unit 2 principle of learning and teaching.ppt

UNIT TWO
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING
 Teaching and learning are the principal instruments for
the realization of the missions and objectives of higher
educator institutions.
 They are not conducted for their own sake nor would
their success be judged with out reference to the
missions and objectives of the institutions.
 Thus an overview of the missions and objectives of
HEIs is important to understand teaching and learning
in context.

1.1. Missions of HEIs/Higher education
Institution/ in Ethiopia
The missions of HEIs in Ethiopia are to:
 Produce professionals (qualified graduates) and
responsible citizens who can make significant contribution
to the overall development of the country;
 Provide opportunity for higher learning and lifelong
education;
 Discover and advance knowledge through research and
disseminate it to students, policy makers, scientific
communities, and other beneficiaries ;
.
2

Mission of HEI….
 Provide relevant expertise that help to
improve the life of the society;
 Help, protect and enhance societal values by
training young people in the values which
form the basis of democratic citizenship;
 Contribute to the development and
improvement of education at all levels,
including through the training of teachers
3

1.2. Objectives of HE in Ethiopia:
 The objectives of HEIs in Ethiopia are to:
 train knowledgeable, skilled, and attitudinally
mature graduates in different fields or disciplines
with demand-based proportional balance
 promote research focusing on technology transfer
consistent with the country’s priority needs
 ensure that education and research promote
freedom of expression based on reason and
rational discourse
 design and provide community and consultancy
services which are based on the developmental
needs of the country
4

Cont…
 maintain institutional autonomy and accountability
 ensure the participation of key stakeholders in the
governance of HEIs
 promote and uphold justice, fairness, and rule of law
in institutional life
 promote and uphold democratic culture and
multicultural community life
 ensure fairness in the distribution of public
institutions and expand access on the basis of need
and equity
5

1.3. What is Teaching
 Teaching may be defined from different philosophical
perspectives.
 In general, teaching refers to a planned and purposeful
professional activity that involves the transmission of
knowledge, skills and attitudes as well as facilitating
learning by creating, organizing and maintaining a wide
range of settings or environment that promote
effective learning.
Teaching; is an interaction b/n a teacher and students
under the teacher’s responsibility in order to bring
about expected behavior changes.
 Is teaching a science or an art or both? Why?
6

Teaching as a Science and an Art
 Teaching is both a science and an art.
It is a science because:
Effective teaching presupposes that teachers employ
scientific methods in order to determine and guide
their day to day instructional activities.
Any idea or method of teaching is subject to critical
assessment so as to check its appropriateness and
effectiveness to a particular circumstance before it is
accepted and implemented
7

Cont….
The teacher as scientist is a diagnostician in
the sense that he tries out new ideas as
hypotheses and conducts scientific enquiry
to find out where they do work well, and why;
and where they do not work well, and why.
Teachers as scientist are not vulnerable to
educational fashions and solutions that are
grounded on the ‘one size fits all’ view of
teaching.
8

Cont…
They rather employ scientific methods to
determine what works well and what not, and
why.
New ideas are adopted or rejected on the basis of
philosophical or logical principles and empirical
evidences.
Moreover teaching employs self-correcting
procedures, which is the typical characteristic of
science.
9

Cont…
 Teaching is not only a science. It is also an
art because:
The task of bringing about desirable learning
in students requires teachers to have
considerable artistry.
10

Cont…
The significance of the artistic dimension of
teaching may be justified on the premise that
classes do not fall into preconceived patterns..
Teaching requires not only a large stock of
knowledge and skills. It also requires teachers to
utilize their knowledge and skills in new forms
(improvise their teaching) at every moment.
11

To be effective, the teacher has to adjust his teaching
by selecting old tactics and creating new ones that are
right for the teaching-learning events or circumstances
at hand.
Hence, the artistic dimension of teaching is manifested
through teachers’ continuous improvisation of the
instructional techniques and tactics (actions and
decisions) so as to adjust their teaching to the
requirements of particular (unforeseen) classroom
events or circumstances.
12

Cont…
 Improvisation involves teachers in generating and
utilizing new teaching strategies and tactics that
are not only scientific, but also the work of art.
13

Purpose of teaching
It is to help student’s to;
acquire, retain and be able to use
knowledge
understand, analyze, synthesize and
evaluate problems
 achieve skills
establish habits
develop attitudes
14

Teaching approaches
talk to students =is a unidirectional flow of idea
talk with students = is much more better than the first,
is two way communication
Have them talk together =discussion method
Show students how = demonstration method, used to
teach skill
Supervise them =for practical skills
Provide opportunities for practice
15

1.4. What is Learning?
 Different people define learning in different ways.
For example, learning has been conceived as:
• Quantitative increase in factual information
• Reproduction of information
• The development of the mental caliber of the individuals
(the development of learning competency or the ability
to engage in higher level cognitive processes)
• Applying knowledge to solve problems
• Changing within oneself as a consequence of
understanding the world differently..
16

In general, learning is a process resulting in some
modification, relatively permanent, of the way of
thinking, feeling and doing of the learner. It includes
words such as education and training. Training usually
means learning to act or behave in a certain way or do
specific jobs/ skills. It usually puts less emphasis on
general thinking or knowledge than education does.
Education usually means that gaining general
theoretical knowledge and may not pay much attention
to learning how to do any specific work, tasks or skills.
17

1.5. Common Learning Theories
 Since the first quarter of the 20th
century a large
number of theories of human learning have been
developed by psychologists and educators. Many of
these theories may be broadly classified, in terms of
their orientations, as cognitive or behaviorist.
18

A . Behaviorist learning theories
 They define learning as observable changes in
behavior that result from stimulus-response (S-R)
sequence.
 Behaviorist theories conceive learning as a
conditioning process by which a person acquires a
new response.
 Learning is represented by a response which is
triggered by a particular stimuli and strengthened or
conditioned by rewards.
 Motivation and rewards are important components of
learning
19

 Behaviorists believe that human behavior is an
observable, and objectively measurable construct
 Advocates of this orientation concentrate on examining
actual, objectively observable and measurable activities
and events
 They believe that little scientifically valid knowledge
about human behavior can be obtained by investigating
internal mental activities and processes.
20

B. Cognitive Learning Theories
The cognitive orientation assumes that human
behavior is largely influenced by cognitive or
intellectual processes that occur in our mind
( such as thinking, feeling, perception, reasoning,
imagination, problem solving decision making etc.).
Learning is an internal activity which can not be
directly observed or empirically measured.
It focuses on the mental processes people use as
they acquire new knowledge and skills.
Thus, unlike behaviorist theories which focus on
observable behavior, cognitive theories study and
explain learning based on the internal and
unobservable processing, storage, and retrieval
of information in our brain.
21

C. Constructivism
 Constructivism is a model of human learning grounded
on the theories of prominent cognitive psychologists,
such as Bruner and Piaget.
 This model rejects the notion of ‘tabularaza’
 It argues that meaningful learning involves the process
of production rather than reproduction.
 It is based on the notion that learning involves
continuous building and amending of previous
knowledge structures, or schemata, as new knowledge
and experience are assimilated and accommodated.
22

 It claims that people construct their own
knowledge and understanding of the world
through experiencing things and reflecting on
those experiences.
 The principal role of the teacher in a constructivist
classroom is to create an environment in which
students ‘learn how to learn’…
 This involves encouraging students to use active
techniques (ask questions, explore, assess what
they know, conduct experiments, real-world
problem solving) that would lead them to:
(1) create more knowledge and understanding
(2) reflect on what they are doing
(3) assess how their understanding is changing
(4) enquire new ways to learn and understand
more and better. 23

Comparison of traditional Vs constructivist
views of teaching &learning
 Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole.
Emphasizes specific basic skills. Prone to disintegration
and fragmentation of knowledge.
 Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with
the whole and expanding to include the parts.
 Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued.
 Flexibility to accommodate student questions and
interests is highly valued.
24

 Learning is based on the notion of ‘tabularasa’
 Learning is interactive, building on what the student
already knows.
 Knowledge is seen as static / inert.
 Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our
experiences.
 Learning involves reproduction of information (teachers
disseminate information and students learn through
receiving and recitation of information).
 Learning involves production (teachers use different
strategies to help students construct their own
knowledge).
25

 The teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority.
 The teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.
 Assessment is conducted primarily through testing,
and emphasizes on correct answers.
 Assessment includes student works, observations, and
points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important
as product.
26

How does learning occur?
There are some hypothetical assumptions;
1.learning is personal or individual
it is depend on the interest of the individual.
2.learning occurs when there is an active mental
process/ active participation/
Learning occurs by the choice of the student
27

In general, teaching and learning are more
effective when:
Students are ready and want to learn.
Students are aware of what they need to learn (i.e.,
there are clear learning objectives or expected
outcomes).
New knowledge, skills, and attitudes build on what
students already know or have experienced.
Students are active and participate in their learning.
Students are encouraged to apply critical thinking
and alternative approaches supported by sound
reasons.
28

New knowledge, skills, and attitudes are realistic,
relevant, and can be put to immediate use.
New knowledge, skills, and attitudes are
demonstrated to students, applied by students, and
integrated into the students’ world.
Numerous opportunities are given for students to
practice both ideas and skills, and to receive
feedback on their performance through self-, peer,
or teacher assessment.
Feedback to students on their performance is
immediate, constructive, and nonjudgmental.
Teaching is interesting, pleasant, and exciting.
29

A variety of teaching methods and techniques is
used.
Teaching moves step-by-step from simple to
complex, and is organized, logical, and practical.
Ideas and concepts are presented clearly,
alternative explanations are presented, and
teachers check frequently for students’
understanding.
The learning environment is realistic, relevant, and
one of trust, mutual respect, relative calm,
helpfulness, freedom of expression, and acceptance
of different opinions and approaches.
“You can lead the horse to the water but you
don’t make it drink”
30

Characteristics of Learning
1. learning is unitary; the learners respond as a
whole person in a unified way to the whole
situation. They respond intellectually, emotionally,
physically and spiritually simultaneously.
2. learning is individual and social; learning is
social because it takes place in response to the
environment in which there are other individuals
as well as physical things. Each learner is unique
who has needs and problems not exactly like
others.
31

3. learning is self active; this principle states that a
student learns through their own activities. Learning
is a personal process. Self active learning includes
listening, visualizing, recalling, memorizing,
reasoning, judgment and thinking. Instructors are
expected to guide direct and select different types of
learning activities based on objectives. Extrinsic
factors such as teacher capability, text books and
social tradition are merely the conditions of its
development. The process of learning mainly depends
on student’s self-development.
32

4. learning is purposive; learning is moving toward a
goal or end result. It is a goal directed. Learning is
purposive, since the responses are selected and
organized in terms of relevance to learner’s goal.
5. learning is creative
6. Learning is transferable -transferable means that
what ever is learned in one context or situation will
also apply in an other context or situation.
Reflection, problem solving technique and
discussion methods will help mostly in the learning
approach of transferring knowledge.
33

Factors affecting Learning
The factors that influence learning may be classified in
to 4 categories
1.physiological factors
2.psychological factors
3.environmental factors
4.Methodology of learning
34

A. Physiological factors
It includes the following issues
1.sense perception
sensation and perception are the basis of all cognitive
learning. The weaker the power of perception, the
lesser the amount of learning. A person with visual
impairment learns far less than normal persons
provided that other conditions does not exist.
2.physical health
 ill health hampers learning.
35

3. Fatigue; studying longer time causes fatigue, which
affects the learning capacity.
4. Time of learning; morning and evening hours are
usually preferred for studying. During the day, there is
a decline in the mental capacity. (Bhatia, 1990)
5. Food & drink; nutrition is responsible for efficient
mental process.
6. Atmospheric condition; high temperature and
humidity lower mental efficiency. Low ventilation, lack
of proper elimination, noise and physical discomfort
hamper learning capacity.
36

7. Age; learning capacity varies with age. Thorndik
(1932)says that mental development increases up to
23years and halts after 40 years. Learning proceeds
rapidly b/n 18 and 20 years, remains stagnant until 25
and decline up to 35 years. Yet, even during old age
people still can learn new things. How ever, age
accompanies mental maturation and complex
problems need maturity.
37

B. psychological factors
These factors includes the following
1.Mental health ; Mental tension, conflict, and illness
hampers learning.
2.Motivation and interest
3.Success, praise and blame; praise stimulates
particularly small children to enjoy work and
learning. Elder children are more sensitive towards
blame than younger children.
38

Cont…
4. Rewards and punishment; rewards of all sorts are
powerful incentives for learning. How ever, people
become over dependant on rewards. Punishment
creates negative reaction. Studies have shown that
when punishments become frequent it interferes with
complex learning activities
39

c. Environmental factors
This includes
1. working conditions
2. organizational setup e.g. time tables or programs
D. Methodology of instructions
a.Presentation and organization of material
the learning materials should be properly planned and
organized.
It should be presented in a meaningful and interesting
manner
40

b. Learning by doing
 practice makes a man perfect. Meaningful repetition
and practice are important for the learner.
 The use of lecture should be minimal
c. Timely testing
 through continuous testing, feedback and
reinforcement, the learners know their exact
achievement. Occasional and periodic testing
motivates students
41

Teachers and learners in Higher education
 Learning is influenced by the teacher - learner
relationship. The roles of the teacher and the learner
vary in this relationship.
 On the one hand, the teacher can be a mere
transmitter of knowledge; the learner is entirely
dependent on what the instructor says or does. He or
she is then more of a "recipient" than a "learner".
 On the other hand, the teacher can play the role of a
guide, or a facilitator. The learner is assisted in
becoming autonomous, that is to say, in being able to
plan his/her learning.
42

Understanding the Higher Education Learner
 To improve and enhance the quality of education the
involvement of the higher education personnel and
students as major actors is very important.
 National and Institutional decision-makers should
place students and their needs at the centre of their
concerns, and should consider them as major
partners and responsible stakeholders in the renewal
of higher education.
 Learners with their own physical, moral,
psychological, mental, and social aspects of
personality and material and financial resources that
influence their learning abilities.
43

Cont…
 An understanding of the characteristics and needs of the
learner is a key factor for success in higher education.
 The effectiveness of teaching is largely dependent on the
nature of the learner. We need to consider such learner
variables as demographics (e.g. age and gender),
psychological characteristics (e.g. motivation and self-
concept), sociological characteristics (e.g. friendship and
social linkages), cultural background, and religious affiliation,
quality of preparation at the secondary school level, marital
status and family background in planning lessons.
 The knowledge of such cases helps the higher education
teacher to meaningfully plan and implement a course of
instruction for students.
Who are the students of higher institutions?
44

The settings in HEIs
What are the variables or factors that affect the
quality of teaching and learning in HEIs of
Ethiopia?
 Higher education institutions are institutions that
provide post secondary education.
 Their major responsibilities include, among other
things, training skilled manpower, promoting and
disseminating research and innovations, and
providing community services.
 Teaching and learning involve the interaction
among the teacher, the learner, the curriculum and
the institutional environment (the physical,
administrative and the social settings and the
existing policies).
45

The settings cont’d
In the context of HEIs of Ethiopia, effective teaching and
learning presuppose, among other things:
(1) the presence of capable and well-motivated
teaching force,
(2) the presence of students who are ready and
motivated to
learn
(3) well defined and organized curriculum and learning
materials,
(4) enabling institutional climate (the physical,
administrative and the social settings and conducive
policy environment ).
46

Learners and Teachers in HEIs
HE Learners
 It is suggested that HE teachers must consider
the unique characteristics and needs of learners
as they plan and execute instructional and non-
instructional activities.
 Understanding and addressing learners’ needs
and characteristics are important factors for
success in higher education. This is because;
The learners are the immediate clients or
beneficiaries of the HE program.
They are the major partners and stakeholders in
the renewal of HEIs.
47

HE Teachers
Responsibilities of teachers in HEIs
Brainstorming: What are the major
responsibilities of teachers in HEIs ?
 Designing courses and curriculum;
 Developing instructional materials;
 Teaching/ lecturing:
 Providing academic support,
Counseling and Supervision services to
students;
48

HE Teachers cont’d
 Innovation ;
 Assessment and evaluation;
 Research and publication;
 Community service.
49

Research profile of HE teachers
Research is important for HE teachers for the
following purposes:
 It enhances the quality of instruction
(education)
 It helps to discover and disseminate new
knowledge and understanding of the world
 Ensures teacher’s ability to advise students
(teachers need to be up-to-date to the theories
and methods of research)
 For promotion: Teachers’ active involvement in
research and publication is one of the
requirements for promotion
50

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