![FIG. 12.—TELEGRAPHING BY INDUCTION.
For furnishing current for telegraphic purposes the dynamo, and
especially the storage battery, have in late years found useful application.
In fact, in the leading telegraph offices the storage battery has practically
superseded the old voltaic cells.
Telegraphing by induction, i. e., without the mechanical connection of a
conducting wire, is another of the developments of telegraphy in recent
years, and finds application to telegraphing to moving railway trains.
When an electric current flows over a telegraph line, objects along its
length are charged at the beginning and end of the current impulse with
a secondary charge, which flows to the earth if connection is afforded. It
is the discharge of this secondary current from the metal car roof to the
ground which, on the moving train, is made the means of telegraphing
without any mechanical connection with the telegraph lines along the
track. As, however, this secondary circuit occurs only at the making and
breaking of the telegraphic impulse, the length of the impulse affords no
means of differentiation into an alphabet, and so a rapid series of
impulses, caused by the vibrator of an induction coil, is made to produce
buzzing tones of various duration representing the alphabet, and these
tones are received upon a telephone instead of a Morse register. The
diagram, Fig. 12,[1] illustrates the operation.
[1] From “Electricity in Daily Life,” by courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons.
To receive messages on a car, electric impulses on the telegraph wire W,
sent from the vibrator of an induction coil, cause induced currents as
follows: Car roof R, wire a, key K, telephone b c, car wheel and earth. In
sending messages closure of key K works induction coil I C, and vibrator
V, through battery B, and primary circuit d, c, f, g, and the secondary
circuit a, h, i, charges the car roof and influences by induction the
telegraph wire W and the telephone at the receiving station.
In 1881 William W. Smith proposed the plan of communicating between
moving cars and a stationary wire by induction (U. S. Pat. No. 247,127,
Sept. 13, 1881). Thomas A. Edison, L. J. Phelps, and others have further
improved the means for carrying it out. In 1888 the principle was
successfully employed on 200 miles of the Lehigh Valley Railroad.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5064765-250530041834-0fbeff9f/85/The-Fundamentals-Of-Landscape-Architecture-2nd-Edition-Tim-Waterman-55-320.jpg)
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- 5. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE A975-14.indb 1 10/17/14 8:46 AM
- 6. An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Fairchild Books 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK 1285 Broadway New York NY 10018 USA www.bloomsbury.com FAIRCHILD BOOKS, BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2009 © Bloomsbury Publishing plc, 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Tim Waterman has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as author of this work. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: PB: 978-1-4725-3144-5 ePDF: 978-1-4725-2867-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Waterman, Tim. The fundamentals of landscape architecture / Tim Waterman. — Second edition. pages cm. — (Fundamentals) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4725-3144-5 (alk. paper) 1. Landscape architecture. 2. Landscape architecture—History. I. Title. SB472.W27 2015 712—dc23 20140306018 Designed by ALL CAPS A975-14.indb 2 10/17/14 8:46 AM
- 7. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE SECOND EDITION Tim Waterman Fairchild Books An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing PLC A975-14.indb 3 10/17/14 8:46 AM
- 8. Contents History and Ideas 10 Yesterday and Today 12 Before the Ancient World 16 The Ancient World 22 The Middle Ages 26 The Renaissance and Baroque 30 The Nineteenth Century 38 The Twentieth Century 42 The Twenty-First Century 48 Case Study: University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill—Hoerr Schaudt Landscape Architects 50 Introduction 06 Inhabiting the Landscape 90 Site Planning and Development 92 The View of the Landscape 98 Landscape Planting 102 Flow: Circulation and Access 106 Structures and Habitation 111 Community Planning 114 Case Study: Januburu Six Seasons, Broome, Australia—UDLA 118 Site and Context 52 Landscape: Site and Context 54 Climate 60 Land 66 Water 70 Plants 74 Topography 79 Landscape Character 82 Case Study: Shanghai Houtan Park— Turenscape 88 A975-14.indb 4 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 9. The Anatomy of a Project 148 The Arizona State University Polytechnic Campus 150 Timeline 152 Brief 154 Analysis 158 Synthesis and Design 160 Detail Development 162 Construction 165 Maturation 166 Representation 120 The Sketch 122 Orthographic Projection 126 Perspective 130 3D Images 132 Models 134 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) 138 Storyboards 140 The Moving Image 142 Presentation 145 The Portfolio 146 Conclusion 180 Glossary 182 Bibliography 186 Contacts and Useful Resources 188 Index 190 Acknowledgments and Picture Credits 192 Professional Profiles 168 Careers 170 Interview: Phil Askew, CMLI, London Legacy Development Corporation 172 Interview: Thomas Balsley, FASLA, Thomas Balsley Associates 174 Interview: Raymond Jungles, FASLA, Raymond Jungles, Inc. 176 Interview: Thierry Kandjee, Paysagiste, Taktyk 178 A975-14.indb 5 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 10. Introduction — 6 If there’s sky, it’s mine.” Kathryn Gustafson, landscape architect “ When asked where landscape architects work, many people might point out their back door to the garden. It would be more accurate, however, to look out the front door. The landscape is anywhere and everywhere outdoors, and landscape architects are shaping the face of the Earth across cities, towns, and countryside alike. Landscape architecture involves shaping and managing the physical world and the natural systems that we inhabit. Landscape architects do design gardens, but what is critical is that the garden, or any other outdoor space, is seen in context. All living things are interdependent, and the landscape is where they all come together. Context is social, cultural, environmental, and historical, among other considerations. Landscape architects are constantly zooming in and out from the details to the big picture to ensure that balance is maintained. Landscape architecture combines art and science to make places. The art provides a vision for a landscape, using drawings, models, computer imaging, and text. The elements of design, such as line, shape, texture and color, are used to create these images, and the process allows the designer to both communicate with an audience and to visualize the site in order to act upon it. The science includes an understanding of natural systems, including geology, soils, plants, What Is Landscape Architecture? — topography, hydrology, climate, and ecology. It also includes knowledge of structures and how they are built, such as roads and bridges, walls, paving, and even the occasional building. Landscape architects are broad thinkers who thrive on the big picture. Landscape architects are playing an increasingly important role in solving the great issues of our day such as dealing with climate change and providing sustainable communities. They are working on urban regeneration and master- planning projects, tackling environmental hazards, designing Olympic sites, and creating the public squares, parks, and streets we all use. Landscape architecture is increasingly a field that requires natural leaders who can use their wide-ranging knowledge to lead large projects. It still, however, provides plenty of opportunities to make a substantial difference on a smaller scale as well. It is simply not possible to give a satisfactory short definition of landscape architecture, because of the incredible breadth of the field—but far from being a shortcoming, this is landscape architecture’s great strength. For those who crave both variety and a challenge, and are curious about everything that makes the world go round, a career in landscape architecture is ideal. A975-14.indb 6 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 11. 7 h Introduction b History and Ideas 0.1 Fresh Kills Lifescape, Staten Island, New York, Field Operations, 2001–2005 Fresh Kills is an artificial topography created by half a century’s worth of New York garbage. It shows the great range of landscape architecture in one project, from the need to mitigate pollution, clean groundwater, and trap escaping methane while creating a public park for people and wildlife. 0.1 A975-14.indb 7 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 12. The Role of Landscape Architects — 8 Introduction Where do landscape architects work? — Landscape architects work within an incredibly diverse number of places. Anywhere humans have a hand in shaping the landscape, you may find a landscape architect at work. Some may specialize in a specific area, but many will have the opportunity to work with a wide variety of fields over the course of a career. Everyday places: schoolyards, parks, streets Monumental places: Olympic campuses, grand public squares, waterfront developments Play places: resorts, golf courses, playgrounds, theme or amusement parks Natural places: national parks, wetlands, forests, environmental reserves Private places: gardens, courtyards, corporate campuses, science, or industrial parks Historic places: historic monuments, heritage landscapes, historic urban areas Scholarly places: universities, botanic gardens, arboreta, and contemplative places such as healing gardens, sensory gardens, cemeteries Productive places: community gardens, storm water management, agricultural land Industrial places: factories and industrial development, mining and mine reclamation, reservoirs and hydroelectric installations, and travel places such as highways, transportation corridors and structures, bridges The entire place: new towns, urban regeneration, and housing projects As a practice, designing with landscapes and places is as old, perhaps, as the history of human settlement. As a formally defined profession, however, landscape architecture is relatively new, dating back only about a century and a half. However, the term “landscape architecture” emerged slightly earlier. It sits within a group of interdependent professions that can be conveniently called “the architectures,” which include architecture, landscape architecture, interior architecture, urban design, and urban planning. There are also significant overlaps with civil engineering, especially in the United States. Most projects require teams that are composed of representatives from some, or all, of the architectures. The overlapping nature of the architectures adds to the difficulty in understanding these career paths, as many practitioners are quite comfortable moving across boundaries. Urban design, for example, is not a profession unto itself but a collaborative activity in which landscape architects, architects, and urban planners may specialize. It is perhaps simplest to say that landscape architects create places for people to live, work, and enjoy, and places for plants and animals to thrive. Landscape architects also speak up for the care and preservation of our landscapes. Landscape architecture combines social, economic, environmental, ecological, and cultural perspectives. Landscape architects study, plan, design, and manage spaces, which are both sustainable and visually pleasing. They shape the face of the Earth and also help to shape the face of the future. A975-14.indb 8 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 13. 9 0.2 0.2 Cao Perrot Studios, Jardin des Hespérides, Quebec, Canada Xavier Perrot and Andy Cao have offices in Paris and Los Angeles and have become known internationally for creating gardens of ethereal beauty with exacting precision and skill. Indeed, the exceptional rigor with which they approach their work is essential to allowing the visitor to forget the fact of design and be transported by a garden. They designed the Jardin des Hespérides for the Metis International Garden Festival of 2006. The design voice of Andy Cao can clearly be heard, as the garden uses materials, scents, and textures from his native Vietnam. h Introduction b History and Ideas A975-14.indb 9 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 14. 10 A975-14.indb 10 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 15. The history of humankind is written in the landscape. Every civilization, every empire, has left its mark in some significant way. People have, for millennia, felt the need to build and create, not just to provide for the basic needs of food, shelter, and companionship but to make glorious monuments that symbolize their collective ambitions. Some stunning landscapes evolve over generations not as monuments but as eloquent records of human toil and subsistence such as the Banaue Rice Terraces of the Philippines. We have, as an ever more urban species, become disconnected in many ways from the landscape that supports us. For example, we are rarely able to make a link between the food on our plates and the landscape that produced it. This disconnection is also often clear when we look at the great built landscapes of our past. Most people, for instance, see the Pyramids at Giza as merely buildings, but in reality they were important elements of a complex functioning landscape: a necropolis. An understanding of the history of landscapes can help us to see the whole picture. Landscapes are the result of a conversation between people and place. We shape our environments, but our environments in turn shape us. Understanding landscape history and its impact upon the way we design today is dependent upon this realization; for landscape architects, it is important to know that we don’t start with a clean slate but that our work is part of this ongoing conversation in which humans are part of nature, not merely actors upon it. 1.1 The Banaue Rice Terraces, the Philippines The terraces of the mountains of Ifugao in the Philippines were built by hand by many generations of farmers. Today, it is not so much their crops but their scenic and topographic appeal to tourists that provides sustenance for the locals. 1.1 History and Ideas 11 A975-14.indb 11 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 16. Landscape architecture, as it is practiced today, is quite distinct from its historical roots in landscape gardening, and it is on a course that is still evolving. At its most basic level, it is still about building landscapes for inhabitation and sustaining the human species. However, the great advances of knowledge and technology through the past two centuries have completely changed our relationship with the land. One of the greatest paradoxes of our day, perhaps, is that while we have never known more about natural systems, we have never in history done more damage to them. There is now almost no place on Earth that we have not changed or affected in some way. Even places we tend to see as virgin wilderness, such as the Amazon basin or even the ocean floors, have been progressively and radically modified by human actions; new methods of landscape analysis show records of extensive prehistoric civilizations in the Amazon, not to mention the contemporary presence of indigenous people. The ocean floors show a record of massive recent silt deposits from human agricultural processes along with displaying debris from shipwrecks to garbage. Landscape architecture is increasingly responding to the realization that we are living in a world that is very much of our own making, and if we are to save it for the future, it will require a great deal more making and significantly less destroying. Yesterday and Today — 12 History and Ideas What we owe the future is not a new start, for we can only begin with what has happened. We owe the future the past, the long knowledge that is the potency of time to come.” Wendell Berry, poet and novelist “ People have long left their mark on the landscape, from the earliest cave paintings at the caves of Lascaux or Chauvet in France to Stonehenge in the UK or the enigmatic Serpent Mound in Ohio, USA. While we shape landscapes, we are at the same time the product of these places. In an urbanized world, we are more and more the product of city landscapes. As with rural landscapes, no two cities are alike, and so it is with people. A forest dweller is as different from a desert nomad as a Parisian is from an Athenian. It is in the landscape that all the interconnected forces of our existence come together. The ability to arrive at an enlightened design and strategy that recognizes the uniqueness of individual places while understanding their place in larger systems is thus a crucial skill. Landscape architecture is growing to meet this challenge—it is building upon its past to create a better future for all. A975-14.indb 12 10/17/14 8:47 AM
- 17. 13 1.2 Vintage aerial view of Central Park, New York City, USA This is an aerial view of the Central Park entrance at Fifth Avenue and 59th Street in New York City, in 1886. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux’s design for Central Park serves as a marker for the emergence of the defined profession of landscape architecture. This chapter, though, shows that landscape design is a practice that is much more ancient. 1.2 h Yesterday and Today b Before the Ancient World A975-14.indb 13 10/17/14 8:48 AM
- 18. Timeline — 14 History and Ideas 1.3 c10,000 BCE The beginnings of agriculture and of the Neolithic age c7000 BCE The first urban center at Çatalhöyük, Turkey c3000 BCE Settlement at Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland c2600–2500 BCE The Pyramids at Giza, Egypt The Pyramids are part of a complex funerary landscape or necropolis (“city of the dead”). The site required stable ground that would take the weight of the buildings. The site also needed to be near a quarry. The grounds surrounding the Pyramids were designed for ceremony and majesty. c2250 BCE The Ziggurat at Ur, Sumer, Mesopotamia The Ziggurat at Ur stood at the heart of a temple complex, in the heart of one of the earliest cities. It symbolized not only religious power, but it also marked the center of one of the earliest empires: that of the ancient Sumerians. c3100–1900 BCE Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England For over a millennium the ceremonial site and astronomical observatory at Stonehenge was in active use and was continually modified. It is one of the most enduring symbols ever inscribed on the landscape. 1333–1324 BCE Reign of Tutankhamun c540 BCE The founding of Persepolis, Persia Emperors of Persia Cyrus the Great and his son Darius the Great built Persepolis as their capital in what is now southwestern Iran. It was a center of ceremony, marked with lavish and impressive buildings. c500 BCE Birth of Gautama Buddha 356 BCE Birth of Alexander the Great 0 CE Birth of Jesus Christ 570 CE Birth of the Prophet Muhammad 1096 The First Crusade 14th Century The rise of the Aztec Empire The beginning of the Black Plague 1406–1420 The Forbidden City, Beijing, China The Forbidden City was built as the capital of the empire of the Ming Dynasty of China. It sits at the center of a city grid that forms the street pattern of Beijing to this day. The Forbidden City was the Emperor’s palace, and he controlled all entry to the city. 1455–1487 The Wars of the Roses 1508–1512 Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel 1550 The gardens at the Villa d’Este, Tivoli, Italy The Villa d’Este is a masterpiece of Renaissance Italian garden design. It is a highly romanticized image of the natural world and is notable for its very elaborate gravity-fed fountains. 1564 Birth of William Shakespeare 1620 Shalimar Bagh, Kashmir, India Elaborate fountains and cascades over three levels were constructed in the beautiful Shalimar Gardens of the Shah Jahan. The gardens were arranged in a grid pattern, much like Shah Jahan’s most famous creation: the Taj Mahal. 1633 Inquisition trial of Galileo Galilei A975-14.indb 14 10/17/14 8:48 AM
- 19. 15 1.3 Timeline This timeline shows some of the major events in the history of landscape architecture. 1661 Vaux-le-Vicomte, near Melun, France André le Nôtre designed the impeccable landscape at Vaux-le-Vicomte, a masterpiece of baroque design, which incited such jealousy in Louis XIV that he hired the same designer to create the ultimate garden for him at Versailles. 1666 The Great Fire of London 1740–1760 The Gardens at Stourhead, Wiltshire, England Built in the English landscape tradition, the Stourhead gardens were hugely influential, both in their day and today. They continue to serve as a model for park design. 1769 Birth of Napoleon Bonaparte 1776 The American Revolution 1789–1799 The French Revolution Late 1700s The Industrial Revolution 1804 Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France The cemetery of Père Lachaise contains the tombs of some of the most famous French figures of two centuries. Its picturesque style set the tone for later cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn in Massachusetts. 1827 Invention of the lawnmower 1839–1860 Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann’s renovation of Paris 1857 Central Park, New York, USA The vision of Frederick Law Olmsted, Central Park was conceived as an egalitarian public space for all the people of New York. 1914–1918 The First World War 1939–1945 The Second World War 1950 Indian Independence 1967 Paley Park, New York, USA A tiny oasis in Manhattan where the sound of a wall of water washes away the noise of the city. Designed by landscape architects Zion and Breen. 1968 Assassination of Martin Luther King 1969 First man on the moon 1970 Copacabana Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Bold modernist patterns, including the emblematic wave motif that unifies the waterfront along Copacabana Beach, are typical of the work of Roberto Burle Marx. His exuberant landscapes captured the optimistic spirit of the age. 1975 End of the Vietnam War 1989 Berlin Wall dismantled 2003 War in Iraq 2012 Olympic Games in London, UK 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil h Yesterday and Today b Before the Ancient World A975-14.indb 15 10/17/14 8:48 AM
- 20. 16 History and Ideas Before the Ancient World — When we dream alone it is only a dream, but when many dream together it is the beginning of a new reality.” Friedensreich Hundertwasser, painter and architect “ As agriculture emerged around 10,000–12,000 years ago, fixed settlements of people became more common. It is easier to imagine that people might have given names to the hills and rivers that gave shape to their existence, which provided them with more stable sustenance. Skara Brae on the windswept Orkney Islands to the north of Scotland is the most complete Stone Age settlement in Europe, built roughly 5,000 years ago. What is startling about Skara Brae is just how recognizable it is that people were making a home, a community, a place, in more or less the same way as we do now. Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England, and the great field of standing stones at Carnac in Brittany, France, are monumental examples of how Stone Age people left their mark on the land. The Dawn of Civilization — 1.4 Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, Scotland Skara Brae was continually occupied for approximately 600 years. The buildings were nestled into heaps of old kitchen rubbish called “middens,” which provided shelter and insulation for the buildings from the harsh North Sea climate. 1.4 A975-14.indb 16 10/17/14 8:48 AM
- 21. 17 a Yesterday and Today h Before the Ancient World b The Ancient World A975-14.indb 17 10/17/14 8:48 AM
- 22. 18 History and Ideas Western Civilizations — Mesopotamia has long been considered the “cradle of civilization,” at least of western urban and agrarian civilization. Mesopotamia, the rich but vast and featureless valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates (now present-day Iraq), was farmed by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. The Sumerians built great brick ziggurats—stepped pyramids rising high out of the level plain. Some archaeologists believe that the terraces of these huge structures were planted with trees and gardens. These massive pyramids would have helped to organize the flat landscape as landmarks—markers of place and identity as well as aids to navigation. The floodwaters of the Nile River in Africa nourished the land with silts and sediments in much the same way as the Tigris and Euphrates, and the civilization of ancient Egypt took root in these fertile plains. The great ambitions and power of the pharaohs made it possible for the necropolis of pyramids at Giza to be built, as well as the remarkable temple at Karnak and the tombs at Luxor. The seat of Mediterranean civilization was soon to shift north from Egypt to ancient Greece, and then to Rome, where the philosophies underpinning the western world view were first articulated. 1.5a A975-14.indb 18 10/17/14 8:48 AM
- 23. 19 1.5a–1.5b The temple complex at Karnak near Luxor, Egypt A sphinx-lined avenue connects two of the temples at Karnak. The great complexity of the site takes it out of the realm of building architecture into landscape architecture and urbanism. The entire complex is a walled enclosure with interior spaces that include buildings and garden courtyards. The processional routes between the temples foreshadow the great avenues that were to come. a Yesterday and Today h Before the Ancient World b The Ancient World 1.5b A975-14.indb 19 10/17/14 8:48 AM
- 24. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 25. S CHAPTER I. The Perspective View. tanding on the threshold of the Twentieth Century, and looking back a hundred years, the Nineteenth Century presents in the field of invention a magnificent museum of thoughts crystallized and made immortal, not as passive gems of nature, but as potent, active, useful agencies of man. The philosophical mind is ever accustomed to regard all stages of growth as proceeding by slow and uniform processes of evolution, but in the field of invention the Nineteenth Century has been unique. It has been something more than a merely normal growth or natural development. It has been a gigantic tidal wave of human ingenuity and resource, so stupendous in its magnitude, so complex in its diversity, so profound in its thought, so fruitful in its wealth, so beneficent in its results, that the mind is strained and embarrassed in its effort to expand to a full appreciation of it. Indeed, the period seems a grand climax of discovery, rather than an increment of growth. It has been a splendid, brilliant campaign of brains and energy, rising to the highest achievement amid the most fertile resources, and conducted by the strongest and best equipment of modern thought and modern strength. The great works of the ancients are in the main mere monuments of the patient manual labor of myriads of workers, and can only rank with the buildings of the diatom and coral insect. Not so with modern achievement. The last century has been peculiarly an age of ideas and conservation of energy, materialized in practical embodiment as labor- saving inventions, often the product of a single mind, and partaking of the sacred quality of creation. The old word of creation is, that God breathed into the clay the breath of life. In the new world of invention mind has breathed into matter, and a
- 26. new and expanding creation unfolds itself. The speculative philosophy of the past is but a too empty consolation for short-lived, busy man, and, seeing with the eye of science the possibilities of matter, he has touched it with the divine breath of thought and made a new world. When the Nineteenth Century registered its advent in history, the world of invention was a babe still in its swaddling clothes, but, with a consciousness of coming power, was beginning to stretch its strong young arms into the tremendous energy of its life. James Watt had invented the steam engine. Eli Whitney had given us the cotton gin. John Gutenberg had made his printing type. Franklin had set up his press. The telescope had suggested the possibilities of ethereal space, the compass was already the mariner’s best friend, and gunpowder had given proof of its deadly agency, but inventive genius was still groping by the light of a tallow candle. Even up to the beginning of this century so strong a hold had superstition on the human mind, that inventions were almost synonymous with the black arts, and the struggling genius had not only to contend with the natural laws and the thousand and one expected difficulties that hedge the path of the inventor, but had also to overcome the far greater obstacles of ignorant fear and bigoted prejudice. A labor- saving machine was looked upon askance as the enemy of the working man, and many an earnest inventor, after years of arduous thought and painstaking labor, saw his cherished model broken up and his hopes forever blasted by the animosity of his fellow men. But with the Nineteenth Century a new era has dawned. The legitimate results of inventions have been realized in larger incomes, shorter hours of labor, and lives so much richer in health, comfort, happiness, and usefulness, that to-day the inventor is a benefactor whom the world delights to honor. So crowded is the busy life of modern civilization with the evidences of his work, that it is impossible to open one’s eyes without seeing it on every hand, woven into the very fabric of daily existence. It is easy to lose sight of the wonderful when once familiar with it, and we usually fail to give the full measure of positive appreciation to the great things of this great age. They burst upon our vision at first like flashing meteors; we marvel at them for a little while, and then we accept them as facts, which soon become so commonplace and so fused into the common life as to be only noticed by their omission.
- 27. To appreciate them let us briefly contrast the conditions of to-day with those of a hundred years ago. This is no easy task, for the comparison not only involves the experiences of two generations, but it is like the juxtaposition of a star with the noonday sun, whose superior brilliancy obliterates the lesser light. But reverse the wheels of progress, and let us make a quick run of one hundred years into the past, and what are our experiences? Before we get to our destination we find the wheels themselves beginning to thump and jolt, and the passage becomes more difficult, more uncomfortable, and so much slower. We are no longer gliding along in a luxurious palace car behind a magnificent locomotive, traveling on steel rails, at sixty miles an hour, but we find ourselves nearing the beginning of the Nineteenth Century in a rickety, rumbling, dusty stage-coach. Pause! and consider the change for a moment in some of its broader aspects. First, let us examine the present more closely, for the average busy man, never looking behind him for comparisons, does not fully appreciate or estimate at its real value the age in which he lives. There are to-day (statistics of 1898), 445,064 miles of railway tracks in the world. This would build seventeen different railway tracks, of two rails each, around the entire world, or would girdle mother earth with thirty-four belts of steel. If extended in straight lines, it would build a track of two rails to the moon, and more than a hundred thousand miles beyond it. The United States has nearly half of the entire mileage of the world, and gets along with 36,746 locomotives, nearly as many passenger coaches, and more than a million and a quarter of freight cars, which latter, if coupled together, would make nearly three continuous trains reaching across the American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The movement of passenger trains is equivalent to dispatching thirty-seven trains per day around the world, and the freight train movement is in like manner equal to dispatching fifty-three trains a day around the world. Add to this the railway business controlled by other countries, and one gets some idea of how far the stage-coach has been left behind. To-day we eat supper in one city, and breakfast in another so many hundreds of miles east or west as to be compelled to set our watches to the new meridian of longitude in order to keep our engagement. But railroads and steam-cars constitute only one of the stirring elements of modern civilization. As we make the backward run of one hundred years we have passed by many milestones of progress. Let us see if we can count some of them as they disappear
- 28. behind us. We quickly lose the telephone, phonograph and graphophone. We no longer see the cable-cars or electric railways. The electric lights have gone out. The telegraph disappears. The sewing machine, reaper, and thresher have passed away, and so also have all india-rubber goods. We no longer see any photographs, photo-engravings, photolithographs, or snap-shot cameras. The wonderful octuple web perfecting printing press; printing, pasting, cutting, folding, and counting newspapers at the rate of 96,000 per hour, or 1,600 per minute, shrinks at the beginning of the century into an insignificant prototype. We lose all planing and wood- working machinery, and with it the endless variety of sashes, doors, blinds, and furniture in unlimited variety. There are no gas-engines, no passenger elevators, no asphalt pavement, no steam fire engine, no triple-expansion steam engine, no Giffard injector, no celluloid articles, no barbed wire fences, no time-locks for safes, no self-binding harvesters, no oil nor gas wells, no ice machines nor cold storage. We lose air engines, stem-winding watches, cash-registers and cash-carriers, the great suspension bridges, and tunnels, the Suez Canal, iron frame buildings, monitors and heavy ironclads, revolvers, torpedoes, magazine guns and Gatling guns, linotype machines, all practical typewriters, all pasteurizing, knowledge of microbes or disease germs, and sanitary plumbing, water- gas, soda water fountains, air brakes, coal-tar dyes and medicines, nitro- glycerine, dynamite and guncotton, dynamo electric machines, aluminum ware, electric locomotives, Bessemer steel with its wonderful developments, ocean cables, enameled iron ware, Welsbach gas burners, electric storage batteries, the cigarette machine, hydraulic dredges, the roller mills, middlings purifiers and patent-process flour, tin can machines, car couplings, compressed air drills, sleeping cars, the dynamite gun, the McKay shoe machine, the circular knitting machine, the Jacquard loom, wood pulp for paper, fire alarms, the use of anæsthetics in surgery, oleomargarine, street sweepers, Artesian wells, friction matches, steam hammers, electro-plating, nail machines, false teeth, artificial limbs and eyes, the spectroscope, the Kinetoscope or moving pictures, acetylene gas, X-ray apparatus, horseless carriages, and—but, enough! the reader exclaims, and indeed it is not pleasant to contemplate the loss. The negative conditions of that period extend into such an appalling void that we stop short, shrinking from the thought of what it would mean to modern civilization to eliminate from its life these potent factors of its existence.
- 29. Returning to the richness and fullness of the present life, we shall first note chronologically the milestones and finger boards which mark this great tramway of progress, and afterward consider separately the more important factors of progress.
- 31. CHAPTER II. Chronology of Leading Inventions of the Nineteenth Century. 1800—Volta’s Chemical Battery for producing Electricity. Louis Robert’s Machine for Making Continuous Webs of Paper. 1801—Trevithick’s Steam Coach (first automobile). Brunel’s Mortising Machine. Jacquard’s Pattern Loom. First Fire Proof Safe by Richard Scott. Columbium discovered by Hatchett. 1802—Trevithick and Vivian’s British patent for Running Coaches by Steam. Charlotte Dundas (Steamboat) towed canal Boats on the Clyde. Tantalum discovered by Ekeberg. First Photographic Experiments by Wedgewood and Davy. Bramah’s Planing Machine. 1803—Carpue’s Experiments on Therapeutic Application of Electricity. Iridium and Osmium discovered by Tenant, and Cerium by Berzelius. Wm. Horrocks applies Steam to the Loom. 1804—Rhodium and Palladium discovered by Wollaston. First Steam Railway and Locomotive by Richard Trevithick. Capt. John Stevens applies twin Screw Propellers in Steam Navigation. Winsor takes British patent for Illuminating Gas, lights Lyceum Theatre, and organizes First Gas Company. Lucas’ process making Malleable Iron Castings. 1805—Life Preserver invented by John Edwards of London. Electro-plating invented by Brugnatelli. 1806—Jeandeau’s Knitting Machine. 1807—First practical Steamboat between New York and Albany (Fulton’s Clermont). Discovery of Potassium, Sodium and Boron by Davy.
- 32. Forsyth’s Percussion Lock for Guns. 1808—Barium, Strontium, and Calcium discovered by Davy. Polarization of Light from Reflection by Malus. Voltaic arc discovered by Davy. 1809—Sommering’s Multi-wire Telegraphy. 1810—System of Homœopathy organized by Hahnemann. 1811—Discovery of Metal Iodine by M. Courtois. Blenkinsop’s Locomotive. Colored Polarization of Light by Arago. Thornton and Hall’s Breech Loading Musket. 1812—London the First City lighted by Gas. Ritter’s Storage Battery. Schilling proposes use of Electricity to blow up mines. Zamboni’s Dry Pile (prototype of dry battery). 1813—Howard’s British patent for Vacuum Pan for refining sugar. Hedley’s Locomotive “Puffing Billy.” Introduction of Stereotyping in the United States by David Bruce. 1814—London Times printed by König’s rotary steam press. Stephenson’s First Locomotive. Demologos built by Fulton (the first steam war vessel). Heliography by Niépce. Discovery of Cyanogen by Gay Lussac. The Kaleidoscope invented by Sir David Brewster. 1815—Safety Lamp by Sir Humphrey Davy. Seidlitz Powders invented. Gas Meter by Clegg. 1816—The “Draisine” Bicycle. Circular Knitting Machine by Brunel. 1817—Discovery of Selenium by Berzelius, Cadmium by Stromeyer, and Lithium by Arfvedson. Hunt’s Pin Machine. 1818—Brunel’s patent Subterranean and Submarine tunnels. Electro- Magnetism discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen. 1819—American Steamer Savannah from New York first to cross Atlantic. Laennec discovers Auscultation and invents Stethoscope. Blanchard’s Lathe for turning Irregular Forms. 1820—Electro-Magnetic Multiplier by Schweigger. Discoveries in Electro- magnetism by Ampere and Arago. Bohnenberg’s Electroscope.
- 33. Discovery of Quinine by Pelletier and Caventou. Malam’s Gas Meter. 1821—Faraday converts Electric Current into Mechanical Motion. 1822—Babbage Calculation Engine. 1823—Liquefaction and Solidification of Gases by Faraday, and foundation of ammonia absorption ice machine laid by him. Seebeck discovers Thermo-electricity. Silicon discovered by Berzelius. 1824—Discovery of metal Zirconium by Berzelius. Wright’s Pin Machine. 1825—First Passenger Railway in the world opened between Stockton and Darlington. Sturgeon invents prototype of Electro Magnet. Beaumont’s discoveries in Digestion (Alexis San Martin 1825-32). 1826—Discovery of Bromine by M. Balard. Barlow’s Electrical Spur Wheel. First Railroad in United States built near Quincy, Mass. 1827—Aluminum reduced by Wohler. Ohm’s Law of Electrical Resistance. Hackworth’s Improvements in Locomotive. Friction Matches by John Walker. 1828—Neilson’s Hot Blast for Smelting Iron. Professor Henry invents the Spool Electro Magnet. Tubular Locomotive Boiler by Seguin. First Artificial production of organic compounds (urea) by Wohler. Thorium discovered by Berzelius. Yttrium and Glucinum discovered by Wohler. Nicol’s prism for Polarized Light. Woodworth’s wood planer. Spinning Ring invented by John Thorp. 1829—Becquerel’s Double Fluid Galvanic Battery. George Stephenson’s Locomotive, “Rocket,” takes prizes of Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Importation of “Stourbridge Lion,” the first locomotive to run in the United States. Daguerreotype invented. Discovery of Magnesium by Bussey. 1830—Vanadium discovered by Sefstroem. Abbe Dal Negro’s Electrically operated pendulum. Ericsson’s Steam Fire Engine. 1831—Faraday discovers Magnetic Induction. Professor Henry telegraphs signals. Professor Henry invents his Electric Motor. Locomotive
- 34. “John Bull” put in service on Camden and Amboy R. R. Chloroform discovered by Guthrie. McCormick first experiments with Reaper. 1832—Professor Morse conceives the idea of Electric Telegraph. First Magneto-Electric Machines by Saxton in United States and Pixii in France. Sturgeon’s Rotary Electric Motor. Baldwin’s first locomotive, “Old Ironsides,” built. Link Motion for Locomotive Engine invented by James. Chloral-hydrate discovered by Liebig. 1833—Steam Whistle adopted by Stephenson. Hussey’s Reaper patented. 1834—Jacobi’s Rotary Electric Motor. Henry Bessemer electro-plates lead castings with copper. Faraday demonstrates relation of chemical and electrical force. McCormick Reaper patented. Carbolic Acid discovered by Runge. Perkins’ Ice Machine. 1835—Forbes proves the absence of heat in Moonlight. Burden’s horse shoe Machine. 1836—The Daniell Constant Battery invented. Acetylene Gas produced by Edmond Davy. Colt’s Revolver. 1837—Cooke and Wheatstone’s British patent for Electric telegraph. Steinheil discovered feasibility of using the earth for return section of electric circuit. Davenport’s Electric Motor. Spencer’s experiments in electrotyping. Galvanized Iron invented by Craufurd. 1838—Professor Morse’s French patent for Telegraph. Jacobi’s Galvano- plastic process for making Electrotype Printing Plates. Reflecting Stereoscope by Wheatstone. Dry Gas Meter by Defries. 1839—Wreck of Royal George blown up by Electro Blasting. Jacobi builds first Electrically propelled Boat. Fox Talbot makes Photo Prints from Negatives. Professors Draper and Morse make first Photographic Portraits. Mungo Ponton applies Bichromate of Potash in Photography. Goodyear discovers process of Vulcanizing Rubber. Lanthanum and Didymium discovered by Mosander. Babbit Metal invented.
- 35. 1840—Professor Morse’s United States patent for Electric Telegraph. Professor Grove makes first Incandescent Electric Lamp. Celestial Photography by Professor Draper. 1841—Artesian well bored at Grenelle, Paris. Sickel’s Steam Cut-off. Talbotype Photos. M. Triger invents Pneumatic Caissons. 1842—First production of Illuminating Gas from water (water gas) by M. Selligue. Robt. Davidson builds Electric Locomotive. Nasmyth patents Steam Hammer. 1843—Joule’s demonstration as to the Nature of Force. Erbium and Terbium discovered by Mosander. The Thames Tunnel Opened. 1844—First Telegraphic Message sent by Morse from Washington to Baltimore. Application Nitrous Oxide Gas as an Anæsthetic by Dr. Wells. 1845—Ruthenium discovered by Klaws. The Starr-King Incandescent Electric Lamp. The Hoe Type Revolving Machine. 1846—House’s Printing Telegraph. Howe’s Sewing Machine. Suez Canal Started (fourteen years building). Crusell of St. Petersburgh invents Electric Cautery. Use of Ether as Anæsthetic by Dr. Morton. Artificial Legs. Discovery of Planet Neptune. Sloan patents Gimlet Pointed Screw. Gun Cotton discovered by Schönbein. 1847—Chloroform introduced by Dr. Simpson. Nitro-Glycerine discovered by Sobrero. Time-Locks invented by Savage. 1848—Discovery of Satellites of Saturn by Lassell. Bain’s Chemical Telegraph. Bakewell’s Fac-Simile Telegraph. 1849—Bourdon’s Pressure Gauge. Lenticular Stereoscope by Brewster. Hibbert’s Latch Needle for Knitting Machine. Corliss Engine. 1850—First Submarine Cable—Dover to Calais. Collodion Process in Photography. Mercerizing Cloth. American Machine-made Watches. 1851—Dr. Page’s Electric Locomotive. The Ruhmkorff Coil. Scott Archer’s Collodion Process in Photography. Seymour’s Self-Raker for
- 36. Harvesters. Helmholtz invents Opthalmoscope. Maynard Breech Loading Rifle. 1852—Channing and Farmer Fire Alarm Telegraph. Fox Talbot first uses reticulated screen for Half Tone Printing. 1853—Gintl’s Duplex Telegraph invented. Electric Lamps devised by Foucault and Duboscq. Watt and Burgess Soda Process for Making Wood Pulp. 1854—Wilson’s Four Motion Feed for Sewing Machines. Melhuish invents the Photographic Roll Films. Hermann’s Diamond Drill. Smith and Wesson Magazine Firearm (Foundation of the Winchester). 1855—Bessemer Process of Making Steel. Hjorth invents Dynamo Electric Machine. Ericsson’s Air Engine. Niagara Suspension Bridge. Dr. J. M. Taupenot invents Dry Plate Photography. The Michaux Bicycle. 1856—Hughes Printing Telegraph. Alliance Magneto Electric Machine. Woodruff Sleeping Car. First commercial Aniline Dyes by Perkins. Siemens Regenerative Furnace. 1857—Rogues’ Gallery established in New York. Introduction of Iron Floor Beams in building Cooper Institute. Siemens describes principle of Self Intensification of Cold (now used in ice and liquid air machines). 1858—Phelps Printing Telegraph invented. First Atlantic Cable Laid. Paper pulp from Wood by Voelter. First use of Electric Light in Light House at South Foreland. Giffard Steam Injector. Gardner patents first Underground Cable Car System. 1859—Discovery Coal Oil in United States. Moses G. Farmer subdivides Electric Current through a number of Electric Lamps, and lights first dwelling by Electricity. Great Eastern launched. Osborne perfects modern process of Photolithography. Professors Kirchhoff and Bunsen map Solar Spectrum, and establish Spectrum Analysis. 1860—Rubidium and Caesium discovered by Bunsen. Gaston Planté’s Storage Battery. Reis’ Crude Telephone. Thallium discovered by
- 37. Crookes, and Indium by Reich and Richter. Spencer and Henry Magazine Rifles. Carré’s Ammonia Absorption Ice Machine. 1861—McKay Shoe Sewing Machine. Calcium Carbide produced by Wohler. Col. Green invents Drive Well. Otis Passenger Elevator. First Barbed Wire Fence. 1862—Ericsson’s Iron Clad Turret Monitor. Emulsions and improvements in Dry Plate Photography by Russell and Sayce. The Gatling Gun. Timby’s Revolving Turret. 1863—Schultz white gunpowder. 1864—Nobel’s Explosive Gelatine. Rubber Dental Plates. Cabin John (Washington Aqueduct) Bridge finished (longest masonry span in the world). 1865—Louis Pasteur’s work in Bacteriology begun. Martin’s Process of making Steel. 1866—Wilde’s Dynamo Electric Machine. Burleigh’s Compressed Air Rock Drill. Whitehead Torpedo. 1867—Siemens’ Dynamo Electric Machine. Dynamite Invented. Tilghman’s Sulphite Process for making Wood Pulp. 1868—Brickill’s Water Heater for Steam Fire Engines. Moncrieff’s Disappearing Gun Carriage. Oleomargarine invented by Mege. Sholes Typewriter. 1869—Suez Canal Opened. Pacific Railway Completed. First Westinghouse Air-Brakes. 1870—The Gramme Dynamo Electric Machine. Windhausen Refrigerating Machines. Beleaguered Paris communicates with outer world through Micro-Photographs. Hailer’s Rebounding Gun Lock. Dittmar’s Gunpowder. 1871—Hoe’s Web Perfecting Press set up in Office New York Tribune. The Locke Grain Binder. Bridge Work in Dentistry. Mount Cenis Tunnel opened for traffic. Phosphorus Bronze. Ingersoll Compressed Air Rock Drill.
- 38. 1872—Stearns perfects Duplex Telegraph. Westinghouse Improved automatic Air Brake. Lyall Positive Motion Loom. 1873—Janney Automatic Car Coupler. Oleomargarine patented in United States by Mege. 1874—Edison’s Quadruplex Telegraph. Gorham’s Twine Binder for Harvesters. Barbed Wire Machines. St. Louis Bridge finished. 1875—Lowe’s patent for Water Gas (illuminating gas made from water). Roller Mills and Middlings Purifier for making flour. Gallium discovered by Boisbaudran. Pictet Ice Machine. Gamgee’s Skating Rinks. First Cash Carrier for Stores. 1876—Alexander Graham Bell’s Speaking Telephone. Hydraulic Dredges. Cigarette Machinery. Photographing by Electric Light by Vander Weyde. Edison’s Electric Pen. Steam Feed for Saw Mill Carriages. Introduction of Cable Cars by Hallidie. 1877—Phonograph invented by Edison. Otto Gas Engine. Jablochkoff Electric Candle. Sawyer-Man Electric Lamp. Berliner’s Telephone Transmitter of variable resistance (pat. Nov. 17, ’91). Edison’s Carbon Microphone (pat. May 3, ’92). Discovery of Satellites of Mars by Professor Asaph Hall, and its so-called Canals by Schiaparelli. Liquefaction of Oxygen, Nitrogen and Air by Pictet and Cailletet. 1878—Development of Remington Typewriter. Edison invents Carbon Filament for Incandescent Electric Lamp. Gelatino-Bromide Emulsions in Photography. Ytterbium discovered by Marignac. Birkenhead Yielding Spinning Spindle Bearing. Gessner Cloth Press. 1879—Dr. Siemens’ Electric Railway at Berlin. Mississippi Jetties completed by Capt. Eads. Samarium discovered by Boisbaudran, Scandium by Nilson, and Thulium by Cleve. The Lee Magazine Rifle. 1880—Faure’s Storage Battery. Eberth and Koch discover Bacillus of Typhoid Fever, and Sternberg the Bacillus of Pneumonia. Edison’s Magnetic Ore Concentrator. Greener’s Hammerless Gun. Rabbeth Spinning Spindle patented.
- 39. 1881—Telegraphing by Induction by Wm. W. Smith. Blake Telephone Transmitter. Reece Button Hole Machine. Rack-a-rock (explosive) patented. 1882—Bacillus of Tuberculosis identified by Koch, and Bacillus of Hydrophobia by Pasteur. St. Gothard Tunnel opened for traffic. 1883—Brooklyn Suspension Bridge Completed. 1884—Antipyrene. Mergenthaler’s first Linotype Printing Machine invented. Bacillus of Cholera identified by Koch, Bacillus of Diphtheria by Loeffler, and Bacillus of Lockjaw by Nicolaier. 1885—Cowles’ Process of Manufacturing Aluminum. First Electric Railway in America installed between Baltimore and Hampden. Neodymium and Praseodymium discovered by Welsbach. Welsbach Gas Burner invented. Blowing up of Flood Rock, New York Harbor. “Bellite” produced by Lamm, and “Melinite” by Turpin. 1886—Graphophone invented. Electric Welding by Elihu Thomson. Gadolinum discovered by Marignac, and Germanium by Winkler. 1887—McArthur and Forrest’s Cyanide Process of Obtaining Gold. Tesla’s System of Polyphase Currents. 1888—Electrocution of Criminals adopted in New York State. Harvey’s Process of Annealing Armor Plate. De Laval’s Rotary Steam Turbine. “Kodak” Snap-Shot Camera. Lick Telescope. De Chardonnet’s Process of Making Artificial Silk. 1889—Nickel Steel. Hall’s Process of Making Aluminum. Dudley Dynamite Gun. “Cordite” (Smokeless Powder) produced by Abel and Dewar. 1890—Mergenthaler’s Improved Linotype Machine. Photography in Colors. The Great Forth Bridge finished. Krag-Jorgensen Magazine Rifle. 1891—Parsons’ Rotary Steam Turbine. The Northrup Loom. 1892—The explosive “Indurite” invented by Professor Munroe. 1893—Acheson’s process for making Carborundum. The Yerkes Telescope. Edison’s Kinetoscope. Production of Calcium Carbide in Electric Furnace by Willson.
- 40. 1894—Discovery of element Argon by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsey. Thorite produced by Bawden. 1895—X-Rays discovered and applied by Roentgen. Acetylene Gas from Calcium Carbide by Willson. Krupp Armor Plate. Lindé’s Liquid air apparatus. 1896—Marconi’s System of Wireless Telegraphy. Buffington-Crozier Disappearing Gun. 1897—Schlick’s System of Balancing Marine Engines. Discovery of Krypton by Ramsey and Travers. 1898—Horry and Bradley’s process of making Calcium Carbide. Discovery of Neon and Metargon by Ramsey and Travers; Coronium by Nasini; Xenon by Ramsey; Monium by Crookes, and Etherion by Brush. Mercerizing Cloth under tension to render it Silky. 1899—Marconi Telegraphs without wire across the English Channel. Oceanic launched, the largest steamer ever built. 1900—The Grande Lunette Telescope of Paris Exposition.
- 42. I CHAPTER III. The Electric Telegraph. The Voltaic Pile—Daniell’s Battery—Use of Conducting Wire by Weber—Steinheil Employs Earth as Return Circuit—Prof. Henry’s Electro Magnet, and First Telegraphic Experiment—Prof. Morse’s Telegraphic Code and Register—First Line Between Washington and Baltimore—Bain’s Chemical Telegraph—Gintl’s Duplex Telegraph—Edison’s Quadruplex—House’s Printing Telegraph—Fac Simile Telegraphs —Channing and Farmer Fire Alarm—Telegraphing by Induction—Wireless Telegraphy by Marconi—Statistics. n the effort to lengthen out the limited span of life into a greater record of results, time becomes an object of economy. To save time is to live long, and this in a pre-eminent degree is accomplished by the telegraph. Of all the inventions which man has called into existence to aid him in the fulfillment of his destiny, none so closely resembles man himself in his dual quality of body and soul as the telegraph. It too has a body and soul. We see the wire and the electro- magnet, but not the vital principle which animates it. Without its subtile, pulsating, intangible spirit, it is but dead matter. But vitalized with its immortal soul it assumes the quality of animated existence, and through its agency thought is extended beyond the limitations of time and space, and flashes through air and sea around the world. Its moving principle flows more silently than a summer’s zephyr, and yet it rises at times to an angry and deadly crash in the lightning stroke. At once powerful and elusive, it remained for Professor Morse to capture this wild steed, and, taming it, place it in the permanent service of man. On May 24, 1844, there went over the wires between Washington and Baltimore the first message—“What hath God wrought?” This was both prayer and praise, and no more lofty recognition of the divine power and beneficence could have been made. It was indeed the work of God made manifest in the hands of His children.
- 43. Popular estimation has always credited Prof. Morse with the invention of the telegraph, but to ascribe to him all the praise would do great injustice to many other worthy workers in this field, some of whom are regarded by the best judges to be entitled to equal praise. The practical telegraph as originally used is resolvable into four essential elements, viz., the battery, the conducting wire, the electro-magnet, and the receiving and transmitting instruments. The development of the battery began with Galvani in 1790, and Volta in 1800. Galvani discovered that a frog’s legs would exhibit violent muscular contraction when its exposed nerves were touched with one metal and its muscles were touched with another metal, the two metals being connected. The effect was due to an electric current generated and acting with contractile effect on the muscles of the frog’s legs. FIG. 1.
- 44. From this phenomenon, the chemical action of acids upon metals and the production of an electric current were observed, and the voltaic pile was invented. This consisted of alternate discs of copper and zinc, separated by layers of cloth steeped in an acidulated solution. This was the invention of Volta. From this grew the Daniell battery, invented in 1836 by Prof. Daniell of London, quickly followed by those of Grove, Smee, and others. These batteries were more constant or uniform in the production of electricity, were free from odors, and did not require frequent cleaning, as did the plates of the voltaic pile, which were important results for telegraphic purposes. The Daniell battery in its original form employed an acidulated solution of sulphate of copper in a copper cell containing a porous cup, and a cylinder of amalgamated zinc in the porous cup and surrounded by a weak acid solution. In the illustration, which shows a slightly modified form, a cruciform rod of zinc within a porous cup is surrounded by a copper cell, the whole being enclosed within a glass jar. FIG. 2.—DANIELL’S BATTERY.
- 45. The second element of the telegraph—the conducting wire—was scarcely an invention in itself, and the fact that electricity would act at a distance through a metal conductor had been observed many years before the Morse telegraph was invented. In 1823, however, Weber discovered that a copper wire which he had carried over the houses and church steeples of Göttingen from the observatory to the cabinet of Natural Philosophy, required no special insulation. This was an important observation in the practical construction of telegraph lines. One of even greater importance, however, was that of Prof. Steinheil, of Munich, who, in 1837, made the discovery of the practicability of using the earth as one-half, or the return section, of the electric conductor. FIG. 3.—PROF. HENRY’S INTENSITY MAGNET.
- 46. The third element of the telegraph is the electro-magnet. This, and its arrangement as a relay in a local circuit, was a most important invention, and contributed quite as much to the success of the telegraph as did the inventions of Prof. Morse. It may be well to say that an electro-magnet is a magnet which attracts an iron armature when an electric current is sent through its coil of wire, and loses its attractive force when the circuit is cut off, thereby rendering it possible to produce mechanical effects at a distance through the agency of electrical impulses only. For the electro- magnet the world is chiefly indebted to Prof. Joseph Henry, formerly of Princeton, N. J., but later of the Smithsonian Institution. In 1828 he invented the energetic modern form of electro-magnet with silk covered wire wound in a series of crossed layers to form a helix of multiple layers around a central soft iron core, and in 1831 succeeded in making practical the production of mechanical effects at a distance, by the tapping of a bell by a rod deflected by one of his electro-magnets. This experiment may be considered the pioneer step of the telegraph. FIG. 4. HENRY. STURGEON. Great as was the work of Prof. Henry, he must share the honors with a number of prior inventors who made the electro-magnet possible. Electro-magnetism, the underlying principle of the electro-magnet, was first discovered in 1819 by Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen. In 1820 Schweigger added the multiplier. Arago in the same year discovered that a steel rod was magnetized when placed across a wire carrying an electric current, and that iron filings adhered to a wire carrying a voltaic
- 47. current and dropped off when the current was broken. M. Ampere substituted a helix for the straight wire, and Sturgeon, of England, in 1825 made the real prototype of the electro-magnet by winding a piece of bare copper wire in a single coil around a varnished and insulated iron core of a horse shoe form, but the powerful and effective electro-magnet of Prof. Henry is to-day an essential part of the telegraph, is in universal use, and is the foundation of the entire electrical art. It is unfortunate that Prof. Henry did not perpetuate the records of his inventions in patents, to which he was opposed, for there is good reason to believe that he was also the original inventor of the important arrangement of the electro-magnet as a relay in local circuit, and other features, which have been claimed by other parties upon more enduring evidence, but perhaps with less right of priority. FIG. 5.—MORSE’S FIRST MODEL PENDULUM INSTRUMENT. The fourth and great final addition to the telegraph which crowned it with success was the Morse register and alphabetical code, the invention of Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse, of Massachusetts. Prof. Morse’s invention was made in 1832, while on board ship returning from Europe. He set up an experimental line in 1835, and got his French patent October 30, 1838,
- 48. and his first United States patent June 20, 1840, No. 1647. In 1844 the United States Congress appropriated $30,000 to build a line from Baltimore to Washington, and on May 24, 1844, the notable message, “What Hath God wrought?” went over the wires. FIG. 6.—THE MORSE CODE. Morse’s first model, his pendulum instrument of 1837, is illustrated in Fig. 5. A pendulum carrying a pencil was in constant contact with a strip of paper drawn beneath the pencil. As long as inactive the pencil made a straight line. The pendulum carried also an armature, and an electro- magnet was placed near the armature. A current passed through the magnet would draw the pendulum to one side. On being released the pendulum would return, and in this way zigzag markings, as shown at 4 and 5, would be produced on the strip of paper, which formed the alphabet. A different alphabet, known as the Morse Code, was
- 49. subsequently adopted by Morse, and in 1844 the receiving register shown at Fig. 7 was adopted, which finally assumed the form shown at Fig. 8. The alphabet consisted simply of an arrangement of dots and dashes in varying sequence. The register is an apparatus operated by the combined effects of a clock mechanism and electro-magnet. Under a roll, see Fig. 8, a ribbon of paper is drawn by the clockwork. A lever having an armature on one end arranged over the poles of an electro-magnet, carries on the other end a point or stylus. When an electric impulse is sent over the line the electro-magnet attracts the armature, and the stylus on the other end of the lever is brought into contact with the paper strip, and makes an indented impression. A short impulse gives a dot, and a long impulse holds the stylus against the paper long enough to allow the clock mechanism to pull the paper under the stylus and make a dash. By the manipulation of a key for closing the electric circuit the short or long impulse may be sent, at the pleasure of the operator. FIG. 7.—MORSE RECEIVER. This constituted the completed invention of the telegraph, and on comparing the work of Profs. Henry and Morse, it is only fair to say that Prof. Henry’s contribution to the telegraph is still in active use, while the Morse register has been practically abandoned, as no expert telegrapher requires the visible evidence of the code, but all rely now entirely upon
- 50. the sound click of the electro-magnet placed in the local circuit and known as a sounder, the varying time lengths of gaps between the clicks serving every purpose of rapid and intelligent communication. The invention of the telegraph has been claimed for Steinheil, of Munich, and also for Cooke and Wheatstone, in England, but few will deny that it is to Prof. Morse’s indefatigable energy and inventive skill, with the preliminary work of Prof. Henry, that the world to-day owes its great gift of the electric telegraph, and with this gift the world’s great nervous forces have been brought into an intimate and sensitive sympathy. FIG. 8.—PERFECTED MORSE REGISTER. Whenever an invention receives the advertisement of public approval and commercial exploitation, the development of that invention along various lines follows rapidly, and so when practical telegraphic communication was solved by Henry, Morse, and others, further advances in various directions were made. Efforts to increase the rapidity in sending messages soon grew into practical success, and in 1848 Bain’s Chemical Telegraph was brought out. (U. S. Pats. No. 5,957, Dec. 5, 1848, and No. 6,328, April 17, 1849.) This employed perforated strips of paper to effect automatic transmission by contact made through the perforations in place of the key, while a chemically prepared paper at the opposite end of the
- 51. line was discolored by the electric impulses to form the record. This was the pioneer of the automatic system which by later improvements is able to send over a thousand words a minute. FIG. 9.—HOUSE PRINTING TELEGRAPH.
- 52. FIG. 10.—STOCK BROKER’S “TICKER,” WITH GLASS COVER REMOVED. In line with other efforts to increase the capacity of the wires, the duplex telegraph was invented by Dr. William Gintl, of Austria, in 1853, and was afterwards improved by Carl Frischen, of Hanover, and by Joseph B. Stearns, of Boston, Mass, who in 1872 perfected the duplex (U. S. Pats. No. 126,847, May 14, 1872, and No. 132,933, Nov. 12, 1872). This system doubles the capacity of the telegraphic wire, and its principle of action permits messages sent from the home station to the distant station to have no effect on the home station, but full effect on the distant station, so that the operators at the opposite ends of the line may both telegraph over the same wire, at the same time, in opposite directions. This system has been further enlarged by the quadruplex system of Edison, which was brought out in 1874 (and subsequently developed in U. S. Pat. No. 209,241, Oct. 22, 1878). This enabled four messages to be sent over the same wire at the same time, and is said to have increased the value of the Western Union wires $15,000,000.
- 53. In 1846 Royal C. House invented the printing telegraph, which printed the message automatically on a strip of paper, something after the manner of the typewriter (U. S. Pat. No. 4,464, April 18, 1846). The ingenious mechanism involved in this was somewhat complicated, but its results in printing the message plainly were very satisfactory. This was the prototype of the familiar “ticker” of the stock broker’s office, seen in Figs. 10 and 11. In 1856 the Hughes printing telegraph was brought out (U. S. Pat. No. 14,917, May 20, 1856), and in 1858 G. M. Phelps combined the valuable features of the Hughes and House systems (U. S. Pat. No. 26,003, Nov. 1, 1859). FIG. 11.—RECEIVING MESSAGE ON STOCK BROKER’S “TICKER.” Fac Simile telegraphs constitute another, although less important branch of the art. These accomplished the striking result of reproducing the message at the end of the line in the exact handwriting of the sender, and not only writing, but exact reproductions of all outlines, such as
- 54. maps, pictures, and so forth, may be sent. The fac simile telegraph originated with F. C. Bakewell, of England, in 1848 (Br. Pat. No. 12,352, of 1848). The Dial Telegraph is still another modification of the telegraph. In this the letters are arranged in a circular series, and a light needle or pointer, concentrically pivoted, is carried back and forth over the letters, and is made to successively point to the desired letters. Among other useful applications of the telegraph is the fire alarm system. In 1852 Channing and Farmer, of Boston, Mass., devised a system of telegraphic fire alarms, which was adopted in the city of Boston (U. S. Pat. No. 17,355, May 19, 1857), and which in varying modifications has spread through all the cities of the world, introducing that most important element of time economy in the extinguishment of fires. Hundreds of cities and millions of dollars have been thus saved from destruction. Similar applications of local alarms in great numbers have been extended into various departments of life, such as District Messenger Service, Burglar Alarms, Railroad-Signal Systems, Hotel-Annunciators, and so on.
- 55. FIG. 12.—TELEGRAPHING BY INDUCTION. For furnishing current for telegraphic purposes the dynamo, and especially the storage battery, have in late years found useful application. In fact, in the leading telegraph offices the storage battery has practically superseded the old voltaic cells. Telegraphing by induction, i. e., without the mechanical connection of a conducting wire, is another of the developments of telegraphy in recent years, and finds application to telegraphing to moving railway trains. When an electric current flows over a telegraph line, objects along its length are charged at the beginning and end of the current impulse with a secondary charge, which flows to the earth if connection is afforded. It is the discharge of this secondary current from the metal car roof to the ground which, on the moving train, is made the means of telegraphing without any mechanical connection with the telegraph lines along the track. As, however, this secondary circuit occurs only at the making and breaking of the telegraphic impulse, the length of the impulse affords no means of differentiation into an alphabet, and so a rapid series of impulses, caused by the vibrator of an induction coil, is made to produce buzzing tones of various duration representing the alphabet, and these tones are received upon a telephone instead of a Morse register. The diagram, Fig. 12,[1] illustrates the operation. [1] From “Electricity in Daily Life,” by courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons. To receive messages on a car, electric impulses on the telegraph wire W, sent from the vibrator of an induction coil, cause induced currents as follows: Car roof R, wire a, key K, telephone b c, car wheel and earth. In sending messages closure of key K works induction coil I C, and vibrator V, through battery B, and primary circuit d, c, f, g, and the secondary circuit a, h, i, charges the car roof and influences by induction the telegraph wire W and the telephone at the receiving station. In 1881 William W. Smith proposed the plan of communicating between moving cars and a stationary wire by induction (U. S. Pat. No. 247,127, Sept. 13, 1881). Thomas A. Edison, L. J. Phelps, and others have further improved the means for carrying it out. In 1888 the principle was successfully employed on 200 miles of the Lehigh Valley Railroad.
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