Unit iii ob at group level

Learning Block II: Study of OB at Group LevelLearning Block II: Study of OB at Group Level
Graduate Teaching Notes on OB
(2015)
Dr Chanakya P Rijal
Nepal College of Management
In Affiliation with
Kathmandu University, School of Management
Lalitpur, Nepal
1Dr Rijal's Discourses on OB

UNIT III: WORKING IN GROUPSUNIT III: WORKING IN GROUPS
Section 1: LeadershipSection 1: Leadership
Section 2: CommunicationSection 2: Communication
Section 3: Work GroupsSection 3: Work Groups
Section 4: Work TeamsSection 4: Work Teams
Section 5: Conflict NegotiationSection 5: Conflict Negotiation
Dr Rijal's Discourses on OB 2

Section 1: Leadership in PerspectiveSection 1: Leadership in Perspective
1. Introducing Leadership1. Introducing Leadership
a. Meaning
b. Scope
c. Functions
2. Selected Perspectives of Leadership2. Selected Perspectives of Leadership
a. Structural functionalist perspective
b. Political-conflict perspective
c. Constructivist perspective
d. Critical humanist perspective
3. Issues Governing Leadership3. Issues Governing Leadership

Are leaders born?
Can leadership be learnt?
What are the determinants of effective leaders and
leadership?
Are leaders different from managers?
What is the role of leadership in transformation?
Leadership: Learning AgendaLeadership: Learning Agenda

Your mission…is to win our wars…you are
the ones who are trained to fight. Yours is the
profession of arms, the will to win, the sure
knowledge that in war there is no substitute
for victory; That if you lose, the nation will be
destroyed.…
General of the US Army
Douglas Macarthur

The most precious commodity with
which the army deals is the individual
soldier who is the heart and soul of our
combat forces.
General J. Lawton Collins,
VII Corps Commander, World War II

The act of leading
One of the key management process functions.
Process of influencing people to do something that
they might otherwise not do.
Refers to ‘Getting It Done’.
An art which defies precise definitions.
The action through which one or more persons are
influenced or guided to behave the way they are
expected to.
Cannot occur without the consent of followers.
Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership

Leadership ranges from the smallest decision, such
as where to eat lunch, to the decisions that affect the
directions of nations.
Attainment of agreement upon goals or purposes is
important, but the group or organization is an
important part of the leadership process.
Once individuals turn as successful leaders, they are
more likely to accept or seek more challenging
opportunities
Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership

Leadership
Influencing people by providing the purpose,
direction, and motivation while operating to
accomplish the mission and improving the
organization.

Influencing
Getting people to do what you want them to
do.
The example you set is just as important as
the words you speak.
Through your words and example, you must
communicate purpose, direction, and
motivation.

Persuades people with a reason to something.
You must earn their trust: they must know
from experience that you care about them and
would not ask them to do something
particularly dangerous or affective unless
there is a good reason, and unless the task is
essential to mission accomplishment.
Purpose

Communicate the way you want the mission
be accomplished.
Prioritize tasks.
Assign responsibility and communicate;
delegate authority when necessary.
Make sure your people understand the
standard.
Listen, and correct the limitations that oppose
your direction.
Direction

People want direction. They want to be given
challenging tasks, training in how to accomplish
them, and the resources necessary to do them well.
Then they want to be left alone to do the job.

Motivation gives subordinates the will to do
everything they can to accomplish a mission.
To motivate your people, give them goals that
challenge them.
Get to know your people and their capabilities.
Give them as much responsibility as they can.
Motivation

When they succeed, praise them.
When they fall short, give them credit for what they
have done and coach or counsel how to do better
next time.
Make sure that the example you set is as important
as what you say and how well you manage the
work.
Motivation

Actions taken to influence others serve to
accomplish operating actions
Take take those actions that help accomplish the
stated goals.
All leaders execute operating actions, which
become more complex as they assume positions of
increasing responsibility.
Operating

Leaders should strive for improving everything that
is entrusted to them, their people, facilities,
equipment, training, and all resources.
Improving

Means Ends
Efficiency Effectiveness
Goals
Low High
wastage attainment
Leadership Vs. Efficiency and Effectiveness

1. Planning
1. Define goals
2. Establish strategy
3. Develop tactics/subplans
3. Leading
1. Direct the people
2. Motivate the people
3. Resolve the conflicts
2. Organizing
Determine:
1. What to be done
2. How to be done
3. Who is to do
4. Controlling
Motivate activities
to ensure that they
are accomplished
as planned.
Achieving the
organization’s
stated purpose
Leadership as One of the Management Functions

Manager Characteristics
Administers
A copy
Maintains
Focuses on systems and structures
Relies on controls
Short-range view
Asks how and when
Eye on the bottom line
Imitates
Accepts the status quo
Classic good soldier
Does things right
Manager Vs. LeaderManager Vs. Leader
Leader Characteristics
Innovates
An original
Develops
Focuses on people
Inspires trust
Long-range perspective
Asks what and why
Eye on the horizon
Originates
Challenges the status quo
Own person
Does the right things
Warren G. Bennis, Managing the dream: leadership in 21st century, journal of
Organizational Change Management, vol. 2, No. 1, 1989, p. 7

Personal
Goal Setting
Elements of Self-Leadership
Constructive
Thought Patterns
Designing
Natural Rewards
Self-Monitoring
Self-Reinforcement

Weber has defined THREE types of leadership
legitimacies:
• Traditional Legitimacy,
• Charismatic Legitimacy, and
• Bureaucratic Legitimacy
Legitimacy - what makes you a leader!

Legitimacy to control is handed down from the past
Based on most traditional forms of customs
Obedience based on loyalty to traditions
Leadership decisions can be arbitrary
Leadership authority is limited by the displeasure of
the subjects, and failure to follow traditions
Examples: Kingdoms of China, Egypt, family schools
Pros: Leadership is clearly defined
Cons: Possible irrationalism, easily corrupted
Traditional Legitimacy

Based on Inspiration: Vision and projection
Legitimacy occurs after leader proves him/herself
Examples: Jesus Christ, Hitler, Ghandi
Pros: The leader is not restricted by tradition and
technical knowledge
Cons: Power can be abused, and people can be
mislead into following
Charismatic Legitimacy

Power is given based on skills, knowledge, and
experience.
Obedience is based on rank which is completed for
and earned.
Structured hierarchy prevails.
Examples: Headteacher, Army General, Catholic
Church
Pros: Rational, technically efficient, and favours
levelling of social classes
Cons: Breeds impersonality and contempt, and stunts
enthusiasm.
Bureaucratic Legitimacy

Accountability and responsiveness to be the
central aspects.
External environmental forces likely to create
unexpected pressure.
Management rigidity to be the strongest enemy
of leadership.
Nations more likely to go for international jobs.
Leadership to be applied in every sector.
Future of LeadershipFuture of Leadership

To set standards and accountabilities for operational
outcomes produced at all levels.
Measure the outcomes to confirm that they have positive
relationship with the improvements made.
Initiate changes for systems improvement to facilitate long
term system’s transformation.
Communicate the problems, prospects, and necessary
changes with the external forces, and seek their continued
support.
Create and maintain international partnerships.
Enhance overall team effectiveness
Roles of Current LeadershipRoles of Current Leadership

Systems thinking
Organizational designing
Stewardship: share vision
and purpose
Creating creative tensions
Teaching for development
Other Important Roles of LeadersOther Important Roles of Leaders

Do all people want to lead?
Is it the part of universality of leadership to pay
high for the managers from the developed
countries?
Is leadership not dominated by situation?
Does legacy of leadership have its final definition?
Leadership DilemmasLeadership Dilemmas

The change or legacy of a good leader will last
longer after the leader has left the role.
Role model unconsciously important role in writing
leadership schools
A school, once it is created, provides a platform to
play for all and forever.
Bad aspects are dominated and ignored.
Leadership EffectsLeadership Effects

2. Leadership in Perspectives2. Leadership in Perspectives
Slater (1995) has defined leadership from four
major perspectives:
Structural-Functionalist Perspective
Political-Conflict Perspective
Constructivist Perspective
Critical Humanist Perspective

Structural Functionalist PerspectiveStructural Functionalist Perspective
This is a dominant perspective of leadership.
It sees leadership as a set of measurable behavior or
skills.
Includes all functional activities covering planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling of the resources
for their best utilization to make the institutional
operations more cost effective.

Political-Conflict PerspectivePolitical-Conflict Perspective
This perspective contrasts with the structural-
functionalist perspective because it does not see
leadership as a set of behavior and skills, rather it
sees it as power relationship with the subordinates.
'Structure of domination' is the essence of this
perspective.
This perspective can be seen as the relationship
between the manager and other members.

Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective
This perspective also tends to see leadership as the
leader behaviors and skills.
It emphasizes that the majority of the behavior and
skills become dominated by one or two major
behaviors that lead the functioning of other
behaviors and skills.
As its symbolic aspect, this perspective tends to
convey the meaning that the underlying dynamic
social laws construct the structure of the society.

Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective
This perspective disagrees that the social structure
or the social science, and administration are value
free.
Creating and imparting values for life is the essence
of this perspective of leadership.
Since institutions are for providing products or
services with value for life, this perspective is
instrumental in better understanding the philosophy
of leadership.

This perspective deals with the human relations at
the workplace.
Creating motivating jobs, providing guidance, love
and care, and offering a vision for the team, one
may be able to establish personally as a leader.
The indicators of the humanist perspective of
leadership are the personality traits, and leader
member relations.
Critical Humanist PerspectiveCritical Humanist Perspective

Perspectives of LeadershipPerspectives of Leadership
To summarize from the various leadership
perspectives, it may be concluded that leader
behavior has to be measured in terms of -
leader's relationship of power position,
leader’s behavior and skills to add values to
the society, and
leader’s personality traits to figurehead the
work teams.

Issues Governing LeadershipIssues Governing Leadership
Political-legal issuesPolitical-legal issues
Economic issuesEconomic issues
Socio-cultural issuesSocio-cultural issues
Technological issuesTechnological issues
International issuesInternational issues

Selected Leadership Theories
Trait Theories
Behavioral Approaches
Contingency Approaches
Neocharismatic Approaches

Trait Theory
The theories that sought personality, social,
physical, or intellectual traits that differentiated
leaders from nonleaders
The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders to
keep them distinct from others
For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the prime
minister of UK, was recognized for her leadership in
terms of her confidence, iron-willed, determined,
and decisive.

A research study was conducted in the 1930s to
study the attributes that differentiate the leaders
from nonleaders.
A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80
leadership traits, though the study was not aimed to
identify the leadership traits
Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them
were common to all cases, which included
personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.
Trait Theory

Earliest approach to study leadership
Used to identify great persons from masses
Based on the assumption of -
certain traits = success/effectiveness
The logic of leadership traits is as basic as
height, as complex as intelligence
Trait Theory

How Leaders Differ from Nonleaders?
According to Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991),
leaders can be distinguished from nonleaders
on the basis of SIX attributes or traits:
• Drive
• Desire to lead
• Honesty and integrity
• Self-confidence
• Intelligence
• Job-relevant knowledgeDr Rijal's Discourses on OB 44

Important Traits of Effective Leaders
Personality
Persuasive
Persistence
Patience
Probity
Praise giving
Positive orientation
 People BasedPeople Based
 PossiblePossible
 PracticalPractical
 ProgressiveProgressive
 PreparedPrepared
 Power-buildingPower-building
13 Ps

Personality Factors for Effective Leadership
Capacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status
Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic
position
Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity
Verbal
facility
Athletic
accomplishment
Initiative Cooperation
Originality Personality
adjustment
Persistence Adaptability
Judgment Aggressiveness Humor
Self-confidence
Desire to excel

Criticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership
The belief that personality traits determine the rate of
success of a leader could easily be challenged because
practically it is very hard to distinguish leaders from
non-leaders based on personality traits
There exists a very thin relationship between traits and
leader’s success
Some traits are achieved by birth
Personality traits without motivation are worthless for
success
It does not look like a theory
“Traits Plus Motivation Equals Leadership”

Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
Pattern of actions used by different
individuals determines leadership potential
Examples
Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire
Michigan Studies: Employee centered
versus task centered

Three Approaches to Behavioral Studies
1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid

1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
Lewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest
contributors of leadership study in a scientific
manner.
The authors specialized in leadership styles while
conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s
at the University of Iowa.
The suggested leadership styles include:
• Autocratic
• Democratic
• Laissez-Faire

When Quantity of work is important
When Quality of work is important
When Satisfaction with work is important
Which is the Best Style?
Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire
Most Least
Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire
Best Worst
Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic
Most Least

Tannenbaum and Schmidt
- Continuum of Leadership Behavior
Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire
Use of Authority by the Manager
Area of Freedom for Subordinates
Boss- Centered
Leadership
Subordinate- Centered
LeadershipDr Rijal's Discourses on OB 52

Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:
1.Forces in the Leader
2.Forces in the Subordinate Group
3.Forces in the Situation
Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum

2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
Key Contributions
a. Ohio State University Studies
b. Michigan State University Studies

Ohio State University Studies
Two Dimensions
Initiating structure: The extent to which a
leader is likely to define and structure his/her
role and roles of subordinates in the search for
goal attainment
Consideration: The extent to which a leader is
likely to have job relationships characterized
by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’
ideas, and regard of their feelings

Initiating Structure
Is task oriented
Directs subordinate work activities toward goal
attainment
Typically give instructions, spend time planning,
and emphasize deadlines
Provide explicit schedules of work activities
Consideration
Is mindful of subordinates
Establishes mutual trust
Provides open communication
Develops teamwork

Two Dimensions
Employee Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes interpersonal relations;
relationship oriented.
Production Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes on technical or task
aspect of the job; result oriented.
Michigan State University Studies
Similar to Ohio StudiesSimilar to Ohio Studies

Studies Based on Leadership Grid
Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the
graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view of
leadership
The authors proposed a managerial grid showing the
key managerial styles of ‘concern for people’ and
‘concern for production’
The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine
matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles

The Managerial Grid
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for People
ConcernforTask
(1,9)(1,9)
(9,1)(9,1)
(9,9)(9,9)
(5,5)(5,5)
(1,1)(1,1)

Figure 13.4 B: The Managerial Grid
High
High
Low
Low
Concern for Production
ConcernforPeople
1,9
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to the needs of people
for satisfying relationships leads to a com-
fortable, friendly organization atmosphere
and work tempo.
1,1 Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required
work done is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
9,9
Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people;
interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.
5,5
Middle-of-the-Road Management
Adequate organization performance is possible
through balancing the necessity to get out work
with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.
Authority-Compliance 9, 1
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such a
way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree. 60Dr Rijal's Discourses on OB

Leadership Styles
Likert’s System Four
System I—Exploitive Autocratic
System II—Benevolent Autocratic
System III—Consultative
System IV—Participative Group

Contingency Theories of Leadership
Leader traits and/or leader behaviors are
important aspects but must be taken in context.
That is, the situation matters.

Selected Studies on Contingency Approaches
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life
Cycle) Theory
House’s Path-Goal Theory

LPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER
Low LPC Score: task-oriented leader
High LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader
According to Fiedler, a person is one or the
other - it is a fixed personality trait

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY
THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
A person’s LPC score correlates with:
Task structure
Leader/Member relations
Leader position power
in terms of group effectiveness

Three Elements of Leadership Situations
Leader-member relations: refers to group
atmosphere and members’ attitude toward and
acceptance of the leader
Task structure: refers to the extent to which tasks
performed by the group are defined, involve
specific procedures, and have clear, explicit
goals
Position power: is the extent to which the leader
has formal authority over subordinates

Task-Oriented (low LPC)
Leader is best when situation either favorable
or unfavorable
Employee-Oriented (high LPC)
Leader is best when situation is moderately
favorable

POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY
1.Train leaders in needed style
(Fiedler says no)
2.Match the leader with the job
(Fiedler says this is a good start)
3.Engineer the job to fit the manger
(Fiedler says this is the best approach)

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
A contingency approach to leadership that
links the leader’s behavioral style with the
task readiness (maturity) of subordinates.
Also known as ‘life cycle’ theory.

Situational Leadership
No single best way to lead
Focus on maturity or readiness of followers
Ability and willingness
Adjust emphasis on task and relationship
behaviors according to the readiness of
followers to perform their tasks

Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model
Based on
Style of leadership
• Giving direction (task behaviour)
• Giving motivational support (relationship
behaviour)
“Readiness” of followers to perform a task
• Ability
• Willingness

Situational Leadership
Telling: low readiness, untrained and
inexperienced employees
Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but
inexperienced employees
Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but
unwilling, employees skeptical
Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and
willing to take responsibility

Hersey and
Blanchard’s
Situational
Leadership
Model Defines
Relationship
Between
Maturity and
Four
Leadership
Styles
HighHigh
relationshiprelationship
Low taskLow task
High taskHigh task
HighHigh
LowLow
Low taskLow task
High taskHigh task
LowLow
M1M1
M2M2M3M3
M4M4
Participating
Delegating
Telling
Selling
HighHigh
LowLow HighHigh
Task BehaviorTask Behavior
RelationshipBehaviorRelationshipBehavior
Style ofStyle of
LeaderLeader
ImmatureImmatureMaturityMaturity
AbilityAbility
WillingnessWillingness
M1M1M2M2M3M3M4M4
HighHigh ModerateModerate LowLow
This person is able
(has the necessary
knowledge and skill)
This person is willing
(has the necessary
confidence and
commitment)
Maturity of Followers
Psychological maturity
Job maturity
A great dealA great deal
44
Quite a bitQuite a bit
33
SomeSome
22
LittleLittle
11
UsuallyUsually
44
OftenOften
33
On occasionOn occasion
22
SeldomSeldom
11

HOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY OFHOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY OF
LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP
 Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 A leader should emphasize either path
clarification or adjust rewards depending on
the factors affecting a person’s motivation
 Theory assumes people can change their
leadership styles to fit the situation

Situational Contingencies
Three Important Situational Contingencies
in Path-Goal Theory
 The personal characteristics of group
members
 The work environment
 The situation

Path-goal Theory
Rooted in Expectancy Theory
Leader behaviors
Directive
Supportive
Achievement-oriented
Participative

Path-Goal Model of Leadership
Follower CharacteristicsFollower Characteristics
1.1. Locus of controlLocus of control
2.2. AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism
3.3. AbilityAbility
OutcomesOutcomes
1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction
2.2. PerformancePerformance
3.3. Acceptance of the leaderAcceptance of the leader
FollowersFollowers
1.1. PerceptionsPerceptions
2.2. MotivationMotivation
Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors
1.1. TasksTasks
2.2. Formal authority systemFormal authority system
3.3. Work groupWork group
Leader Behavior StylesLeader Behavior Styles
1.. DirectiveDirective
2.. SupportiveSupportive
3.. ParticipativeParticipative
4.. Achievement-orientedAchievement-oriented

Change Leadership
Transactional Leader: Provides direction for
subordinates to achieve set objectives (typical “good
manager” using position power and some personal
power).
Transformational Leader: Special ability to create
innovation & change (charismatic leader within an
organization – high on position & personal power).

Effects of Change Leadership
Transactional
Leadership
Current
state of
expected
subordinate
effort
Normal
expected
subordinate
performance
Transformational
Leadership
Heightened
motivation
to attain
designed
outcome
(extra effort)
Subordinate
performance
beyond
normal
expectations

Transformational Leadership
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Performance
beyond
expectations
Performance
beyond
expectations
Agreed upon
performance
Agreed upon
performance
Broadening and
elevating
follower
goals
Leader/follower
exchange

Characteristics of Transactional LeadershipCharacteristics of Transactional Leadership
Establishes goals and objectives
Designs work flow and delegates task assignments
Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort
Rewards performance and recognizes
accomplishments
Searches for deviations from standards and takes
corrective actions

Characteristics of Transformational LeadershipCharacteristics of Transformational Leadership
Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of
mission, gains respect and trust, instills pride.
Individualized consideration: Gives personal
attention, and treats each person individually,
coaches.
Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning,
encourages rationality, uses careful problem solving.
Inspirational: Communicates high performance
expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills
essential purposes.

Participative Management
 Democratic approach of management
 Employees have autonomy in making and
implementing decisions
 Leader invites wider participation of the
subordinates in making and selling decisions
 Exists high degree of delegation of authority
 Managers listen and value the subordinate
suggestions
 High degree of customer focus exists
 A move into TQM process climate

Management by Objectives (MBO)
 A management system in which specific performance goals
are jointly determined by employees and their managers,
progress toward accomplishing those goals is periodically
reviewed, rewards are allocated on the basis of the progress
in accomplishing the goals.
 Goal achievement is the key of MBO.
 Management approach is driven by the nature of
performance objectives and goals.
 MBO consists of four elements -- i. goal specificity, ii.
participative decision making, iii. an explicit time
period, and iv. performance feedback.

Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
 A term used to describe when a manager is out in
the work area, interacting directly with employees,
and exchanging information about what’s going on.
 MBWA is a management control process which
follows THREE steps:
 Measuring actual performance,
 Comparing actual performance with the standard
performance, and
 Taking managerial actions for further
improvement

Management by Exception
 An alternative approach of management when the
other conventional laws management do not work
 Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,
transformational, and transactional leadership
approaches
 Examples:

Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement
does not work

Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work

Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it

Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things

Learning Organization
 An organization with exceptional work culture.
 The most open type of organization.
 An organizational system in which fear of
ignorance and inability is eliminated through
relevant training and development.
 People learn through open interactions.
 Managers value subordinate problems and their
suggestions.
 Creativity creeps eternally in all members .
 A move towards TQM process climate.

Key Findings from Leadership Theories
Transformational leaders inspire higher
performance than do transactional leaders.
Effective leaders must be concerned about
accomplishing the task and relationships.
Effective leaders know when to tell, sell,
participate, or delegate.
Effective leaders understand mission and strategy,
know how to implement change, motivate
employees to high performance, and operate
effectively.
Effective leaders lead by example and are honest
and fair. They inspire confidence.

Reasons for Derailment of Top Management
Rank the following in order of importance. Choose 1 for the reason you feel is most
important, 2 for next most important, etc.
a) Betrayal of Trust—failure to meet commitments
b) Cold, aloof, arrogant
c) Overdependence on one’s boss or mentor
d) Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating
e) Over-managing: unable to delegate or build a team
f) Unable to think broadly or strategically - too much attention to detail
and minor technical problems
g) Unable to adapt to a boss with a different style
h) Unable to select and develop an effective staff
i) Overly ambitious—plays politics, pushes too hard to get ahead
j) Failure to handle specific performance problems - failure to handle
problems then not admit the problem, try to cover up or shift blame
Source: “What Makes a Top Executive” by McCall and Lombardo,Source: “What Makes a Top Executive” by McCall and Lombardo, Psychology TodayPsychology Today, February 1983, February 1983

Section 2: CommunicationSection 2: Communication

Functions of Communication
Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make decisions.
Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make decisions.
Communication
The transference and the understanding of meaning.

Elements of the Communication Process
The sender
Encoding
The message
The channel
Decoding
The receiver
Noise
Feedback

The Communication Process Model
Communication Process
The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the
transference and understanding of meaning.

The Communication ProcessThe Communication Process
Channel: The medium selected by the sender through
which the message travels to the receiver.
Types of Channels
Formal Channels
• Are established by the organization and transmit messages that
are related to the professional activities of members.
Informal Channels
• Used to transmit personal or social messages in the
organization. These informal channels are spontaneous and
emerge as a response to individual choices.

Information Richness of Communication ChannelsInformation Richness of Communication Channels
Low channel richness High channel richness
Routine Nonroutine

Direction of Communication
Upward
Downward
Lateral

Interpersonal Communication
Oral Communication
Advantages: Speed and feedback.
Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.
Written Communication
Advantages: Tangible and verifiable.
Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback.
Nonverbal Communication
Advantages: Supports other communications and
provides observable expression of emotions and feelings.
Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or
gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of
message.

Three Common Formal Small-Group NetworksThree Common Formal Small-Group Networks

Small-Group Networks and
Effectiveness Criteria
NETWORKS
Criteria Chain Wheel All Channel
Speed Moderate Fast Fast
Accuracy High High Moderate
Emergence of a leader Moderate High None
Member satisfaction Moderate Low High

Grapevine
Grapevine Characteristics
Informal, not controlled by management.
Perceived by most employees as being more believable
and reliable than formal communications.
Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use
it.
Results from:
• Desire for information about important situations
• Ambiguous conditions
• Conditions that cause anxiety

Computer-Aided Communication
E-mail
Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost
for distribution.
Disadvantages: information overload, lack of emotional
content, cold and impersonal.
Instant messaging
Advantage: “real time” e-mail transmitted straight to the
receiver’s desktop.
Disadvantage: can be intrusive and distracting.

Emoticons: Showing Emotion in E-Mail
Electronic mail needn’t be emotion free. Over the
years, a set of symbols (emoticons) has evolved that e-
mail users have developed for expressing emotions.
For instance, the use of all caps (i.e., THIS PROJECT
NEEDS YOUR IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!) is the
e-mail equivalent of shouting. The following
highlights some emoticons:

Computer-Aided Communication (cont’d)
Intranet
A private organization-wide information network.
Extranet
An information network connecting employees with
external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.
Videoconferencing
An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits face-
to-face virtual meetings via video links.

Barriers to Effective Communication
Filtering
A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be
seen more favorably by the receiver.
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of
their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
Information Overload
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an
individual’s processing capacity.

Barriers to Effective Communication (contd.)
Emotions
How a receiver feels at the time a message is received
will influence how the message is interpreted.
Language
Words have different meanings
to different people.
Communication Apprehension
Undue tension and anxiety about oral
communication, written communication, or both.

Communication Barriers
Between Men and Women
Men talk to:
Emphasize status,
power, and
independence.
Complain that women
talk on and on.
Offer solutions.
To boast about their
accomplishments.
Women talk to:
Establish connection
and intimacy.
Criticize men for not
listening.
Speak of problems to
promote closeness.
Express regret and
restore balance to a
conversation.

“Politically Correct” Communication
Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals.
In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive
to kown how words might offend others.
Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly
Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired,
and senior.
Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes it
harder to communicate accurately.
Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.
Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome,
postconsumer waste materials, educational equity, and
people of gender.

Cross-Cultural CommunicationCross-Cultural Communication
Cultural BarriersCultural Barriers
Semantics
Word connotations
Tone differences
Differences among
perceptions
Cultural GuideCultural Guide
Assume differences until
similarity is proven.
Emphasize description
rather than interpretation
or evaluation.
Practice empathy.
Treat your interpretations
as a working hypothesis.

Hand Gestures Mean Different
Things in Different Countries

Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in
Different Countries (contd.)

Communication Barriers and Cultural ContextCommunication Barriers and Cultural Context
High-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on
nonverbal and subtle situational
cues to communication.
Low-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on words to
convey meaning in communication.

High-
vs.
Low-
Context
Cultures

Section 3: Work Groups

Definition of a Group
A collection of
individuals, the
members accept a
common task, become
interdependent in their
performance, and
interact with one
another to promote its
accomplishment. Dr Rijal's Discourses on OB 114

What is a Group?
A group is defined as two or more individuals
interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular goal.
Group work is often seen as a set of people working
together to achieve a common goal.
To define a group, a group must have certain
qualities.

Work Group
“each member is conscious about their own and
others existence within the group … members have
common aims or ideals that to some extent bind
them together … members influence and respond to
each other in the process of communicating”,
(Jaques, 2000).

Characteristics of group
Collection of People
Interaction & Interdependence
Similar Interests
Common goals
Role Differentiation

Why do people join Groups?
Security
Status
Self-esteem
Affiliation
Power
Goal Achievement

 Committee
 Consortium
 Panel
 Jury
 Departments
 Units
 SBUs
 Branches
 Friendship
groups
 Interest
groups
 Grapevines

Types of Group
There can be different types of groups . The most
common way of distinguishing between groups is to
categorizing the groups into --
1.Formal groups: Formal groups are deliberately
created by the organization in order to help the
organizational members achieve some of the important
the organizational goals.
2. Informal groups: A group that is neither formally
structured nor organizationally determined it appears
in response to the need for social contact.

Basic Comprison of Formal and Informal GroupsBasic Comprison of Formal and Informal Groups

1.Command Group
It is determined by the
organizational chart
depicting the approved
formal connections
between individuals in an
organization.
Eg: Director,
 faculty members in a business
school,
 school head,
 Teachers,
 Production,
 manager and supervisors, etc.

Task groups
It comprizes some
individuals with
special interest or
expertise, are created
by the organizational
authorities to work
together in order to
complete a specific
task.
• Examples:
process action
teams,
Concurrent
engineering
teams,
task forces
Project Members

Although group dynamics is generally
associated with informal norms and roles,
formally designated work groups also have
noticeable dynamics.
Example: Committee
Dynamics of Formal work GroupsDynamics of Formal work Groups

Committee
1.Standing committee
It is a permanent
committee in an
organization to deal
with some specific
types of problems that
may arise more or less
on a regular basis.
Example:of standing
committees include
the standing
committee in a
university to discuss
various institutional
management issue.

Committee
2.Task force or ad-hoc committee
It is a temporary committee formed by
organizational members from across various
functional areas for a special purpose.
Meeting scan also come under this category.

Nature of Informal Groups
Unofficial
Focus
Basis
Communication
Guidelines for
behavior
Source of power
Major concept
Source of control
Co –existence
Environmental
Adaptation

Significance of Informal group
Sense of belonging
& security
Safety valve for
emotional problems
Self image
Channel of
communication
Authority check
Reduce supervision
Social control
Ventilation
Innovation
Performance

Informal groups
1. Interest groups
are formed when a group of employees band together
to seek some common objectives, like protesting
some organizational policy or joining the union to
achieve a higher amount of bonus.
2.Friendship groups
develop among the organizational members when
they share some common interest like participating
in some sports activities or staging the office
drama, etc. Dr Rijal's Discourses on OB 129

Informal groups Cont…
Reference group are the groups, with which
individuals identify and compare them selves.
These could be within the organization when a
middle level executive compares himself with the
higher level executive the .
The reference group might exist outside the
organization as well when an individual compares
himself with his batch mates working in other
organizations or an ideal group of people he likes to
become.

Formation of Groups
A group or team passes through five
lifecycle stages.
Forming.
Storming.
Norming.
Performing.
Adjourning.

Stages of Group development

Adjourning/Mourning
Completion, ending or
evolution
Performing
Achieving the purpose
Norming
Agreeing purpose and
conduct
Storming
Resolving differences
Forming
Initial meeting together
Stages of Group Formation & PerformanceStages of Group Formation & Performance

Cont…
Forming stage.
Initial entry of members to a group.
Members concern’s include:
• Getting to know each other.
• Discovering what is considered acceptable behavior.
• Determining the group’s real task.
• Defining group rules.

Cont…
Storming stage.
A period of high emotionality and tension
among group members.
• Formation of coalitions and cliques.
• Dealing with outside demands.
• Clarifying membership expectations.
• Dealing with obstacles to group goals.
• Understanding members’ interpersonal styles.

Cont…
Norming stage.
The point at which the group really begins to
come together as a coordinated unit.
• Holding the group together.
• Dealing with divergent views and criticisms.
• Dealing with a premature sense of accomplishment.

Cont…
Performing stage.
Marks the emergence of a mature, organized,
and well-functioning group.
Members deal with complex tasks and handle
internal disagreements in creative ways.
Primary challenge is to continue to improve
relationships and performance.

Cont…
Adjourning stage.
Particularly important for temporary groups.
A well-integrated group is:
• Able to disband when its work is finished.
• Willing to work together in the future.

 It helps shape the behavior of its members,
predict the behavior and guide the performance of
the group as a whole.
Group Structure

Groups of 5-7 members exercise the best
elements of both small and large groups.
 Social Loafing - The tendency for individuals to
expend less effort when working collectively than
when working individually.
Group Structure

Group Structure
1.Size & Composition
Size is the number of persons in group
which affects group behavior and
composition is degree of similarity or
difference among group members.
Large groups
Small groups

Group Structure
2.Roles
Roles deal with what people do
Role is a set of position related expected
behavior patterns in a social unit
Task Oriented roles
Relation oriented role

Group Structure
3. Norms
Norms are the
acceptable standards
of behavior shared by
group members
Norms influence the
behavior of group
members that apply to
all group members
Performance Norms
Appearance Norms
Social Arrangement
Norms
Resource allocation
norms

Group Structure
4.Status4.Status
Status is a socially defined
rank given to groups or
group members by others
Status symbol
Status equity

 The processes that go on within a work group e.g.
communication patterns, group decision processes,
leader behaviour, power dynamics, conflict
interactions etc.
 Synergy, and
 Social
 Sacilitation
effect.
Group Processes

Complexities of Work Groups
Diversity
Communication Gap
Interpersonal differences
personal skill competence
Conflicts

Benefits and dangers
Significant sites of socialization and education –
enabling people to develop a sense of identity
and belonging, and to deepen knowledge, skills,
and values and attitudes.
Places where relationships can form and grow,
and where people can find help and support.
Settings where wisdom flourishes.

Section 4: Work Teams

Work Team
temporary or ongoing task group whose
members work together to identify problems,
form consensuses about actions to be taken, and
implement the most viable ones
not appropriate for all organizations or in all
types of businesses
to mesh workers into cohesive groups in order to
attain a common goal

TYPES OF TEAMSTYPES OF TEAMS
Work team: group of individuals who cooperate in completing a set of
tasks.
Integrated work team: group that accomplishes many tasks by making
specific assignments to members and rotating jobs among them as the
tasks require.
Autonomous (or self-managing) work team: given almost complete
autonomy in determining how a task will be done.
Entrepreneurial team: group of individuals with diverse expertise and
backgrounds.
Quality circles: comprise small groups of employees who work on
solving specific problems related to quality and productivity, often with
stated targets for improvement.

PUTTING THE TEAM TOGETHER
Forming a team involves a great deal more than just
throwing several people together and assigning them a goal
Effectiveness of a team begins to diminish over 12
members.
Ideal size is typically centered around 6 and can drift as
high as 9.
When formal groups are established with large numbers,
they inevitably partition into subgroups.
When considering the size of a team, a firm must also be
conscious of the necessity of assembling a diversity of skills
and functional expertise

NORMS IN THE TEAM CONCEPT
Teams cannot work effectively to accomplish their
goals if they do not establish norms by which they
will operate.
Group norms are not designed to cover every
conceivable situation in which a team might become
involved they address only those situations which
are significant to the team.
Not all norms apply to every team member

CONFORMITY TO NORMS
Individuals conform to team norms for a variety of
reasons.
People generally feel more comfortable in groups
whose members share some common personal
factors.
Intelligence is also an important factor in group
conformity.
Situational factors are also integral part in the team
concept. Such factors include the size of the group.

Building a team
Successful team building, that creates effective, focused work teams.
Requires attention to each of the following.
Clear Expectations
1. Has executive leadership clearly communicated its expectations
for the team’s performance?
2. Do team members understand?
3. Why the team was created?
4. Is the organization demonstrating constancy of purpose in
supporting the team with resources of people, time and money?
5. Does the work of the team receive sufficient emphasis as a
priority in terms of the time, discussion, attention and interest
directed its way by executive leaders?

Contexts
1. Do team members understand why they are participating on the
team?
2. Do they understand how the strategy of using teams will help the
organization attain its communicated business goals?
3. Can team members define their team’s importance to the
accomplishment of corporate goals?
4. Does the team understand where its work fits in the total context of
the organization’s goals, principles, vision and values?

Commitment
1. Do team members want to participate on the team?
2. Do team members feel the team mission is important?
3. Are members committed to accomplishing the team mission
and expected outcomes?
4. Do team members perceive their service as valuable to the
organization and to their own careers?
5. Do team members anticipate recognition for their
contributions?
6. Do team members expect their skills to grow and develop on
the team?
7. Are team members excited and challenged by the team
opportunity?

Competence
1. Does the team feel that it has the appropriate people participating?
2. Does the team feel that its members have the knowledge, skill and
capability to address the issues for which the team was formed?
3. If not, does the team have access to the help it needs?
Charter
1. Has the team taken its assigned area of responsibility and designed
its own mission, vision and strategies to accomplish the mission.
2. Has the team defined and communicated its goals; its anticipated
outcomes and contributions; its timelines; and how it will measure
both the outcomes of its work and the process the team followed to
accomplish their task?

Control
1.Does the team have enough freedom and empowerment to feel the
ownership necessary to accomplish its charter?
2.At the same time, do team members clearly understand their
boundaries?
3.How far may members go in pursuit of solutions?
Collaboration
1.Does the team understand team and group process?
2.Do members understand the stages of group development?
3.Are team members working together effectively interpersonally?
4.Do all team members understand the roles and responsibilities of team
members?
5.Can the team approach problem solving, process improvement, goal
setting and measurement jointly?
6.Do team members cooperate to accomplish the team charter?

Communication
1.Are team members clear about the priority of their tasks?
2.Is there an established method for the teams to give
feedback and receive honest performance feedback?
3.Does the organization provide important business
information regularly?
4.Do the teams understand the complete context for their
existence?
Creative Innovation
1.Is the organization really interested in change?
2.Does it value creative thinking, unique solutions, and new
ideas?
3.Does it reward people who take reasonable risks to make
improvements?
4.Or does it reward the people who fit in and maintain the
status quo?
5.Does it provide the training, education, access to books and
films, and field trips necessary to stimulate new thinking?Dr Rijal's Discourses on OB 159

Section 5: Conflict Negotiation

Concept
Conflict is the situation where someone
believes that his/her own needs has
been denied.
Or
There is a felt discomfort between at
least two parties brought into action.

Conflict Defined…
Is a process that begins when one party perceives that
another party has negatively affected, or is about to
negatively affect, something that the first party cares
about.
• Is that point in an ongoing activity when an interaction
“crosses over” to become an interparty conflict.
Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people
experience in organizations
• Incompatibility of goals
• Differences over interpretations of facts
• Disagreements based on behavioral expectations

 Any changes or transformation thatAny changes or transformation that
happens within a group structure, itshappens within a group structure, its
members, and their working patterns ismembers, and their working patterns is
referred to as group dynamism.referred to as group dynamism.
 Forces operating in groups that affectForces operating in groups that affect
group performance and membergroup performance and member
satisfaction.satisfaction.
 If the group is an open system that
transforms resource inputs into product
outputs, group dynamics are the processes
through which this transformation is
accomplished.
GROUP DYNAMICS & CONFLICT

INTERGROUP DYNAMICS
Dynamics of Intergroup competition
(deal with unhealthy competition after it occurs)
appealing to a common goal that can unite the
groups
getting direct negotiations started between the
groups
identify a common enemy that can unite the
groups
training members of the groups to work
cooperatively

Transitions in Conflict Thought
Causes:
• Poor communication
• Lack of openness
• Failure to respond to
employee needs
Causes:
• Poor communication
• Lack of openness
• Failure to respond to
employee needs
Traditional View of Conflict
The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided.

Transitions in Conflict Thought (cont’d)
Human Relations View of Conflict
The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any
group.
Interactionist View of Conflict
The belief that conflict is not only a
positive force in a group but that it is
absolutely necessary for a group to
perform effectively.

Functional versus Dysfunctional
Conflict
Functional Conflict
Conflict that supports the goals of
the group and improves its
performance.
Dysfunctional Conflict
Conflict that hinders
group performance.

Types of Conflict
Task Conflict
Conflicts over content and
goals of the work.
Relationship Conflict
Conflict based on
interpersonal relationships.
Process Conflict
Conflict over how work gets done.

LEVELS AND TYPES OF CONFLICT
LEVEL OF CONFLICT TYPE OF CONFLICT
ORGANIZATION WITHIN & BETWEEN ORGANIZATION
GROUP WITHIN & BETWEEN GROUP
INDIVIDUAL WITHIN & BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL

Levels and Types of Conflict (Cont.)
Intra-organizational conflict
Conflict that occurs within an organization.
It occurs at various functional levels and
interferes them.
Can occur along the vertical and horizontal
dimensions of the organization.

Vertical conflict : Between managers and
subordinates working at different levels within an
organization.
For example: Conflict between Marketing Manager
and Marketing Assistant
Horizontal conflict: Between departments and
workgroups.
For example: ??

Intra-group conflict
Conflict among members of a group
Early stages of group development
Ways of doing tasks or reaching group's goals
For example: ???
Intergroup conflict:
Conflict between two or more groups
For example: ???

Interpersonal Conflict
Between two or more people.
Differences in views about what should be done
Efforts to get more resources.
Differences in orientation to work and time in
different parts of an organization.

Intrapersonal conflict
Occurs within an individual
Threat to a person’s values
Feeling of unfair treatment
Multiple and contradictory sources of
socialization
Related to the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
What about examples of such conflicts?

Inter-organizational conflict
Between two or more organizations
May or may not be the competing institutions
Example: Conflict between the marketing
channels and logistics support service
organizations

Conflict Formation and Handling ProcessConflict Formation and Handling Process

Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
Communication
Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and “noise”
Structure
Size and specialization of jobs
Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity
Member/goal incompatibility
Leadership styles (close or participative)
Reward systems (win-lose)
Dependence/interdependence of groups
Personal Variables
Differing individual value systems
Personality types

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization
Positive FeelingsPositive FeelingsPositive FeelingsPositive FeelingsNegative EmotionsNegative EmotionsNegative EmotionsNegative Emotions
Conflict DefinitionConflict DefinitionConflict DefinitionConflict Definition
Perceived Conflict
Awareness by one or more
parties of the existence of
conditions that create
opportunities for conflict to
arise.
Felt Conflict
Emotional involvement in a
conflict creating anxiety,
tenseness, frustration, or
hostility.

Stage III: Intentions
Cooperativeness: Attempting to satisfy the other party’s concerns.
Assertiveness: Attempting to satisfy one’s own concerns.
Cooperativeness: Attempting to satisfy the other party’s concerns.
Assertiveness: Attempting to satisfy one’s own concerns.
Intentions
Decisions to act in a given way.

Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions

Stage III: Intentions (cont’d)
Competing
A desire to satisfy one’s interests, regardless of the
impact on the other party to the conflict.
Collaborating
A situation in which the parties to a conflict each
desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.
Avoiding
The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.

Stage III: Intentions (cont’d)
Accommodating
The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the
opponent’s interests above his or her own.
Compromising
A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing
to give up something.

Stage IV: Behavior
Conflict Management
The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to
achieve the desired level of conflict.

Conflict-Intensity Continuum

Conflict Management Techniques

Stage V: Outcomes
Functional Outcomes from Conflict
Increased group performance
Improved quality of decisions
Stimulation of creativity and innovation
Encouragement of interest and curiosity
Provision of a medium for problem-solving
Creation of environment for self-evaluation and change
Creating Functional Conflict
Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders.

Stage V: Outcomes
Dysfunctional Outcomes from Conflict
Development of discontent
Reduced group effectiveness
Retarded communication
Reduced group cohesiveness
Infighting among group members overcomes
group goals

Negotiation
Negotiation
A process in which two or more parties exchange
goods or services and attempt to agree on the
exchange rate for them.
BATNA
The Best Alternative To a
Negotiated Agreement; the
lowest acceptable value
(outcome) to an individual
for a negotiated agreement.

Negotiation Strategies
1. I win, you lose
2. I lose, you win
3. I lose, you lose
4. I win, you win

Bargaining Strategies
Distributive Bargaining
Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of
resources; a win-lose situation.
Integrative Bargaining
Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that
can create a win-win solution.

Distributive Vs. Integrative Bargaining
Bargaining Distributive Integrative
Characteristic Characteristic Characteristic
Available resources Fixed amount of Variable amount of
resources to be divided resources to be divided
Primary motivations I win, you lose I win, you win
Primary interests Opposed to each other Convergent or congruent
with each other
Focus of relationships Short term Long term

Conflict-Handling Intention: CompetitionConflict-Handling Intention: Competition
When quick, decisive action is vital (in
emergencies); on important issues.
Where unpopular actions need implementing (in
cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline).
On issues vital to the organization’s welfare.
When you know you’re right.
Against people who take advantage of
noncompetitive behavior.

Conflict-Handling Intention: CollaborationConflict-Handling Intention: Collaboration
To find an integrative solution when both sets of
concerns are too important to be compromised.
When your objective is to learn.
To merge insights from people with different
perspectives.
To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into
a consensus.
To work through feelings that have interfered with a
relationship.

Conflict-Handling Intention: AvoidanceConflict-Handling Intention: Avoidance
When an issue is trivial, or more important issues
are pressing.
When you perceive no chance of satisfying your
concerns.
When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of
resolution.
To let people cool down and regain perspective.
When gathering information supersedes immediate
decision.
When others can resolve the conflict effectively
When issues seem tangential or symptomatic ofDr Rijal's Discourses on OB 194

Conflict-Handling Intention: AccommodationConflict-Handling Intention: Accommodation
When you find you’re wrong and to allow a better
position to be heard.
To learn, and to show your reasonableness.
When issues are more important to others than to
yourself and to satisfy others and maintain
cooperation.
To build social credits for later issues.
To minimize loss when outmatched and losing.
When harmony and stability are especially
important.
To allow employees to develop by learning fromDr Rijal's Discourses on OB 195

Conflict-Handling Intention: CompromiseConflict-Handling Intention: Compromise
When goals are important but not worth the effort of
potential disruption of more assertive approaches.
When opponents with equal power are committed to
mutually exclusive goals.
To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues.
To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure.
As a backup when collaboration or competition is
unsuccessful.

Staking Out the Bargaining Zone

The
Negotiation
Process

Issues in Negotiation
The Role of Personality Traits in Negotiation
Traits do not appear to have a significantly direct effect
on the outcomes of either bargaining or negotiating
processes.
Gender Differences in Negotiations
Women negotiate no differently from men, although
men apparently negotiate slightly better outcomes.
Men and women with similar power bases use the same
negotiating styles.
Women’s attitudes toward negotiation and their success
as negotiators are less favorable than men’s.

Why American Managers Might Have Trouble in Cross-Cultural
Negotiations?
 Italians, Germans, and French don’t soften up executives with praise
before they criticize. Americans do, and to many Europeans this
seems manipulative. Israelis, accustomed to fast-paced meetings, have
no patience for American small talk.
 British executives often complain that their U.S. counterparts chatter
too much. Indian executives are used to interrupting one another.
When Americans listen without asking for clarification or posing
questions, Indians can feel the Americans aren’t paying attention.
 Americans often mix their business and personal lives. They think
nothing, for instance, about asking a colleague a question like, “How
was your weekend?” In many cultures such a question is seen as
intrusive because business and private lives are totally
compartmentalized.

Third-Party Negotiations
Mediator
A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated
solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and
suggestions for alternatives.
Arbitrator
A third party to a negotiation
who has the authority to dictate
an agreement.

Third-Party Negotiations (cont’d)
Consultant
An impartial third party, skilled in
conflict management, who attempts to
facilitate creative problem solving
through communication and analysis.
Conciliator
A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link
between the negotiator and the opponent.

Conflict
and Unit
Performance

Outcomes of Better Conflict NegotiationsOutcomes of Better Conflict Negotiations
Agreements: Strive for equitable and fair
agreements that last.
Stronger Relationship: helps to build bridges of
goodwill & trust for the future.
Learning: Greater self awareness & creative
problem solving.
Relationship: Better
Organizational Culture: conducive

Unit iii ob at group level

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Unit iii ob at group level