Types, characteristics and process of learning
- 2. LEARNING Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. John B Watson is one amongst the first thinkers who has proven that behavioural changes occur as a result of learning. Watson is believed to be the founder of Behavioural school of thought, which gained its prominence or acceptability around the first half of the 20th century. Gales defined Learning as the behavioural modification which occurs as a result of experience as well as training. Crow and Crow defined learning as the process of acquisition of knowledge, habits and attitudes.
- 3. Nature of learning Learning is Universal. Every creature that lives learns. Man learns most. The human nervous system is very complex, so are human reactions and so are human acquisition. Positive learning vital for children’s growth and development. 2. Learning is through Experience. Learning always involves some kind of experience, direct or indirect (vicarious). 3. Learning is from all Sides: Today learning is from all sides. Children learn from parents, teachers, environment, nature, media etc. 4. Learning is Continuous. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning. Every day new situations are faced and the individual has to bring essential changes in his style of behaviour adopted to tackle them. Learning is birth to death. 5. It results in Change in Behaviour. It is a change of behaviour influenced by previous behaviour. It is any activity that leaves a more or less permanent effect on later activity.
- 4. 6. Learning is an Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust himself adequately to the new situations. Most learning in children consists in modifying, adapting, and developing their original nature. In later life the individuals acquire new forms of behaviour. 7. It comes about as a result of practice. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. 8. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change. After a rat wake up from his nap he still remembers the path to the food. Even if you have been on a bicycle for years, in just a few minutes practice you can be quite proficient again. 9. Learning as Growth and Development. It is never ending growth and development. At reach stage the learner acquires new visions of his future growth and news ideals of achievement in the direction of his effort. According to Woodworth, “All activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual.” 10. Learning is not directly observable. The only way to study learning is through some observable behaviour. Actually, we cannot observe learning; we see only what precedes performance, the performance itself, and the consequences of performance.
- 5. The key characteristics of the learning process are: 1. When described in the simplest possible manner, learning is described as an experience acquisition process. 2. In the complex form, learning can be described as process of acquisition, retention and modification of experience. 3. It re-establishes the relationship between a stimulus and response. 4. It is a method of problem solving and is concerned about making adjustments with the environment. 5. It involves all those gamut of activities which may have a relatively permanent effect on the individual. 6. The process of learning is concerned about experience acquisition, retention of experiences, and experience development in a step by step manner, synthesis of both old and new experiences for creating a new pattern. 7. Learning is concerned about cognitive, conative and affective aspects. Knowledge acquisition process is cognitive, any change in the emotions is affective and conative is acquisition of new habits or skills.
- 6. Types of Learning 1. Motor learning:- Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination. 2. Verbal learning:- This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words for communication.
- 7. 3. Concept learning:- It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising, identifying things. 4. Discrimination learning:- Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc. 5. Learning of principles:- Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc. 6. Problem solving:- This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people. 7. Attitude learning:- Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.
- 8. VARIABLES/ FACTORS/CONDITIONS AFFECTING LEARNING A variable in learning is a factor that influences the learning process. The factors that affect learning can be divided into three types: A. Individual variable (Nature of the learner) B. Task variable (Nature of the learning material) C. Method variable (Nature of the learning situation)
- 9. A. Individual variables (Nature of the learner) The important individual variable that influence learnings are: Maturation Age Sex Intelligence/Aptitude--- Capacity Previous knowledge Physical handicaps Readiness to learn
- 10. B. Task variables (Nature of the learning material) The important task variables that influence learning are: Length of the material Difficulty level of the material Meaningfulness of the material
- 11. C. Method variables (Nature of the learning situation) The important method variables that influence learning are the following: 1. Method of learning: 2. Amount of practice 3. Distribution of practice: 4. Availability of incentives: 5. Nature of sensory approach/ Sensory Modality
- 13. LEARNING CURVE A learning curve is a correlation between a learner’s performance on a task and the number of attempts or time required to complete the task; this can be represented as a direct proportion on a graph. The learning curve theory proposes that a learner’s efficiency in a task improves over time the more the learner performs the task. A learning curve is a graphical representation of how learning takes place in a particular situation. It is a graph plotting the course of learning in which the ‘X’ axis represents some measures of practice while ‘y’ axis plots a measure of proficiency.
- 14. TYPES OF LEARNING CURVE Based on learning rates directions of the curve are drawn. The learning curves are of four types. 1. Linear acceleration- Straight line curve 2. Positive acceleration- concave curve 3. Negative acceleration- convex curve 4. S- shaped curve- concave-convex curve
- 15. Straight line curve This learning curve is also called Linearly accelerated curve. This curve is essentially a straight line. It shows a constant or uniform rate of progress in learning.
- 16. Concave curve This learning curve is also called Positively accelerated curve. The curve shows that learning is slow at the start but becomes faster with the progress of learning time.
- 17. Convex curve- This learning curve is also called negatively accelerated curve. It depicts rapid initial improvement in learning that decreases with time. At the initial the rate of progress maybe faster, but at the final the learning rate slows down noticeably.
- 18. S-shaped curve This learning curve is also called Concave-Convex Curve. The rate of learning is combination of both positive and negative accelerated curves. Thus learning depends on rapid of slow initial success followed by a reverse condition in learning.
- 19. LEARNING PLATEAU A flat place in a learning curve, indicating a period of little or no progress . The occurrence and persistence of a plateau depend on the nature of the task, the motivation, the approach of the learner, and the amount of previous experience he has had.
- 21. Study habit Study habit is an action such as reading, taking notes, holding study groups which the students perform regularly and habitually in order to accomplish the task of learning. Study habits can be described as effective or ineffective depending upon whether or not they serve the students well.
- 22. Adopting the right study mindset Knowing the course expectations Choosing an effective study location Having the right study materials Using helpful study strategies • rewrite your notes • outline your notes • use memory tricks like mnemonic devices • make flashcards • restate concepts in your own words Networking with peers Practicing self-care
- 23. Certain study habits to avoid Procrastination Cramming Multitasking with entertainment Not asking for help when you need it
- 25. Transfer of learning Transfer of learning means the use of previously acquired knowledge and skills in new learning or problem-solving situations. Thereby similarities and analogies between previous and actual learning content and processes may play a crucial role. Learning of one skill is used in another skill is the transfer of learning. Eg. Learning hockey and the skills used in cricket. Transfer of learning is one of the major goals of modern education. Education is worthwhile if it can be transferred
- 26. Definition of Transfer of learning According to Crow and Crow: “The carry over of habits of thinking, feelings or working of knowledge or skills from one learning areas to another is usually referred to as Transfer of learning” According to Sorenson: “ Transfer is refers to the transfer of knowledge, training and habits acquired in one situation to another situation” Acoording to Judd : “ Transfer is a form of generalization” According to Guthrie: “ Transfer may be defined as a process of extending and applying behaviour”
- 27. Characteristics of the transfer of learning: 1. All education should partake of the nature of the transfer. The curriculum must be practical and must make provisions for transfer to out of classroom situations, knowledge, habits, skills, abilities and attitudes acquired in the classroom 2. Subject matter must be chosen in terms of the learner’s present and future needs. The subject matter should point towards a way of life, fundamental of which are mastered in such a way that the learner can apply them progressively in the varied experiences of his life. 3. The transfer is dependent upon the teaching and learning methods. The transfer is also enhanced by motivation. There is convincing evidence that powerful motivation and the desire to succeed aids transfer. Thus, if people work without the desire to enhance the amount of transfer, no transfer will take place. 4. Transferability of learning outcomes depends upon the pupil’s readiness and willingness to learn. The transfer is enhanced by an emphasis on the principle of generalisation. It depends upon the ability of the individual to generalize past experience acquired in one situation and to apply it to new situations. 5. Teaching has less transfer value unless facts, habits, skills and attitudes are generalized and related to other situations in which they can be utilized. 6. Transfer of learning is to a considerable degree determined by intelligence.
- 28. Types of Transfer of learning or Training Positive Transfer: Transfer is said to be positive when something previously learnt benefits performance or learning in a new situation. Eg. Knowledge of typing is helpful in learning computer typing Negative Transfer: In case the previous learning hinders or block or interfere with performance or learning in a new situation. We call it negative transfer. Eg. Having learned to pronounce ‘but’ correctly, what happens later on when a similar type of spelling ‘put’ when this thing cropped up affects the children in a negative manner. Or Pronunciation of mother tongue becomes obstacles while pronouncing of English language Zero Transfer: When learning of one activity neither facilitates nor interferes with the learning of new work it is said to be zero transfer. Eg. There may be zero transfer between English Language and mathematics.
- 29. MOTIVATION Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to engage in goal- directed behavior. 3 Components of Motivation • Activation is the decision to initiate a behavior. An example of activation would be enrolling in psychology courses in order to earn your degree. • Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be showing up for your psychology class even though you are tired from staying up late the night before. • Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort (minimal intensity) while another student studies regularly, participates in classroom discussions, and takes advantage of research opportunities outside of class (greater intensity).
- 30. Achievement motivation A M is defined as an individual's ability to building up their skills and behaviors so that they can tap into their highest potential.
- 31. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Maslow first introduced the concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper, titled "A Theory of Human Motivation," and again in his subsequent book, "Motivation and Personality.” This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs. While some of the existing schools of thought at the time—such as psychoanalysis and behaviorism—tended to focus on problematic behaviors, Maslow was more interested in learning about what makes people happy and what they do to achieve that aim.
- 32. As a humanist, Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be self-actualized, that is, to be all they can be. To achieve this ultimate goal, however, a number of more basic needs must be met. This includes the need for food, safety, love, and self-esteem. Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior.2 There are five different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, starting at the lowest level known as physiological needs.
- 34. Physiological Needs The physiological needs include those that are vital to survival. Some examples of physiological needs include: • Food • Water • Breathing • Homeostasis (Homeostasis refers to an organism's ability to regulate various physiological processes to keep internal states steady and balanced. These processes take place mostly without our conscious awareness.) In addition to the basic requirements of nutrition, air, and temperature regulation, physiological needs also include shelter and clothing. Maslow included sexual reproduction in this level of the hierarchy as well, since it is essential to the survival and propagation of the species.
- 35. Security and Safety Needs At the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy, the needs start to become a bit more complex. At this level, the needs for security and safety become primary. People want control and order in their lives. Some of the basic security and safety needs include: • Financial security • Health and wellness • Safety against accidents and injury Finding a job, obtaining health insurance and health care, contributing money to a savings account, and moving to a safer neighborhood are all examples of actions motivated by security and safety needs.
- 36. Love and belonging needs The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include love, acceptance, and belonging. At this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behavior. Some of the things that satisfy this need include: • Friendships • Romantic attachments • Family relationships • Social groups • Community groups • Churches and religious organizations In order to avoid loneliness, depression, and anxiety, it is important for people to feel loved and accepted by others. Personal relationships with friends, family, and lovers play an important role, as does involvement in groups—such as religious groups, sports teams, book clubs, and other group activities.
- 37. Esteem Needs At the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. Once the needs at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a more prominent role in motivating behavior. At this level, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and appreciation of others. People have a need to accomplish things, then have their efforts recognized. In addition to the need for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, esteem needs include such things as self-esteem and personal worth. People need to sense that they are valued by others and feel that they are making a contribution to the world. Participation in professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic or team participation, and personal hobbies can all play a role in fulfilling the esteem needs. People who are able to satisfy esteem needs by achieving good self-esteem and the recognition of others tend to feel confident in their abilities.3 Conversely, those who lack self-esteem and the respect of others can develop feelings of inferiority.
- 38. Self-Actualization Needs At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. Self- actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their potential. "What a man can be, he must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need people have to achieve their full potential as human beings. Maslow’s said of self-actualization: "It may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, potentialities, etc. Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing. They are people who have developed or are developing to the full stature of which they capable."
- 39. Different Types of Needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs can be separated into two types of needs: deficiency needs and growth needs.4 Deficiency needs: Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs, which arise due to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences. Growth needs: Maslow called the needs at the top of the pyramid growth needs. These needs don't stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.
- 40. Achievement motivation Achievement motivation is defined as the need for achievement and is an important determinant of aspiration, effort, and persistence when an individual expects that his performance will be evaluated in relation to some standard of excellence. According to Achievement Motivation Theory, a person’s need to achieve something and the reason behind his/her overall motivation to achieve a certain goal, more often than not, comes from within and is strongly related to the individual’s need for power and affiliation. SMART goals Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time bound
- 41. “Achievement Motivation Theory attempts to explain and predict behavior and performance based on a person's need for achievement, power, and affiliation” (Lussier & Achua, 2007, p. 42). The Achievement Motivation Theory is also referred to as the Acquired Needs Theory or the Learned Needs Theory.