Thermodynamics Digital Material basics subject

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COURSE OBJECTIVES
UNIT - 1 CO1:To understand the concepts of energy
transformation, conversion of heat into work.
UNIT - 2 CO2:To acquire knowledge about the fundamentals of
thermodynamic laws, the concept of entropy, and
principles
UNIT - 3 CO3: To understand how the change of state results in
a process.
UNIT - 4 CO4: To understand the various gas laws,
psychrometric properties and chart.
UNIT - 5 CO5: To learn the importance of thermodynamic
cycles, and the derivation of efficiency.

UNIT 1
CO1: To understand the concepts of energy
transformation, conversion of heat into work.
BAS I C S O F
T H E R M O DYNAM I C S

UNIT – I (SYLLABUS)
Introduction - System - Types of Systems
• System - Types of Systems - Control Volume - Macroscopic and
Microscopic viewpoints
• Thermodynamic Equilibrium- State, Property, Process, Cycle
• Reversibility – Quasi static Process, Irreversible Process,
First law of Thermodynamics
• PMM I - Joule’s Experiment
• First law applied to a Process
• Steady Flow Energy Equation.

COURSE OUTLINE
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS Learning objectives
(2 to 3 objectives)
1 Basic Concepts – Types of systems Definition of system. Understanding of
basics of systems (B2)
2 Macroscopic and Microscopic
viewpoints
Study or view points • Statistical
thermodynamics
(B2)
3 Thermodynamic Equilibrium- State, Property,
Process, Cycle
Intensiveproperties Understanding of properties,
process and cycle (B2)
4 Reversibility – Quasi static Process, Irreversible
Process, Causes of Irreversibility
Reversible process and
irreversible processes
Understanding of
reversibility(B2)
5 Work and Heat, Point and Path functions Differences between heat
and work
Knowledge on heat and work
(B4)
6 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics – Principles of
Thermometry
Principle of zeroth law Measurementof
temperature (B1)
7 PMM I - Joule’s Experiment – First law of
Thermodynamics
Conversion of Heat and
work
Efficiencycalculation (B4)
8 Steady Flow Energy Equation. Continuity system Knowledge of Nozzle,
turbine, boiler etc (B2)
UNIT -1

LECTURE 1
Introduction - Types of systems

INTRODUCTION: UNITS

INTRODUCTION:
• Thermodynamics is the branch of science
that deals with the relationships between
heat and other forms of energy.
• It describes how thermal energy is converted
to and from other forms of energy and how it
affects matter.
• Temperature is "a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of
matter, expressed in terms of units or
degrees.

BASIC CONCEPTS
• Temperature is "a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of
matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees.
• Heat is a form of energy which is transferred by
virtue of temperature difference.
• Energy of a body is its capacity to do work.

BASIC CONCEPTS
• Work is said to be done by a force when a body
moves in the direction of force.
Work done = Force * Displacement
• Specific heat is the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of a certain mass of a
substance by unit degree.
• The fundamental concepts of heat capacity and
latent heat, which were necessary for the
development of thermodynamics.

SYSTEM
System:
• A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space which is selected for the
study.
Surroundings:
• The mass or region outside the system is called
surroundings.
Boundary:
• The real or imaginary surfaces which separates the
system and surroundings is called boundary. The real
or imaginary surfaces which separates the system and
surroundings is called boundary.

SYSTEM

TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
• On the basis of mass and energy transfer the
thermodynamic system is divided into three
types.
Closed system
Open system
Isolated system

• Closed system: A system in which the transfer of
energy but not mass can takes place across the
boundary is called closed system. The mass inside
the closed system remains constant.
• Open system: A system in which the transfer of
both mass and energy takes place is called an
open system. This system is also known as control
volume.
• Isolated system: A system in which the transfer of
mass and energy cannot takes place is called an
isolated system.

MICROSCOPIC VIEW OR STUDY:
The approach considers that the system is
made up of a very large number of discrete
particles known as molecules.
These molecules have different velocities are
energies. The values of these energies are
constantly changing with time.
This approach to thermodynamics, which is
concerned directly with the structure of the
matter, is known as statistical thermodynamics.

MICROSCOPIC VIEW OR STUDY:
• The behavior of the system is found by using
statistical methods, as the number of molecules
is very large.
• So advanced statistical and mathematical
methods are needed to explain the changes in
the system.
• The properties like velocity, momentum,
impulse, kinetic energy and instruments cannot
easily measure force of impact etc. that
describe the molecule.

MACROSCOPIC VIEW OR STUDY:
In this approach a certain quantity of matter is
considered without taking into account the
thermodynamics is concerned with gross
events occurring at molecular level.
In other words this approach to
or
overall behavior. This is known as classical
thermodynamics.
The analysis of macroscopic system requires
simple mathematical formula.

MACROSCOPIC VIEW OR STUDY:
The value of the properties of the system are
their average values. For examples consider a
sample of gas in a closed container.
The pressure of the gas is the average value of
the pressure exerted by millions of individual
molecules.
In order to describe a system only a few
properties are needed.

HEAT AND WORK
Similarities :
Both are path functions and inexact
differentials.
Both are boundary phenomenon i.e., both are
recognized at the boundaries of the system as
they cross them.
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Unlike properties, work or heat has no meaning
at a state.

HEAT AND WORK
Dissimilarities :
In heat transfer
required.
temperature difference is
In a stable system there cannot be work
transfer, however, there is no restriction for the
transfer of heat.
The sole effect external to the system could be
reduced to rise of a weight but in the case of a
heat transfer other effects are also observed.

THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A thermodynamic system is said to exist in a
state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no
change in any macroscopic property is
registered if the system is isolated from its
surroundings.
An isolated system always reaches in the
course of
equilibrium
time a state of thermodynamic
and can never depart from it
spontaneously.

THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
Mechanical equilibrium:
The criteria for Mechanical equilibrium are the
equality of pressures.
Chemical equilibrium:
The criteria for Chemical equilibrium are the
equality of chemical potentials.
Thermal equilibrium:
The criterion for Thermal equilibrium is the
equality of temperatures.

STATE AND PROPERTY
State:
The thermodynamic state of
defined by specifying values
a system is
of a set of
measurable properties sufficient to determine
all other properties.
For fluid systems, typical properties are
pressure, volume and temperature.
Property:
Properties may be extensive or intensive.

TYPES OF PROPERTIES
Intensive properties:
• The properties which are independent of the mass
of the system.
• For example: Temperature, pressure and density
are the intensive properties.
Extensive properties:
The properties which depend on the size or extent
of the system are called extensive properties.
• For example: Total mass, total volume and total
momentum.

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
• When the system undergoes change from one
thermodynamic state to final state due change
in properties like temperature, pressure, volume
etc, the system is said to have undergone
thermodynamic process.
• Various types of thermodynamic processes are:
isothermal
isochoric
process, adiabatic process,
process, isobaric process and
reversible process.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
• Thermodynamic cycle refers to any closed
system that undergoes various changes due to
temperature, pressure, and volume, however,
its final and initial state are equal.
• In the process of going through this cycle, the
system may perform work on its surroundings,
thereby acting as a heat engine

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

REVERSIBLE PROCESSES
• A thermodynamic process (state i → state f ) is said to
be reversible if the process can be turned back such
that both the system and the surroundings return to
their original states, with no other change anywhere
else in the universe.
• As we know, in reality, no such processes as reversible
processes can exist, thus, the reversible processes can
easily be defined as idealizations or models of real
processes, on which the limits of the system or device
are to be defined. They help
maximum efficiency a system
us in incurring the
can provide in ideal
working conditions and thus the target design that can
be set.

REVERSIBLE PROCESSES
• They help us in incurring the maximum
efficiency a system can provide in ideal working
conditions and thus the target design that can
be set.
Examples of Reversible Process
slow adiabatic compression or expansion of
gases.
slow isothermal compression or expansion of
gases

IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
• An irreversible process can be defined as a
process in which the system and the
surroundings do not return to their original
condition once the process is initiated.
• Taking an example of an automobile engine,
that has travelled a distance with the aid of fuel
equal to an amount ‘x’. During the process, the
fuel burns to provide energy to the engine,
converting itself into smoke and heat energy.

Irreversible Process

• We cannot retrieve the energy lost by the fuel
and cannot get back the original form. There
are many factors due to which the irreversibility
of a process occurs, namely: The friction that
converts the energy of the fuel to heat energy.
• Mixing of two different substances which cannot
be separated as the process of intermixing is
again spontaneous in nature, the reverse of
which is not feasible.

EXAMPLES OF IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Relative motion with friction
Throttling
Heat transfer
Diffusion
Electricity flow through a resistance

QUASI-STATIC PROCESS

QUASI-STATIC PROCESS
When the process is carried out in such a way that
at every instant, the system deviation from the
thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal, then the
process is known as quasi-static or quasi-
equilibrium process and each state in the process
may be considered as an equilibrium state.
In simple words, we can say that if system is going
succession of thermodynamic
under a thermodynamic process through
states and each
state is equilibrium state then the process will be
termed as quasi static process.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• If objects ‘A’ and ‘C’ are in thermal
equilibrium with ‘B’, then object ‘A’ is in
thermal equilibrium with object ‘C’.
Practically this means all three objects
are at the same temperature and it forms
the basis for comparison of temperatures.
• If a=b; b=c then a=c

PRINCIPLES OF THERMOMETRY
• Thermometry is the science and practice of
temperature measurement.
• Any measurable change in a thermometric
probe (e.g. the dilatation of a liquid in a capillary
tube, variation of electrical resistance of a
conductor, of refractive index of a transparent
material, and so on) can be used to mark
temperature levels, that should later be
calibrated against an internationally agreed unit
if the measure is to be related to other
thermodynamic variables.

PRINCIPLES OF THERMOMETRY
• Thermometry is sometimes split in
metrological studies in two subfields: contact
thermometry and noncontact thermometry.
• As there can never be complete thermal
uniformity at large, thermometry is always
associated to a heat transfer problem with
some space-time coordinates of
measurement, given rise to time-series plots
and temperature maps.

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

• Thermometers are working examples of
the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
• The significance of constant volume gas
thermometers is that they are used to calibrate
other th
• A constant volume gas thermometer is
composed of a bulb filled with a fixed amount of
a dilute gas that is attached to a mercury
manometer.

• A manometer is a device used to measure
pressure.
• The mercury manometer has a column partially
filled with mercury that is connected to a flexible
tube that has another partially filled column of
mercury, called a reservoir, attached to the other
end.
• The height of the mercury in the first column is set
to a reference point or pressure P that it must stay
at, while the mercury in the reservoir is allowed to
move up and down in relation to a scale or ruler.

 the constant volume gas thermometer uses values
from the triple point of water to calibrate other
thermometers.
 To recall, 273.16 K (Kelvin) is the temperature
where water exists in an equilibrium state as a gas,
liquid, and solid.
 T = 273.16 K (P/Ptp)
 For low pressure and high temperatures, where
real gases behave like ideal gases, equation 1
becomes:
 T = 273.16 K lim P/Ptp as Ptp → 0

SCALES OF TEMPERATURE
• There are three temperature scales in use
today, Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.
• Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based
on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for
the boiling point of water, the interval between
the two being divided into 180 parts.
• The conversion formula for a temperature that
is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its
Fahrenheit (F) representation is: F = 9/5C + 32.

SCALES OF TEMPERATURE

JOULES EXPERIMENT

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

PDV WORK

SHAFT WORK

FLOW WORK

• The work input to the paddle wheel is measured by the
fall of weight, while the corresponding temperature rise
of liquid in the insulated container is measured by the
thermometer.
by heat transfer. The experiments show :
(i)A definite quantity of work is always required to
accomplish the same temperature rise obtained with a
unit amount of heat.
(ii) Regardless of
whether the temperature of liquid is raised by work
transfer or heat transfer, the liquid can be returned by
heat transfer in opposite direction to the identical state
from which it started.

• It can be stated as an invariable experience that
whenever a physical system passes through a
complete cycle the algebraic sum of the work
transfers during the cycle dW bears a definite ratio
to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers during
the cycle, dQ .
• This may be expressed by the equation,
dW = JdQ
• where J is the proportionality constant and is
known as Mechanical Equivalent of heat.
• In S.I. units its value is unity, i.e., 1 Nm/J.

APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW TO A PROCESS
• When a process is executed by a system, the
change in stored energy of the system is
numerically equal to the net heat interactions
minus the net work interaction during the
process.
• ∴ E2 – E1 = Q – W
• ∴ ΔE = Q – W [or Q = Δ E + W]
• Or d(Q −W) 12 = Δ E = E2 – E1
• Where E represents the total internal energy.

• If the electric, magnetic and chemical energies
are absent and changes in potential and kinetic
energy for a closed system are neglected, the
above equation can be written as d(Q − W) 12
= ΔU = U2 – U1
• ∴ Q – W = ΔU = U2 – U1
• Generally, when heat is added to a system its
temperature rises and external work is
performed due to increase in volume of the
system.

• The rise in temperature is an indication of
increase of internal energy.
• Heat added to the system will be considered as
positive and the heat removed or rejected, from
the system, as negative.
• Thus energy is conserved in the operation.
• The first law of thermodynamics is a particular
formulation of the law of conservation of
energy.

PMM 1
• There can be no machine which would continuously
supply mechanical work without some form of energy
disappearing simultaneously.
• Such a fictitious machine is called a perpetual motion
machine of the first kind, or in brief, PMM 1. A PMM 1 is
thus impossible.

INTERNAL ENERGY—A PROPERTY OF SYSTEM

STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION (S.F.E.E.)
APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW TO STEADY FLOW
PROCESS:
In many practical problems, the rate at which the fluid
flows through a machine or piece of apparatus is
constant. This type of flow is called steady flow.
Assumptions :
The following assumptions are made in the system
analysis :

(i) The mass flow through the system remains
constant.
(ii) Fluid is uniform in composition.
(iii)The only interaction between the system and
surroundings are work and heat.
(iv)The state of fluid at any point remains
constant with time.
(v)In the analysis only potential, kinetic and flow
energies are considered

TURBINE
A turbine is a rotary steady state steady flow
machine whose purpose is the production of shaft
power at the expense of the pressure of the
working fluid.
Two general classes of turbines are steam and gas
turbines depending on the working substance
used.
Usually, changes in potential energy are negligible,
as is the inlet kinetic energy.
Normally, the process in the turbine is adiabatic
and the work output reduces to decrease in
enthalpy from the inlet to exit states.

TURBINE

SOLVED PROBLEMS

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
• Automobile industries.
• Refrigeration industries
• Air craft applications
• Defense industries
• Thermal power plants
• Chemical industries
• Textile industries etc.

SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
• What is meant by thermodynamic equilibrium? Explain
with the help of examples.
• What is meant by SFEE and derive it and reduce it for
the turbine.
• Write about constant volume gas Thermometer? Why it
is preferred over a constant pressure gas Thermometer.
• Distinguish between macroscopic and microscopic
point of view?

ASSIGNMENT EXERCISES
1. Discuss Quasi Static process, what are its characteristics?
2. Discuss First law of thermodynamics, explain Joule’s
experiment.
3. A blower handles 1kg/s of air at 200C and consuming a
power of 15 kw. The inlet and outlet velocities of air are
100 m/s and 150 m/s respectively. Find the exit air
temperature, assuming adiabatic conditions. Take Cp of air
as 1.005 kJ/kgk.
4. When a stationary mass of gas was compressed without
friction at constant pressure, its initial state of 0.4m3 and
0.105MPa was found to change to final state of 0.20m3
and 0.105MPa. There was a transfer of 42.5kJ of heat from
the gas during the process. Determine the change in
internal energy of the gas?

UNIT 2
CO2:To acquire knowledge about the fundamentals
of thermodynamic laws, the concept of entropy, and
principles
BAS I C S O F

UNIT – II (SYLLABUS)
Introduction - System - Types of Systems
• Limitations of the First Law - Thermal Reservoir, Heat
Engine, Heat pump
• Second Law of Thermodynamics, Kelvin-Planck and
Clausius Statements
• PMM of Second kind, Carnot’s principle
• Clausius Inequality, Entropy
• Energy Equation, Availability and Irreversibility
• Thermodynamic Potentials, Gibbs and Helmholtz
Functions
• Third Law of Thermodynamics.

COURSE OUTLINE
(2 to 3 objectives)
1 Limitations of the First Law - Thermal Reservoir Definition of Energy
reservoir
Understanding the draw
backs (B2)
2 Heat Engine, Heat pump, Parameters of
performance
Performance parameters
like efficiency
Understanding different types
of efficiencies (B2)
3 Second Law of Thermodynamics, Kelvin-Planck
and Clausius Statements and their Equivalence
Temperature flow Understanding Heat and
work conversion (B2)
4 Corollaries,PMM of Second kind Possible engine and
impossible engine
UnderstandingPMM II (B2)
5 Carnot’s principle, Carnot cycle and its specialties Carnot’scycle Performanceevaluation of
Carnot’s cycle (B5)
6 Clausius Inequality, Entropy, Principle of Entropy
Increase – Energy Equation,
Entropy principle Knowledge on entropy(B2)
7 Availability and Irreversibility Available and unavailable
energies
Maximum possible work
estimation (B4)
8 Thermodynamic Potentials, Gibbs and Helmholtz
Functions,
Gibbs function, Helmholtz
functions
Heat and work calculations
(B4)
UNIT -1

LECTURE 2
Second law of thermodynamics - Entropy

LIMITATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
First law does not provide any information
regarding the direction processes will take
whether it is a spontaneous or a non
spontaneous process.
The first law of thermodynamics merely
indicates that in any process there is a
transformation between the various forms of
energy involved in the process but provides
no information regarding the feasibility of
such transformation.

LIMITATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
First law of thermodynamics has not provided
the information about the direction of the
process.
 First law of thermodynamics has not provided
complete energy of the system will
the information that how much quantity of
be
converted in to the work energy.
First law of thermodynamics has not provided
any information about the conditions in which
conversion of heat energy in work energy is
possible.

THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIR

HEAT ENGINE

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

HEAT PUMP

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

EQUIVALENCE OF CLAUSIUS AND KELVIN
PLANCK STATEMENTS

CARNOT CYCLE
• A Carnot cycle is defined as an ideal reversible
closed thermodynamic cycle in which there are
four successive operations involved and they
are isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion,
isothermal compression, and adiabatic
compression.
• During these operations, the expansion and
compression of substance can be done up to
desired point and back to initial state.

CARNOT CYCLE

CARNOT CYCLE
• Following are the four processes of Carnot cycle:
• In (a), the process is reversible isothermal gas
expansion. In this process, the amount of heat
absorbed by the ideal gas is qin from the heat
source which is at a temperature of Th. The gas
expands and does work on the surroundings.
• In (b), the process is reversible adiabatic gas
expansion. Here, the system is thermally insulated
and the gas continues to expand and work is done
on the surroundings. Now the temperature is lower,
Tl.

CARNOT CYCLE
• Steps involved in a Carnot Cycle
• For an ideal gas operating inside a Carnot cycle, the
following are the steps involved:
• Process 1-2:
• Isothermal expansion: The gas is taken from P1, V1,
T1 to P2, V2, T2. Heat Q1 is absorbed from the
reservoir at temperature T1. Since the expansion is
isothermal, the total change in internal energy is zero
and the heat absorbed by the gas is equal to the work
done by the gas on the environment, which is given as:
• W1→2=Q1=μ×R×T1×lnv2v1

CARNOT CYCLE
Process 2-3:
• Adiabatic expansion: The gas expands adiabatically
from P2, V2, T1 to P3, V3, T2.
• Here work done by the gas is given by:
• W2→3=μRγ−1(T1−T2)
Process 3 -4:
• Isothermal compression: The gas is compressed
isothermally from the state (P3, V3, T2) to (P4, V4, T2).
• Here, the work done on the gas by the environment
is given by:
• W3→4=μRT2lnv3v4

CARNOT CYCLE
Step 4:
• Adiabatic compression: The gas is
compressed adiabatically from the state (P4,
V4, T2) to (P1, V1, T1).
• Here, the work done on the gas by the
environment is given by:
• W4→1=μRγ−1(T1−T2)

CARNOT CYCLE
• In (c), the process is reversible isothermal
gas compression process. Here, the heat
loss, qout occurs when the surroundings do
the work at temperature Tl.
• In (d), the process is reversible adiabatic gas
compression. Again the system is thermally
insulated. The temperature again rise back
to Th as the surrounding continue to do their
work on the gas.

CARNOT CYCLE
• Netefficiency=WQ1=(Q1−Q2)/Q1
=1−Q2/Q1

CARNOT PRINCIPLE

AVAILABILITY AND IRREVERSIBILITY
• Availability:
• When a system is subjected to a process
from its original state to dead state the
maximum amount of useful work that can be
achieved under ideal conditions is known as
available energy or availability of the system.

• Wmax = AE = Qxy – T0(Sy-Sx)
• Unavailable Energy:
• UE = T0(Sy-Sx)
• where, Sx and Sy are the entropy at x and y,
respectively.
• The Available Energy (AE) is also known as
exergy and the Unavailable Energy (UE) as
energy.
• Availability = Maximum possible work-
Irreversibility W useful= W rev- I

The actual work done by a system is
always less than idealized reversible work
and the difference between the two is
called the irreversibility of the process.
I = Wmax - W
I = T0(ΔSsystem + ΔSsurrounding)
I = T0(ΔS)universal
T0(ΔS)universal represent an increase in
unavailable energy.

THERMODYNAMIC POTENTIALS, GIBBS AND
HELMHOLTZ FUNCTIONS
Eight properties of a system, namely pressure
(p), volume (v), temperature (T), internal energy
(u), enthalpy (h), entropy (s), Helmholtz function
(f) and Gibbs function (g) have been introduced
in the previous chapters. h, f and g are
sometimes referred to as thermodynamic
potentials.
 Both f and g are considering
chemical reactions,
useful when
and the former is of
fundamental importance in statistical
thermodynamics.

HELMHOLTZ FUNCTIONS
• The first law applied to a closed system
undergoing a reversible process states that
dQ = du + pdv
According to second law,
ds =dQ/T
Combining these equations, we get
Tds = du + pdv
or du = Tds – pdv ...(7.10)
The properties h, f and g may also be put in
terms of T, s, p and v as follows :
dh = du + pdv + vdp = Tds + vdp

HELMHOLTZ FUNCTIONS
• Helmholtz free energy function,
df = du – Tds – sdT .
= – pdv – sdT
F=U−TS
Helmholtz free energy in thermodynamics is a
thermodynamic potential which is used to
measure the work of a closed system with
constant temperature and volume. It can be
defined in the form of the following
equation:

HELMHOLTZ FUNCTIONS
• F=U−T
S
Where,
• F is the Helmholtz free energy in Joules
• U is the internal energy of the system in
Joules
• T is the absolute temperature of the
surroundings in Kelvin
• S is the entropy of the system in joules per
Kelvin

• dU=δQ+δW which is from first law of
thermodynamics for closed system
• dU=TdS−pdV (𝜹Q = TdS and 𝜹W = pdV)
• dU=d(TS)−SdT−pdV (product rule ie; d(TS) = TdS+SdT)
•d(U−TS)=−SdT−pdV dF=−SdT−pdV (from F=U-TS)
Application of Helmholtz free energy
• In equation of state:
• Pure fluids with high accuracy (like industrial
refrigerants) are represented using Helmholtz
function as a sum of ideal gas and residual terms.

MAXWELL’S RELATIONS

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• It is impossible to attain absolute zero
temperature

• Describe briefly about the second law of
thermodynamics with its corollaries.
• State the limitations of first law of thermodynamics?
State PMM 2?
• Discuss briefly about Clausius inequality.
• Discuss the significance of Third law of
thermodynamics
• Derive the expression for the efficiency of Carnot
cycle with p-V and T-s diagrams.
• Solve one T -dS equation by using Maxwell’s
relations?

• 0.5 kg of air executes a Carnot power cycle having a thermal
efficiency of 50%. The heat transfer to the air during
isothermal expansion is 40 kJ. At the beginning of the
isothermal expansion the pressure is 7 bar and the volume is
0.12 m3. Determine the maximum and minimum
temperatures for the cycle in Kelvin, the volume at the end of
isothermal expansion in m3 and the work, heat transfer for
each of the four processes in kJ. cp=1.008 kJ/kgK and
cv=0.721 kJ/kgK for air.
• Water is heated at a constant pressure of 0.7 MPa. The
boiling point is 164.970C. The initial temperature of water is
00C. The latent heat of evaporation is 2066.3 kJ/kg. Find the
increase of entropy of water if the final temperature is steam.

• 1kg of ice at -50C expose to the atmosphere which, is
at 200C. The ice melts and comes into thermal
equilibrium with the atmosphere. Determine the entropy
increase of Universe. Cp for ice is 2.039 kJ/kgK, and
the enthalpy of fusion of ice is 333.3kJ/kg.
• A heat engine is operating between two reservoirs
1000K and 300K is used to drive a heat pump which
extracts heat from the reservoir at 300K at A heat
engine is operating between two reservoirs 1000K and
300K is used to drive a heat pump which extracts heat
from the reservoir at 300K. The efficiency of both the
engines is equal. What is the value of temperature T2.

UNIT III
CO3: To understand how the change of state
results in a process.
PU R E S U B S TAN C E S

UNIT – III (SYLLABUS)
Properties of Pure Substances
• p-V-T- surfaces, T-S and h-s diagrams
• Mollier Charts, Phase Transformations
• Triple point at critical state properties
• Dryness Fraction energy Transfer
• Steam Calorimetry.
• Perfect Gas Laws – Equation of State
• Throttling and Free Expansion Processes
• Deviations from perfect Gas Model – Vander
Waals Equation of State.

COURSE OUTLINE
(2 to 3 objectives)
1 Pure Substances: p-V-T- surfaces Properties of pure
substances
Phase change properties
of pure substances (B2)
2 T-S and h-s diagrams, Phase Transformations Enthalpy and entropy
diagrams
Applications of Mollier
chart (B3)
3 Triple point at critical state properties during
change of phase
Concept of triple point Understanding triple
point temperature (B2)
4 Dryness Fraction – Mollier charts Concept of quality of
steam
Measurement of dryness
fraction (B3)
5 Various Thermodynamic processes and energy
Transfer
Isobaric process,
Isothermal process
Energy transfer in
different processes (B4)
6 Steam Calorimetry Throttling calorimeter Working principles of
different steam
calorimeters (B4)
7 Perfect Gas Laws, Equation of State Boyles law, Charles law Understanding of gas
laws (B2)
8 Flow processes – Deviations from perfect Gas
Model – Vander Waals Equation of State.
Vander Waals Equation Understanding different
flow processes (B2)
UNIT -3

LECTURE 3
Properties of Pure substances

PURE SUBSTANCE
• A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout the system is called
a pure substance.
• Water, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon
monoxide, for example, are all pure
substance.
• A pure substance can also be a mixture of
various chemical elements or compounds as
long as the mixture is homogeneous.

PURE SUBSTANCE
• Air, a mixture of several compounds, is often
considered to be a pure substance because it
has a uniform chemical composition.
• “A mixture of two or more phases of a pure
substance is still a pure substance as long as
the chemical composition of all phases is the
same.
• A mixture of ice and liquid water, for example, is
a pure substance because both phases have
the same chemical composition.”

PHASES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE

TRIPLE POINT

FORMATION OF STEAM

MOLLIER CHART/ ENTHALPY- ENTROPY DIAGRAM

STEAM CALORIMETRY

SEPARATING CALORIMETER

The wet steam enters at the top from the main
steam pipe through holes in the sampling pipe
facing up stream which should be as far as
possible downstream from elbows and valves to
ensure representative sample of steam when in
operation the wet steam entering passes down the
central passage and undergoes a sudden reversal
of direction of motion when strikes perforated cup.
The weight of steam passing through the jacket
may also be readily determined by passing the
escaping steam into a bucket of water where it is
condensed, the increase in the weight of the bucket
and its contents giving the value of W.

 In that case gauge G is not required, but it used its reading
may be taken as a check.
 This calorimeter will give better results when the dryness
fraction of steam to be determined is above 0.95.
Advantages:
Quick determination of dryness fraction of very wet steam
Disadvantages:
 It leads to inaccuracy due to incomplete separation of
water
 Dryness fraction calculated is always greater than actual
dryness fraction.

SEPARATING AND THROTTLING CALORIMETER

GAS LAWS
 Ideal Gas:
Perfect gas, also called ideal gas, a gas that conforms,
in physical behaviour, to a particular, idealized relation
between pressure, volume, and temperature called
the general gas law.
 Boyle’s Law
Pressure is inversely proportional to volume: p∞ 1/v
Robert Boyle noticed that when the volume of a
container holding an amount of gas is increased,
pressure decreases, and vice versa (while the
temperature is held constant). Note that this is not a
linear relationship between p and V.

GAS LAWS
Charles’ Law:
Charles’ Law Volume is directly proportional to
temperature: V = cT, where c > 0 is constant.
Scientist Jacque Charles noticed that if air in a
balloon is heated, the balloon expands. For an
ideal gas, this relationship between V and T
should be linear (as long as pressure is
constant).
 Charles’ and Boyle’s Laws combined
Combine the two laws above: pV/T = K, where k
is a constant, = pV=mRT

GAS LAWS
The Individual Gas Constant - R
• The Individual Gas Constant depends on the
particular gas and is related to the molecular
weight of the gas.
• The value is independent of temperature. The
induvidual gas constant, R, for a gas can be
calculated from the universal gas constant, Ru
below), and the gas
(given in several units
molecular weight, Mgas:
• R = Ru/Mgas
• In the SI system units are J/kg K.

GAS LAWS
• The Universal Gas Constant - Ru
• The Universal Gas Constant - Ru - appears in the ideal
gas law and can be expressed as the product between
the Individual Gas Constant - R - for the particular gas -
and the Molecular Weight - Mgas - for the gas, and is
the same for all ideal or perfect gases:
• Ru = MR
• The Molecular weight of a Gas Mixture
The average molecular weight of a gas mixture is equal
to the sum of the mole fractions of each gas multiplied
by the molecular weight of that particular gas:
• gas R, kJ/(kmol.K) : 8.3144598

THROTTLING PROCESS
• The porous plug experiment was designed to
measure temperature changes when a fluid flows
steadily through a porous plug which is inserted in
a thermally insulated, horizontal pipe. The
apparatus used by Joule and Thomson is shown in
Figure
• A gas at pressure and temperature flows
continuously through a porous plug in a tube and
emerges into a space which is maintained at a
constant pressure. The device is thermally
insulated and kept horizontal. Consider the dotted
portion as control volume.

THROTTLING PROCESS

THROTTLING PROCESS
Therefore, whenever a fluid expands from a
region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure through a porous plug,
opened valve or some obstruction,
partially
without
exchanging any energy as heat and work with
the surrounding (neglecting, the changes in
PE and KE), the enthalpy of the fluid remains
constant, and the fluid is said to have
undergone a throttling process.

FREE EXPANSION PROCESS
A free expansion occurs when a fluid is allowed
to expand suddenly into a vaccum chamber
through an orifice of large dimensions.
In this process, no heat is supplied or rejected
and no external work is done.
Hence the total heat of the fluid remains
constant. This type of expansion may also be
called as constant total heat expansion.
It is thus obvious, that in a free expansion
process,
Q1-2 = 0, W1-2 = 0 and dU = 0.

VAN DER WAALS EQUATION OF STATE
• The ideal gas law treats the molecules of a gas
as point particles with perfectly elastic
collisions. This works well for dilute gases in
many experimental circumstances.
• But gas molecules are not point masses, and
there are circumstances where the properties
of the molecules have an experimentally
measurable effect. A modification of the ideal
gas law was proposed by van der Waal on
molecular size and molecular interaction forces.
• It is usually referred to as the van der Waals
equation of state.

The constants a and b have positive values
and are characteristic of the individual gas. The
van der Waals equation of state approaches
the ideal gas law PV=nRT as the values of
these constants approach zero. The constant a
provides a correction for the intermolecular
forces. Constant b is a correction for finite
molecular size and its value is the volume of
one mole of the atoms or molecules.

• Draw the phase equilibrium diagram for a pure
substance on T-s plot with relevant constant property
line?
• Define dryness fraction of steam. Describe method of
finding dryness fraction of steam using separating and
throttling calorimeter
• Describe briefly about throttling and free expansion
processes.
• Describe briefly about “Mollier diagram”.
• State Vander Waals equation, what is the importance
of it?

determine final dryness fraction ii)heat transferred iii)work done
• Determine the enthalpy and entropy of steam and the pressure is
2MPa and the specific volume is 0.09m3/kg.
• 10 kg of feed water is heated in a boiler at a constant pressure of
1.5 MN/m2 from 40 C. Calculate the enthalpy required and change
of entropy when water is converted into following qualities of steam
in each case i) Wet steam at x=0.95 and ii) Super heated steam at
300 C
• Air at 16oC and 1.2 bar occupies a volume of 0.03m3.the air is
heated at constant volume until the pressure is 4.3 bar and then
cooled at constant pressure back to the original temperature.
Calculate the net heat flow to or from the air and the net entropy
change.
• 5 kg of steam with a dryness fraction of 0.9 expands adiabatically to
the Law PV1.13constant. from a pressure of 8 bar to 1.5 bar

UNIT 1
CO4: To understand the various gas laws,
psychrometric properties and chart.
M I X T U R E S O F
PE R F E C T GAS E S

UNIT – IV (SYLLABUS)
Mixturesof perfectGases
• Mole Fraction, Mass fraction
• Gravimetric and volumetric Analysis
• Dalton’s Law of partial pressure, Amagat’s Law of
additive volumes
• Enthalpy, sp. Heats and Entropy of Mixture of perfect
Gases
• Psychrometric Properties
• Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature, Specific
Humidity, Relative Humidity
• Degree of saturation – Adiabatic Saturation –
Psychrometric chart.

COURSE OUTLINE
(2 to 3 objectives)
1 Mixtures of perfect Gases: Mole Fraction, Mass
friction
Mole fraction, mass
fraction
Understandingof mixture of
gases (B2)
2 Gravimetricand volumetric Analysis Concepts of gravimetric
and volumetric analysis
Knowledge on gravimetric
and volumetric analysis (B3)
3 Dalton’sLaw of partial pressure, Avogadro’sLaws
of additive volumes
Concept of Dalton’s law,
Avogadro’s law
Understanding the principles
of differentlaws (B2)
4 Mole fraction, Volume
pressure,
fraction and partial Definition of partial
pressure
Knowledge of fractions like
mole, volume (B3)
5 Equivalent Gas constant, Enthalpy, sp. Heats and
Entropy of Mixture of perfect Gases
Entropy of gases Understandingthe different
types of constants (B2)
6 Vapour and Atmospheric air – Psychrometric
Properties
Definitionof vapour
pressure and atmospheric
pressure
Understanding the
vapour pressures (B2)
various
7 Dry bulb Temperature, Wet Bulb Temperature,
Dew point Temperature
Concept of DBT, WBT, RH
etc
Knowledge on different
PsychrometricProperties(B4)
8 Adiabatic Saturation – Psychrometric chart Psychrometricchart Understandingthe use of
Psychrometric chart (B2)
UNIT - 4

LECTURE 4
Mixtures of perfect Gases

MIXTURES OF PERFECT GASES
substances, is
A mixture, consisting
referred
of several pure
to as a solution.
Examples of pure substances are water, ethyl
alcohol, nitrogen, ammonia, sodium chloride,
and iron.
Examples of mixtures are air, consisting of
nitrogen, oxygen and a number of other gases,
aqueous ammonia solutions, aqueous solutions
of ethyl alcohol, various metal alloys.
The pure substances making up a mixture are
called components or constituents.

MIXTURES OF PERFECT GASES
Basic assumption is that the gases in the
mixture do not interact with each other.
Consider a mixture with components
l = 1,2,3... with masses m1, m2, m3 ...mi
and with number of moles.
The total mixture occupies a volume V, has a
total pressure P and temperature T (which is
also the temperature of each of the
component species)

Mole Fraction
The mass and number of moles of species i are related
by
Ni = is the number of moles of species i and Mi is the molar mass of
species i.
Mole fraction represents the number of molecules of a
particular component in a mixture divided by the total number
of moles in the given mixture. It’s a way of expressing the
concentration of a solution.

MOLE FRACTION
• The mole fraction of a substance in the
mixture is the ratio of the mole of the
substance in the mixture to the total mole of
the mixture.
• Since it is the ratio of moles to moles, it is a
dimensionless quantity.
• The mole fraction is sometimes called the
amount fraction.

MOLE FRACTION

MASS FRACTION
mixture is
• The mass fraction
the ratio
of a substance in a
of the mass of the
substance to the total mass of the mixture.
• It is also known as mass per cent or
in
percentage by mass when expressing
percentage.
• Since the mass fraction is a ratio of mass to
mass, it is a dimensionless quantity.

MASS FRACTION

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES
• Dalton’s law of partial pressures is a gas law
which states that the total pressure exerted
by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of
the partial pressures exerted by each
individual gas in the mixture.
• For example, the total pressure exerted by a
mixture of two gases A and B is equal to the
sum of the individual partial pressures
exerted by gas A and gas B (as illustrated
below).

• Dalton’s Law Formula
• Dalton’s law of partial pressures can be
mathematically expressed as follows:
• Ptotal = ∑ni=1pi (or) Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + …. +
Pn
Where,
• Ptotal is the total pressure exerted by the
mixture of gases
• P1, P2,…, Pn are the partial pressures of the
gases 1, 2,…, ‘n’ in the mixture of ‘n’ gases

• Expressing Partial Pressures in Terms of Mole Fraction
• The mole fraction of a specific gas in a mixture of gases is
equal to the ratio of the partial pressure of that gas to the total
pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture.
• This mole fraction can also be used to calculate the total
number of moles of a constituent gas when the total number
of moles in the mixture is known.
• Furthermore, the volume occupied by a specific gas in a
mixture can also be calculated with this mole fraction with the
help of the equation provided below.
• Xi=Pi/Ptotal=Vi/Vtotal=ni/ntotal
• Where Xi is the mole fraction of a gas ‘i’ in a mixture of ‘n’
gases, ‘n’ denotes the number of moles, ‘P’ denotes pressure,
and ‘V’ denotes volume.

• P is the total pressure of the mixture Pi is the partial
pressure of species i= pressure of the species if it existed
alone in the given temperature T and volume V
Ru is the universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/k mol K
Amagat's Law of Additive volumes
Volume of an ideal gas mixture is equal to the sum
of the partial volumes

AMAGAT'S LAW OF ADDITIVE VOLUMES
Amagat's law of additive volumes is the law
of partial volumes.
The law relates the total volume of a
mixture with the volumes of individual
components.
Amagat's law is very similar to Dalton's law
of partial pressure.
The law is only valid for ideal gases.

Statement
• For a mixture of non-reacting ideal gases, the total
volume of the mixture equals the sum of the partial
volumes of individual components at constant
pressure and temperature.
• As per Amagat's law, the volume of an ideal mixture
is
• where Vmix is the volume of the ideal mixture, k is the
last component of the mixture, Vi is the volume of the
ith component.

IDEAL GAS LAW OR EQUATION OF STATE
• The Ideal Gas Law
• The volume (V) occupied by n moles of any
gas has a pressure (P) at temperature (T) in
Kelvin.
• The relationship for these variables,
• PV=nRT
• where R is known as the gas constant, is
called the ideal gas law or equation of
state

ENTHALPY
The enthalpy H of a thermodynamic system is
defined as the sum of its internal energy U and
the work required to achieve its pressure and
volume.
When a process occurs at constant pressure,
the heat evolved (either released or absorbed)
is equal to the change in enthalpy. Enthalpy (H)
is the sum of the internal energy (U) and the
product of pressure and volume (PV) given by
the equation:
H = U + pV

ENTHALPY
• Enthalpy is a state function which depends
entirely on the state functions T, P and U.
• Enthalpy is usually expressed as the change in
enthalpy (ΔHΔH) for a process between initial
and final states:
• ΔH=ΔU+ΔPV
• If temperature and pressure remain constant
through the process and the work is limited to
pressure-volume work, then the enthalpy
change is given by the equation:
• ΔH=ΔU+PΔV

ENTHALPY
• Also at constant pressure the heat flow (q)
for the process is equal to the change in
enthalpy defined by the equation:
• ΔH=q
• At constant temperature and pressure, by
the equation above, if q is positive
then ΔH is also positive.
• If q is negative, then ΔH will also be negative.

INTERNAL ENERGY ENTHALPY AND SPECIFIC
HEATS OF GAS

ENTROPY
When two pure substances mix under normal
conditions there is usually an increase in the
entropy of the system.
Since the molecules of ideal gases do not
interact the increase in entropy must simply
result from the extra volume available to each
gas on mixing.
Thus, for gas A the available volume has
increased from VA to (VA + VB).
 By calculating the entropy of expansion of each
gas we can calculate the entropy of mixing as
shown in the panel below.

PSYCHROMETRY
• Atmospheric air makes up the environment in
almost every type of air conditioning system.
• Hence a thorough understanding of the
properties of atmospheric air and the ability to
analyze various processes involving air is
fundamental to air conditioning design.
• Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus
water vapour and a number of pollutants
• Psychrometry is the study of the properties of
mixtures of air and water vapour.

PSYCHROMETRY
• A mixture of various gases that constitute air
and water vapour. This mixture is known as
moist air.
• The moist air can be thought of as a mixture
of dry air and moisture.
• At a given temperature and pressure the dry
air can only hold a certain maximum amount
of moisture.
• When the moisture content is maximum,
then the air is known as saturated air.

PSYCHROMETRY

PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
• Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature
of the moist air as measured by a standard
thermometer or other temperature measuring
instruments.
• Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the
saturated partial pressure of water vapour at
the dry bulb temperature.
• Relative humidity (Φ) is defined as the ratio of
the mole fraction of water vapour in moist air
to mole fraction of water vapour in saturated
air at the same temperature and pressure.

PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

PSYCHROMETER
Any instrument capable of measuring the
psychrometric state of air is called a
psychrometer.
As mentioned before, in order to measure
the psychrometric state of air, it is required
to measure three independent parameters.
Generally two of these are the barometric
pressure and air dry-bulb temperature as
they can be measured easily and with good
accuracy.

PSYCHROMETER
• The sling psychrometer is widely used for
measurements involving room air or other applications
where the air velocity inside the room is small.
• The sling psychrometer consists of two thermometers
mounted side by side and fitted in a frame with a handle
for whirling the device through air.
• The required air circulation (≈ 3 to 5 m/s) over the
sensing bulbs is obtained by whirling the psychrometer
(≈ 300 RPM).
• Readings are taken when both the thermometers show
steady-state readings.

Q 3. A sample of air contains 39.05 mol of
nitrogen, 10.47 mol of oxygen, 0.45 mol of
argon, and 0.03 mol of argon. Determine the
mole fractions.
• Solution: Let nN2, nO2, nAr, and nCO2 be moles of
nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide.
• The mole fraction of nitrogen, oxygen, argon,
and carbon dioxide in the given of air
be yN2, yO2, yAr, and yCO2.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Q4. A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas exerts a
total pressure of 1.5 atm on the walls of its container. If
the partial pressure of hydrogen is 1 atm, find the mole
fraction of oxygen in the mixture.
• Given, Phydrogen = 1 atm, Ptotal = 1.5 atm
• Applying Dalton’s law formula,
• Ptotal = Phydrogen + Poxygen
• Therefore, Poxygen = 0.5 atm
• Now, the mole fraction of oxygen,
• Xoxygen = (Poxygen/Ptotal) = 0.5/1.5 = 0.33
• Therefore, the mole fraction of oxygen in the mixture is
0.33

1. Define mole fraction, and mass fraction. Explain about
volumetric and gravimetric analysis?
2. Explain adiabatic saturation temperature?
3. Explain psychrometric charts while representing all the
properties?
4. Locate i) sensible heating ii) sensible cooling iii) heating and
humidification iv) heating and dehumidification on
psychrometric chart?
5. Compare degree of saturation and adiabatic saturation.

1. 1.8 kg of oxygen at 480 C is mixed with 6.2 kg of nitrogen at the same
temperature. Both oxygen and nitrogen are at the pressure of 102 k Pa
before and after mixing. Find the increase in entropy.
2. A mixture of ideal air and water vapour at a dbt of 220C and a total
pressure of 730 mm Hg abs. has a temperature of adiabatic saturation
of 150C. Calculate: i. the speci_c humidity in gms per kg of dry air. ii. the
partial pressure of water vapour the relative humidity, and iv. enthalpy of
the mixture per kg of dry air.
3. Atmospheric air at 1.0132 bar has a DBT of 30°C and WBT of 24°C.
Compute, (i) The partial pressure of water vapour (ii) Specific humidity
(iii) The dew point temperature (iv) Relative humidity (v) Degree of
saturation (vi) Density of air in the mixture (vii) Density of the vapour in
the mixture (viii) The enthalpy of the mixture.

UNIT 5
CO5: To learn the importance of thermodynamic
cycles, and the derivation of efficiency.
BAS I C S O F

UNIT – V (SYLLABUS)
Power Cycles
• Otto cycle
• Diesel cycle
• Dual Combustion cycle
• P–V and T-S diagram
• Thermal Efficiency
• Comparison of Cycles
• Basic Rankine cycle

COURSE OUTLINE
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS Learning objectives (2
to 3 objectives)
1 Power Cycles Concepts of power
cycles
Knowledge on power
cycles (B2)
2 Otto cycle Efficiency of Otto cycle Understanding the working
of Otto cycle (B2)
3 Diesel cycle Performance of Diesel
cycle
Knowledge on the
applications of Diesel
engine (B2)
4 Dual Combustion cycle Efficiency of dual
combustion engine
Understanding the
performance of Dual
combustion cycle (B3)
5 Brayton cycle Gas turbine Knowledge on the
applications of Brayton
cycle (B5)
6 Thermal Efficiency Cycle efficiency Calculation of efficiency of
different cycles (B6)
7 Comparison of Cycles Differences of cycles Understanding the different
cycles (B2)
8 Basic Rankine cycle Performance Evaluation. Power plant, Rankine
cycle
Understanding the
applications of Rankine
cycle (B3)
UNIT -5

POWER CYCLES
• A cycle is defined as a repeated series of
operations occurring in a certain order.
• It may be repeated by repeating the processes
in the same order.
• The cycle may be of imaginary perfect engine or
actual engine.
• The former is called ideal cycle and the latter
actual cycle.
• In ideal cycle all accidental heat losses are
prevented and the working substance is
assumed to behave like a perfect working
substance.

AIR STANDARD EFFICIENCY
• To compare the effects of different cycles, it is
of paramount importance that the effect of the
calorific value of the fuel is altogether
eliminated and this can be achieved by
considering air (which is assumed to behave as
a perfect gas) as the working substance in the
engine cylinder. The efficiency of engine using
air as the working medium is known as an “Air
standard efficiency”.
• This efficiency is oftenly called ideal efficiency.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY
• The actual efficiency of a cycle is always less
than the air-standard efficiency of that cycle
under ideal conditions.
• This is taken into account by introducing a new
term “Relative efficiency”
which is defined as :
• ηrelative = Actual thermal efficiency/Air
standard efficiency
• Assumptions :
1. The gas in the engine cylinder is a perfect gas
i.e., it obeys the gas laws and has constant
specific heats.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY
2. The physical constants of the gas in the
cylinder are the same as those of air at
moderate temperatures i.e., the molecular
weight of cylinder gas is 29.
• cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K, cv = 0.718 kJ/kg-K.
3. The compression and expansion processes
are adiabatic and they take place without
internal friction, i.e., these processes are
isentropic.

OTTO CYCLE OR CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE
• Otto cycle is so named as it was conceived
by the scientist ‘Otto’. On this cycle, petrol,
gas and many types of oil engines work.
• It is the standard of comparison for internal
combustion engines.
• Figs. 13.5 (a) and (b) shows the theoretical p-
V diagram and T-s diagrams of this cycle
respectively.

Process 1-2 Adiabatic Compression:
• The piston moves from BDC to TDCV
compression of the fuel-air mixture takes
place.
• The compression causes the mixture to
increase slightly in pressure and
temperature—however, no heat is
exchanged.
• In terms of thermodynamics, this is referred
to as an adiabatic process.

• When the cycle reaches point 2, that is
when the fuel is met by the spark plug to be
ignited.
• The point 1 represents that cylinder is full of
air with volume V1, pressure p1 and
absolute temperature T1.
• Line 1-2 represents the adiabatic
compression of air due to which p1, V1 and
T1 change to p2, V2 and T2, respectively.

• Process 2-3 Constant volume heat addition:
• This is where combustion occurs due to the ignition
of fuel by the spark plug.
• The combustion of the gas is complete at point 3,
which results in a highly pressurized chamber that
has a lot of heat (thermal energy).
• In terms of thermodynamics, this is referred to as
an isochoric process.
• Line 2-3 shows the supply of heat to the air at
constant volume so that p2 and T2 change to
• p3 and T3 (V3 being the same as V2).

Process 3 to 4: Adiabatic Expansion
• The thermal energy in the chamber as a result
of combustion is used to do work on the
piston—which pushes the piston down—
increasing the volume of the chamber.
• This is also known as the power stoke because
it is when the thermal energy is turned into
motion to power the machine or vehicle.
• During expansion p3, V3 and T3
• change to a final value of p4, V4 or V1 and T4,
respectively.

Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection
• All the waste heat is expelled from the
engine chamber.
• As the heat leaves the gas, the molecules
lose kinetic energy causing the decrease in
pressure.
• Then the exhaust phase occurs when the
remaining mixture in the chamber is
compressed by the piston to be "exhausted"
out, without changing the pressure.

Total Cylinder Volume:
• It is the total volume (maximum volume) of
the cylinder in which Otto cycle takes place.
In Otto cycle,
• Total cylinder volume = V1 = V4 = Vc + s
• (Refer p-V diagram above)
• where,
• Vc → Clearance Volume
• Vs → Stroke Volume

• Clearance Volume, Vc = V2
Clearance Volume (Vc):
• At the end of the compression stroke, the
piston approaches the Top Dead Center
(TDC) position. The minimum volume of the
space inside the cylinder, at the end of the
stroke, is called clearance
compression
volume (Vc).
• In Otto cycle,

Stroke Volume (Vs):
• In Otto cycle, stroke volume is the difference
between total cylinder volume and clearance
volume.
• Stroke Volume, Vs = Total Cylinder Volume –
Clearance Volume = V1 – V2 = V4 – V3
Compression Ratio:
• Compression ratio (r) is the ratio of total
cylinder volume to the clearance volume.

DIESEL CYCLE OR CONSTANT PRESSURE
• This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in
1897. It differs from Otto cycle in that heat is
supplied at constant pressure instead of at
constant volume. Fig. 13.15 (a and b) shows the
p-v and T-s diagrams of this cycle respectively.
This cycle comprises of the following operations :
(i) 1-2......Adiabatic compression.
(ii) 2-3......Addition of heat at constant pressure.
(iii) 3-4......Adiabatic expansion.
(iv) 4-1......Rejection of heat at constant volume.

Diesel cycle is an ideal cycle for Diesel
engines or compression ignition engines.
There is no fuel in the cylinder at the
beginning of the compression stroke,
therefore an autoignition does not occur in
Diesel engines.

DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

COMPARISON OF THE CYCLES
• comparison of the cycles (Otto, Diesel and
Dual) on the p-v and T-s diagrams for the
same compression ratio and heat supplied is
shown in the Fig.
• Since all the cycles reject their heat at the
same specific volume, process line from
state 4 to 1, the quantity of heat rejected
from each cycle is represented by the
appropriate area under the line 4 to 1 on the
T-s diagram.

COMPARISON OF THE CYCLES
• The least heat rejected will have the highest
efficiency.
• Thus, Otto cycle is the most efficient and
Diesel cycle is the least efficient of the three
cycles.
• ηotto > ηdual > ηdiesel
• For a given compression ratio Otto cycle is
the most efficient while the Diesel cycle is
the least efficient

BRAYTON CYCLE
• Brayton cycle is a constant pressure cycle for a
perfect gas. It is also called Joule cycle.
• The heat transfers are achieved in reversible
constant pressure heat exchangers. An ideal gas
• turbine plant would perform the processes that
make up a Brayton cycle. The cycle is shown in
the
• Fig. 13.33 (a) and it is represented on p-v and T-
s diagrams as shown in Figs. 13.33 (b) and (c).

BRAYTON CYCLE
The various operations are as follows :
Process 1-2:
The air is compressed isentropically from the
lower pressure p1 to the upper pressure p2, the
temperature rising from T1 to T2.
No heat flow occurs.
Process 2-3:
Heat flows into the system increasing the volume
from V2 to V3 and temperature from T2 to T3
whilst the pressure remains constant at p2.
Heat received = mcp (T3 – T2).

BRAYTON CYCLE
Process 3-4:
• The air is expanded isentropically from p2 to
p1, the temperature falling from T3 to T4.
• No heat flow occurs.
Process 4-1:
• Heat is rejected from the system as the
volume decreases from V4 to V1 and the
temperature from T4 to T1 whilst the
pressure remains constant at p1.
• Heat rejected = mcp(T4 – T1)

BRAYTON CYCLE

BRAYTON CYCLE
• The above equation shows that the efficiency of
the ideal joule cycle increases with the pressure
ratio.
• The absolute limit of upper pressure is
determined by the limiting temperature of the
material of the turbine at the point at which this
temperature is reached by the compression
process alone, no further heating of the gas in
the combustion chamber would be permissible
and the work of expansion would ideally just
balance the work of compression so that no
excess work would be available for external use.

RANKINE CYCLE

RANKINE CYCLE
• Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the steam
turbine (or engine) works.
• The Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 12.2. It comprises of the
following processes :
Process 1-2 :
• Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine (or steam
engine).
Process 2-3 :
• Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the condenser.
Process 3-4 :
•Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the feed pump.
Process 4-1 :
• Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the boiler.

RANKINE CYCLE
• Fig. 12.3 shows the Rankine cycle on p-v, T-s and h-s diagrams
(when the saturated steam enters the turbine, the steam can be
wet or superheated
• Considering 1 kg of fluid :
• Applying steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E.) to boiler, turbine,
condenser and pump :
(i) For boiler (as control volume),
we get hf4 + Q1 = h1
∴ Q1 = h1 – hf4...(12.2)
(ii) For turbine (as control volume), we get
h1 = WT + h2, where WT = turbine work
∴ WT = h1 – h2ated also).

1. With p-V and T-s diagrams derive the efficiency
of otto cycle.
of Diesel cycle.
of dual combustion cycle.
4. Differentiate between Otto cycle, diesel cycle
and dual combustion cycle.
of Rankine cycle.

1. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m3, pressure 1
bar and temperature 30°C at the beginning of compression stroke. At
the end of compression stroke, the pressure is 11 bar. 210 kJ of heat
is added at constant volume. Determine:
a. Pressures, temperatures and volumes at salient points in the cycle.
b. Percentage clearance.
c. Efficiency.
d. Mean effective pressure.
2. In a Diesel cycle, air a 0.1 MPa and 300 K is compressed adiabatically
until the pressure rises to 5 MPa. If 700 kJ/kg of energy in the form of
heat is supplied at constant pressure, determine the compression
ratio, cutoff ratio, thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure.
3. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20, and the
heat transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the
beginning of the compression process, the pressure is 0.1 MPa and
the temperature is 15°C. Consider ideal gas and constant specific
heat model. Determine the pressure and temperature at each point
in the cycle, The thermal efficiency, The mean effective pressure.

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