mrs., 18, 59, 68 Meteyard, Eliza, 17 Potts, Miss, 6 Raphael’s Cartoons, 45 Redgrave, Mr. R. (Crit. &c.), 65, 72 Romilly, Peter, 1 “ Sir Samuel, 1 Ruskin, Mr. (Criticisms), 63, 73, 77, 88 Simpson, Mr. W. W. (letter to), 41 Smith, Sydney (anecdote of), 60 Vernon, Mr., 64 Wilkie, Sir David, 51 Wornum, Mr. R., 17
- 32. GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. JOHN’S SQUARE, LONDON.
- 33. FOOTNOTES: [1] An Edition de luxe, containing 14 extra plates from rare engravings in the British Museum, and bound in Roxburgh style, may be had, price 10s. 6d. [2] According to another and generally excellent authority that event occurred in Lincoln eight years later. [3] It is interesting to trace what may be called the technical descent of these artists. Thus, Aliamet was a pupil of J. P. Le Bas, who studied under Nicholas Tardieu, who learnt his art from Le Pautre and Jean Audran. The master of the last was his uncle Gerard of the same name, who, again, was instructed by his own father Claude and his uncle, Charles Audran, all of them men in the foremost ranks of the engravers. Charles, the first of the great family of “graveurs” named Audran, formed his style upon that of Cornelius Bloemaert, a member of another famous line of artists on metal, well known by his superb plate of Guercino’s “St. Peter raising Tabitha from the Dead,” and transcripts of Raphael’s, Titian’s, Parmigiano’s and his own father’s (Abraham Bloemaert’s) pictures. Now, to trace the stream of skill a little farther, and, it must be admitted, to find it getting shallow at this point, let us add that Cornelius Bloemaert’s master was Crispin de Pass, the younger, about whom centres the third family of engravers to whom we have occasion to refer in this long line of tutorage. This De Pass had a brother, William, who came to England, as also did a third brother, Simon, the reproducer of so many “Van Dycks” and “Van Somers.” Crispin de Pass the younger studied his craft under his father, Crispin the elder, who had for a master Theodore Cuernhert, beyond whom, as he was born in 1522, it is needless to carry our recollections, or trace the art-genealogy of the instructor of John Landseer—who, almost three hundred years after the line is first brought into sight here, taught his sons Edwin, Charles, and Thomas. [4] Boydell and Macklin maintained so close a rivalry that they contended not only as publishers but by means of picture exhibitions, the former as promoter of the “Shakespeare Gallery,” the latter as proprietor of the “Gallery of the British Poets.” These exhibitions contained originals of the engravings which both “patrons” published. [5] A relation, probably, of the distinguished surgeon, one of whose benevolent labours was that of trying to revive the hanged Dr. Dodd. See Wraxall’s “Posthumous Memoirs,” 1836, ii. 28. [6] This picture is now in the possession, says Mr. Tom Taylor in “Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds,” of Mr. Gosling, of Portland Place. [7] Queen Anne Street East was the thoroughfare now called Langham Street and Foley Street, and distinct from Queen Anne Street West, where Turner lived, which retains its name. When Portland Place was extended to Oxford Street, and the new thoroughfare became part of the freshly made Regent Street, Foley House, which till
- 34. then closed the southern end of Portland Place, was removed. The gardens of this house had separated Queen Anne Street West from Queen Anne Street East; the latter extended to Cleveland Street, and when the changes in question were complete, received the name of Foley Street, which it now bears with the addition of Langham Street. The numbers have been altered. At the back of the present 33, Langham Street is a fine large room with a north light, used as a studio by Mr. Eyre Crowe, A.R.A. In regard to Landseer’s birthplace see a note to Chapter II., below. [8] This defect was the more remarkable because the French Academy, on which the English one relied for some of its rules, as well as the Academies of Milan, Venice, Florence and Rome, admitted engravers to the highest grades. The effect of British narrowness was to drive Woollett, Sharp, and Strange from the ranks of the Royal Academy, and to evoke from the last of these noteworthy artists an important criminatory tract called “An Inquiry into the Rise,” &c., “of the Royal Academy of Arts,” 1775. [9] “Diary,” &c., of H. C. Robinson, 1869, i. 505-6. [10] Evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Arts, &c., 1836. Question and Reply, No. 2046. [11] “The Literary Gazette,” No. 1834. [12] For this locality, see above. The number, 83 for 33, may or may not be a misprint. On this point the testimony of Mrs. Mackenzie is all-important, as conveyed thus to the author:—“The house in which my brothers were born stands in the bend of Foley Street, not far from Portland Street; and at the time my father lived in it there was a long garden where the dog was kept. Among some old letters of my mother’s I found the enclosed little note, showing that before my father’s marriage he lived in Queen Ann Street, altered to Foley Street afterwards, but not the same house, but a smaller one nearer Cleveland Street, which house, when my father left, was occupied by Mr. F. Lewis, father of John Lewis, who was born there.—Yours truly, Emma Mackenzie.” [13] Mrs. Mackenzie (born Emma Landseer) has a capital drawing, made in these fields, of a hollow oak, with horses gathered about it, and standing gaunt and branchless in a field, which was doubtless executed at the time in question, and from this tree, which still remains (1880). [14] At South Kensington is a very interesting collection of early drawings and etchings, of various dates, by Edwin Landseer. These were, for the most part, presented to the nation with the Sheepshanks Gift of Pictures and Drawings. Some of them, we believe, came with the Vernon Gift, and many were undoubtedly for a considerable time in the possession of Mr. Vernon before they passed into the hands of Mr. Sheepshanks. In the Exhibition of Landseer’s works, held at the Royal Academy in 1874, were several sketches executed when he was ten years old. See No. 133, likewise Nos. 136, 139.
- 35. [15] It ought to be noted here that the Queen has a considerable number of drawings by Sir E. Landseer, which, with examples from other collections, have been carefully described by Mr. Cosmo Monkhouse, in a richly illustrated work called “The Studies of Sir E. Landseer,” n. d. [16] Mr. Algernon Graves’s excellent catalogue of the works of Sir E. Landseer enumerates, under “Etchings,” p. 40, a class of examples of this nature, the earliest instance of which is dated 1809, and appears to be that named at the beginning of the next paragraph of our text as “Heads of a Lion and Tiger.” [17] The author is indebted to Sir Edward Cust for a correction of statements on this head, made in a former edition of this work. As Sir Edward’s letter is interesting on its own account, the reader will accept it entire:— “Leasowe Castle, near Birkenhead, Oct. 21, 1874. “Sir,—I am induced to believe that you will thank me for pointing out to you some errors in your ‘Memoirs of Sir E. Landseer’ in a matter in which I am naturally well conversant. “At page 32 you speak of ‘the etching of Mr. Thomas Landseer of an Alpine mastiff of the great St. Bernard breed’ that had been ‘imported to this country by a gentleman residing in the neighbourhood of Liverpool,’ and by a note to this you refer to the Exhibition at Spring Gardens in 1817 of ‘Brutus,’ the property of W. H. Simpson, Esq., as following another and that is asserted to be an earlier work of Landseer’s—‘a mule’ in 1815. “At page 60 you speak of ‘the magnificent dog to which we have formerly referred’ as ‘the property of a gentleman in Liverpool or a Mr. Bullock, having reference to the famous picture, ‘Travellers in the Snow.’ “Without giving any opinion as to ‘the minor works of the painter,’ when ‘he was little more than an infant,’ of which of course I know nothing, but I unhesitatingly claim a precedence of the dog before the Mule and Pointer of W. H. Simpson, Esq., in 1815, as well from the facts I will state as from the intercourse with Sir Edwin Landseer himself. ‘The dog’ was the property of my mother-in-law, who resided here, and who received it in 1814 from a Swiss gentleman who had obtained ‘Lion’ and another direct from the Monastery of St. Bernard. You will perceive that Thomas Landseer records, in his etching ‘from the drawing by his brother Edwin, that he did it, aged thirteen;’ as he was born in 1802, consequently, the etching was made in 1815. Now, Sir Edwin himself told me that it was his first work, and of course could not forget any of the circumstances; ‘that he met the dog in London streets under the care of a man servant, whom he followed to Mrs. L. W. Borde’s residence, who permitted him to make a sketch of it.’ Your remark that the drawing was done by Sir Edwin when he was nineteen years of age, and in the year 1821, is clearly a mistake, for ‘Lion’ was never in London since 1815, and died in 1821. There were several litters of puppies in that interval, one of which, a brindled dog that was named ‘Cæsar,’ is with ‘Lion’ in the picture of ‘Travellers in the Snow,’ and I myself sold this one at Tattersall’s, where he fetched thirty-five guineas at open sale, but I never heard who bought him. The breed is now quite extinct. “I had the pleasure of often speaking with Sir Edwin on this subject, and he told me he had the original sketch somewhere, and that if he could find it I should have it, but of course this was some years ago. “Yours truly, “Edwd. Cust.”
- 36. [18] At Landseer’s sale, 1874, lot 316, “Old Brutus” realized 630l. It must not be forgotten that there are many pictures and studies which bear the names of this dog, and that of his son, another “Brutus.” See below. [19] In 1874 “A French Hog,” 1814, belonged to the late Mr. J. Hogarth, who then owned another early picture of Sir Edwin’s, called “British Boar,” 1814, which is doubtless the same as the “English Hog” of the text; the animal belonged to Squire Western. As these works were painted in 1814 and etched by E. Landseer in 1818, we have but to remember the national circumstances of that period in order to recognize them as political satires. [20] The “H.” is always understood as indicating an Honorary Exhibitor, in which capacity the young artist is thrice represented in the catalogue of this the Academy Exhibition for 1815. See below. “Queen Anne Street East” had become “Foley Street” between 1802 and 1815. Landseer, as his sisters tell me, was accepted as an “Honorary Exhibitor” on account of his youth, which was supposed to preclude him from being considered an artist in full. [21] See “Autobiographical Recollections of the late C. R. Leslie, R.A.” 1860, vol. ii. p. 44. [22] At the Academy Exhibition, Winter, 1874, No. 144. was “Sir E. Landseer when a Boy.” Drawn by J. Hayter, Esq. Pencil, J. Hayter, Esq. [23] There appear to be doubts of the extent of E. Landseer’s obligations to Haydon, and the terms employed by the former on this subject (see his “Correspondence,” 1876, ii., p. 288) affirm that the writer had been serviceable to Landseer in making him known, rather than by direct teaching:—“I lent him my dissections from the lion, which he copied, and when he began to show real powers, I took a portfolio of his drawings to Sir George Beaumont’s one day at a grand dinner, and showed them all round to the nobility when we retired to coffee. When he painted his “Dogs,” I wrote to Sir George and advised him to buy it.” “In short, I was altogether the means of bringing him so early into notice. These things may be trifles, but when I see a youth strutting about and denying his obligations to me, I may as well note them down.” “His genius was guided by me.” Again, p. 318 of the same volume, Haydon averred:—“My influence upon English art has certainly been radical. Edwin Landseer dissected animals under my eye, copied my anatomical drawings, and carried my principles of study into animal painting. His genius, thus tutored, has produced sound and satisfactory results.” P. 472 of the same repeats the same claims, and discriminates between the degree of instruction said to have been given to the Landseers generally:—“This was the principle I explained to my pupils; to Eastlake first, and to the Landseers and others afterwards. To Edwin I lent my anatomical studies of the Lion, which guided him to depict dogs and monkeys. Charles and Thomas, Bewick, Harvey, Prentice, Lance, were all instructed in the same principle.” We may add that Mrs. Mackenzie (born Landseer) still owns a human skeleton which was prepared and articulated by her brothers, Thomas and
- 37. Charles, who occupied a studio at Blenheim Steps, Oxford Street, where they dissected a “subject.” [24] Forty years before these recollections of ours begin, Foley Street, of the history of which we have already written, was comparatively splendid, and inhabited by persons of distinction. Fuseli had lived in Queen Ann Street East. The neighbourhood was much affected by artists. Mulready had lodged in Cleveland Street, not far off; Newman Street, always artistic, but now so dull and grimy, was then thronged with painters and sculptors; Benjamin West had built himself a gallery there; Stothard (at No. 28) and Banks were numbered among its past, and then present inhabitants. A. E. Chalon was living at No. 71 in Great Titchfield Street; Shee was in Cavendish Square, in the house which had been occupied by F. Cotes and G. Romney; Collins, who was born in Great Titchfield Street, was then at 118, Great Portland Street, and had a house in New Cavendish Street in 1815; Northcote still worked in his gloomy den, 39, Argyll Street; and Edridge, then a fashionable miniature-painter, was at 64, Margaret Street, Cavendish Square; Constable at 63, Upper Charlotte Street, now 76, Charlotte Street, next house on the north side to the church; W. Daniell resided in Cleveland Street, No. 9. Thompson was at No. 11; James Ward at 6, Jackson at 7, Dawe at 22, and Howard at No. 5, in Newman Street; Leslie, as well as Flaxman, in Buckingham Street, Fitzroy Square; the former, with Allston, was at No. 8, the latter at No. 7; Hilton was not remote, at 10, Percy Street; De Wint in the same house; James Heath in Russell Place, Fitzroy Square, No. 15; Hazlitt, then painting portraits in considerable numbers, lived at 109, Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury. Even so early in the century as the period of which we now write, some painters had flown to the then far west region of Kensington; thus, Wilkie sought the quiet of Phillimore Gardens; and Mulready had settled in the Gravel Pits on the Bayswater Road. [25] See, on a later page of this volume, Mr. Ruskin’s criticism on “Shoeing,” quoted with the account of the pictures painted in 1846. [26] It has been stated, and probably with truth, that Edwin Landseer obtained a medal, or a silver palette, from the Society of Arts, and at an earlier date than that in question here. But as artists rarely set much store on lay awards of similar kinds to this, it is only necessary to mention this matter. Contributing a work in a competition like that in view can hardly be classed with the act of exhibiting pictures in the Royal Academy. [27] It is amusing to see how Wilkie puts the Scotchman first in this note, and of a piece with that story of his having, when a “hanger” of one of the Royal Academy exhibitions, actually filled the “line,” or best part of the whole wall-space in the best room, with pictures by Scotch artists. This piece of injustice was too shameless to be allowed to stand, so when Wilkie’s fellow “hangers” discovered the attempted trick, he was told, “This will never do, we must change all this;” and that was done. At another time Wilkie was observed to be carrying a picture through the rooms, and
- 38. trying to fix it into one place after another, always proceeding from a good to a better position, until attention was attracted by his earnestness, and the question asked, why he was so anxious to promote the work in question. “Oh,” he replied, with exquisite sang-froid, “It’s Geddes’s!” [28] Etty’s pictures of this year were, 59, “The Blue Beetle; Portraits:” 232, “Portrait of the Rev. W. Jay of Bath;” 320, “Ajax Telamon;” and, 375, “A Study.” [29] The “Elymas” was not one of the Cartoons exhibited in 1818, the two shown in that year being “The Beautiful Gate” and “Christ’s Charge to Peter.” “Elymas” appeared in 1817. [30] At a later date, when appointments were given to Dyce and others to superintend the Schools of Design, Haydon—who believed himself not only the originator of all modern English movements for promoting the Fine Arts, but the one competent authority respecting them—was bitterly indignant that he was not invited to accept the directorship of the new institution. He asserted the peculiar incompetence of Dyce, and spoke very frankly of his colleagues. See Haydon’s “Correspondence,” 1876, ii., p. 475. No doubt Haydon rightly estimated his own powers in this respect; his real vocation was teaching, which was at that time a faculty rarer than it is now, when we are by no means overstocked with good teachers, practical or literary, in art. He was never so happy as when giving technical counsel, or in lecturing; his published “Lectures” are probably the most practical and potent of their class. [31] On Mr. Charles Christmas, Sir Edwin’s brother-in-law, see “Notes and Queries,” 5th series, XII. 383. By this it appears that he was an animal painter, who, discovering the superiority of E. Landseer in that line, gave up the race. There were two brothers of this name, Thomas and Charles, (see before). The latter was not a painter, but, we believe, an architect. [32] The phrase, “lay-element” is already, 1880, passing out of recognition; when this book was formerly published it was in vogue, and understood to refer to those gentlemen who were willing to share the honours of the Royal Academicians; conferring, in return, the prestige which was due to their “distinguished social position and love of art.” These persons were the “lay-element” of the Commission of the Royal Academy. See “Report,” 1864. [33] Our readers will recollect that, owing to the protest of Sir Edwin Landseer and others, the idiotic practice has abated of cropping from dogs’ ears those flaps which kindly nature placed to keep earth from the organs of earth-burrowing creatures. [34] Since Landseer’s death this house and studio have been occupied by Mr. H. W. B. Davis, R.A. [35] This example of extraordinary facility in artistic work may be paralleled, if not surpassed, by the feat which Smith, in his “Nollekens,” ii. p. 143 relates of
- 39. Sherwin, who engraved, in four days (!), the fine plate from the portrait of the Earl of Carlisle, now at Castle Howard, by Romney. Sherwin engraved Mrs. (“Perdita”) Robinson’s portrait at once upon the copper, without a drawing. [36] “Art Journal,” where the picture is represented by an engraving. [37] Mr. William Russell was Accountant-General of the Court of Chancery, fourth son of Lord William Russell, who, May 6, 1840, was murdered by B. E. Courvoisier, his valet. [38] It has been said that many years ago the Queen and her Consort made etchings after Landseer’s designs, especially from parts of “Bolton Abbey.” Her Majesty and her Consort made at least a dozen etchings from other works of Landseer’s. (See Mr. Algernon Graves’s Catalogue, p. 41.) Speaking of copies of engravings from pictures by our artist, it may be mentioned that many of foreign origin, including a large proportion of piracies, have appeared; among these are, repeatedly, “Bolton Abbey;” “Favourites” (1835), ponies belonging to the Duke of Cambridge; “Dogs of the Great St. Bernard;” “Dignity and Impudence;” “The Return from Hawking;” “Laying down the Law;” “The Lion Dog of Malta;” “A distinguished Member of the Humane Society,” and “A Jack in Office.” [39] One of the finest and most pathetic of Mr. Ruskin’s criticisms applies to this picture so happily that we ought to quote it here:—“Take, for instance, one of the most perfect poems or pictures (I use the words as synonymous) which modern times have seen—the ‘Highland Shepherd’s Chief Mourner.’ Here the exquisite execution of the crisp and glossy hair of the dog, the bright sharp touch of the green bough beside it, the clear painting of the wood of the coffin and the folds of the blanket, are language—language clear and expressive in the highest degree. But the close pressure of the dog’s breast against the wood, the convulsive clinging of the paw which has dragged the blanket off the trestle, the total powerlessness of the head laid, close and motionless, upon its folds, the fixed and tearful fall of the eye in its utter hopelessness, the rigidity of repose which marks that there has been no motion nor change in the trance of agony since the last blow was struck on the coffin-lid, the quietness and gloom of the chamber, the spectacles marking the place where the Bible was last closed, indicating how lonely has been the life—how unwatched the departure of him who is now laid solitary in his sleep;—these are all thoughts— thoughts by which the picture is separated at once from hundreds of equal merit, as far as mere painting goes, by which it ranks as a work of high art, and stamps its author not as a neat imitator of the texture of a skin, or the fold of a drapery, but as the man of mind.”—“Modern Painters,” ii., 1851, p. 8. [40] On this picture Mr. Ruskin delivered an admirable criticism:—“Again, there is capability of representing the essential character, form, and colour of an object, without external texture. On this point much has been said by Reynolds and others; and it is, indeed, perhaps, the most unfailing characteristic of a great manner of painting. Compare a dog of Edwin Landseer with a dog of Paul Veronese. In the first,
- 40. the outward texture is wrought out with exquisite dexterity of handling, and minute attention to all the accidents of curl and gloss which can give appearance of reality, while the hue and power of the sunshine, and the truth of the shadow on all these forms is necessarily neglected, and the larger relations of the animal as a mass of colour to the sky or ground, or other parts of the picture, utterly lost. This is Realism at the expense of Ideality, it is treatment essentially unimaginative.” In a note to this paper the critic added:—“I do not mean to withdraw the praise I have given, and shall always be willing to give, such pictures as the ‘Highland Shepherd’s Chief Mourner,’ and to all in which the character and inner life of the animals are developed. But all lovers of art must regret to find Mr. Landseer wasting his energies on such inanities as the ‘Shoeing,’ and sacrificing colour, expression, and action to an imitation of a glossy hide,”—“Modern Painters,” ii., 1846, p. 194. There is a grain of fallacy mixed with the noble truth of this—it did not follow that the sacrifices here enumerated were due to love for painting the horse’s glossy hide. The picture was defective as stated here, but not because of the realism it exhibited. The defects were inherent, not due to the imitation. Lacking the nobler qualities, the meaner ones became unworthily and ungracefully prominent. The superb tour de force in the painting of the feathers of “Spaniels of King Charles Breed” (see above) does not appear mean, although it is at least equal in successful imitation to the hide in question. [41] His name “in the world” was “Neptune;” “in society” his female companion’s name was “Venus.” [42] Several of the descriptions here given have been adapted from fuller ones made by the author before the pictures, and for previous publication in the Athenæum journal, during a long series of years. They thus partake of the character of studies from nature.
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