Unit1 summary

1
MIT Industry Systems Study
Communications Satellite Constellations
Engineering Systems Learning Center (ESLC)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Unit 1
“Technical Success and Economic Failure”
Version 1.1, October 14, 2003
Abstract
This systems study takes us back to 1987, when the idea of global satellite
constellations providing personal mobile communications was first conceived. We will
retrace the history of Iridium and Globalstar from 1987 to 2002 and discuss the
technological and business context of both systems. The technical case presents the
underlying multiple access technologies and the advantages and challenges of
operating satellites in low Earth orbit rather than in the more common
geosynchronous belt. The business case involves estimating lifecycle cost, forecasting
demand and quantifying a pricing strategy. The enthusiasm and telecomm boom in
the 1990’s fueled the development of new technologies and architectures and led to
billions of dollars of investment. Satellite bulk manufacturing, intersatellite links, and
constellation management were all impressive firsts achieved during this time.
Unfortunately, the subscriber market forecasts turned out to be overly optimistic and
both systems, Iridium and Globalstar, ended up in bankruptcy. Two assignments are
included in this unit. The first is a brief role play during class, where various
stakeholder groups are asked to negotiate post-bankruptcy scenarios. The second
assignment is an individual problem set. The fundamental questions addressed by this
unit are: (1) "How can it be that these complex engineering systems were so successful
technically, but ultimately ended up as business failures?” (2) “What can we learn
from this experience for architecting and designing future engineering systems?”
Learning Objectives
After completing this unit you should be able to:
1. Explain the history and basic technical principles of communication satellites.
2. Quantify the business case and understand the underlying assumptions.
3. Summarize the key technological and manufacturing innovations that were required to
implement global communications satellite constellations in the late 1990s.
4. Understand the main reasons for economic failure of Iridium and Globalstar in their
aerospace and telecommunications industry context.
5. Extract lessons learned for architecting and designing similar systems in the future.

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Disclaimer Statement: The material in this industry systems study was created for educational purposes only.
In no way do the statements made in this study express official positions of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. The material may not be used for any purpose other than classroom or distance learning
instruction. Copyright © 2003 M.I.T.- Engineering Systems Learning Center.
Author Information: Prof. Olivier de Weck (deweck@mit.edu), Room 33-410, Prof. Richard de Neufville
(ardent@mit.edu) , Room E40-245, Darren Chang (darrenz@mit.edu) , Mathieu Chaize (chaize@mit.edu),
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
Materials
Unit Material
- Unit 1: Lecture slides (unit1_lecture.ppt)
- Unit 1: “Technical Success and Economic Failure” (unit1_summary.htm) – this file
- Unit 1: Spreadsheet of relevant FCC data (unit1_data.xls)
- Unit 1: In-class stakeholder assignment (unit1_stakeholders.htm)
- Unit 1: Problem set (unit1_problemset.htm)
Reference Material
- Communications Satellites: “Making the Global Village Possible” by David J. Whalen – A
brief history of communications satellites (satcomhistory.html)
- Iridium FCC Filing, December 3, 1990 (SAT-AO-19901204-00068.pdf)
- LEO Commercial Market Projections, May 1998, Associate Administrator for Commercial
Space Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration (leomarket98.pdf)
- Class Action Lawsuit against Iridium and Motorola, April 26, 1999 (classaction.html)
- A list of additional references (some with URL links) is contained in the back of this
document.
Time required: Approximately 3 hours preparation, 1.5 hours in class, 3 hours homework.
Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................1
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................................1
Materials...............................................................................................................................................2
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................2
Historical Background..........................................................................................................................3
Concept of LEO Satellite Constellations (The Technical Case)..........................................................4
Communications Satellite Economics 101 (The Business Case).........................................................8
Iridium System ...................................................................................................................................14
Globalstar System ..............................................................................................................................19
Successes and Failures .......................................................................................................................22
Summary ............................................................................................................................................26
References and Endnotes ...................................................................................................................26

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Historical Background
The idea of satellites in geosynchronous Earth orbit was first mentioned by H. Potocnik, an
Austrian military officer in 1928 who published under the pseudonym Hermann Nordung. Sir
Arthur C. Clarke’s article “Extra-Terrestrial Relays” in the October 1945 issue of the British
magazine Wireless World is credited with first presenting the concept of communications satellites
in 24-hour orbits. The first operational communications satellites were launched into
geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) in 1962 (TELSTAR and RELAY). Since then communications
satellites have supported commercial intercontinental telephone service, television broadcasting,
scientific missions and space shuttle operations, among others. A more detailed history of
communications satellites is discussed in the article “Communications Satellites: “Making the
Global Village Possible” by David J. Whalen. To this day the majority of communications satellites
operate in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO), which causes them to appear fixed in the sky to users
on the ground.
A distinct change occurred in the early 1990’s after interconnections between large numbers of
satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) became technically feasible. The satellites would be
dynamically cross-linked and form a constellation, providing global coverage. However, of the
roughly 35 LEO constellations for which the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has
received applications from 1990 to 2001, only three were actually built: Iridium (by Motorola),
Globalstar (by Loral) and Orbcomm (by Orbital Sciences). A database summarizing these FCC
filings is contained in the reference material for this unit. Two of these systems, Iridium and
Globalstar, were actually built and are of particular interest to us due to their scale and complexity.
The conceptual design of both systems started as early as 1985. Iridium filed for its operations
permit and frequency allocation in 1990 from the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) and
Globalstar followed suit in 1991. The following paragraphs briefly examine the background of the
telecommunication industry in the late 1980s and early 1990s to set the context for this study.
.
In 1980 many of the telecommunications applications that we take for granted today were not
yet available. Both public internet and terrestrial-based cellular phone systems were technological
wonders that still had to be matured in order to find broad consumer acceptance. The primary
backbone of the telecommunications infrastructure was the public switched telephone network
(PSTN), carrying mainly voice and some low bandwidth data signals such as telefax and embryonic
computer data traffic. This was essentially the same system that had grown organically since the
early 20th
century in all industrialized nations. The main disadvantage was that PSTN was limited to
developed areas were end user equipment could be directly connected to the network by wire. The
only way to provide global wireless communications was via GEO satellites. INMARSAT was the
first system to provide satellite telephone service – mainly for marine users. A constellation formed
by three GEO satellites, 120o
apart in longitude, can provide communications coverage to anywhere
on the surface of the Earth below approximately 70o
of latitude. GEO systems, however, have at
least three major disadvantages:
1. Because GEO systems orbit the earth at an altitude of 35,786 kilometers, the time delay for
one-way transmission between the satellite and the ground is at least 120 milliseconds, which is
perceivable in two-way voice communications.
2. Losses along the ~36,000 km long path are high, since signal strength falls off with the square
of the distance between transmitter and receiver. High power transmitters and large antennas are

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required for the user terminals on the ground to overcome these losses. This reduces the mobility of
end user terminals to the point where handheld personal devices for GEO communications are
impractical.
3. With bulky and expensive terminals, GEO systems could only win over a small group of
users, typically consisting of mariners, field workers, and military personnel. As a consequence,
GEO systems were unable to generate a customer base large enough to lower the cost of service
significantly based on economies of scale. The typical cost of a GEO satellite was around $100-200
million with launch costs on the order of $50 million in the mid-1990s.
The astute reader will have realized that these three disadvantages are not isolated from each
other. They all have their origin in one root cause: distance. Practical personal satellite
communications would not be possible without overcoming the distance factor. The main players in
the telecommunications industry realized the same problem in late 1980s and were actively
searching for – primarily technological - solutions. This led to the development of Low Earth Orbit
(LEO) communication satellite constellation systems. The next section describes the technical
fundamentals of these systems. The business case is described below. Lloyd Wood maintains an
excellent overview of satellite constellations on the internet1
.
Back to Table of Contents
Concept of LEO Satellite Constellations (The Technical Case)
A LEO communication satellite constellation system is a constellation of satellites that orbit the
Earth at an altitude of about 500-1500 km and provide wireless communications between terminals
on the ground. There are two major types of constellations: Polar and Walker (see Figure 1.). Both
constellations are designed to provide the most efficient global coverage by using a minimum
number of satellites, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. A polar constellation
provides coverage for the entire globe, including the poles, while a Walker constellation only covers
areas below a certain latitude (such as +/-70o
in the case of Globalstar). With the same number of
satellites, a Walker constellation can therefore provide a higher diversity than a polar constellation.
Diversity is the average number of satellites simultaneously in view of a user on the ground. A high
diversity will bring technical benefits such as higher availability, fewer dropped connections and
reduced multipath fading.
Figure 1. Polar (left) and Walker satellite constellation (right).

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Some of the systems have inter-satellite links (ISLs) and onboard processing that allow
transmission between neighboring satellites in the constellation, while other systems act as “bent
pipes” that simply “bounce” the signals between different ground users. Ground users can be either
an end user terminal in the form of a “satellite phone”2
or a gateway. The gateway has a larger
antenna dish and is connected to the PSTN to allow communications between satellite phones and
traditional wired ground telephones. The concept is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. LEO communications satellite constellation concept. The orbital altitude, h, is typically
between 500-1500 km. The minimum elevation angle, εmin, is typically 5-15 degrees.
LEO systems overcome the distance problem that plagues the GEO systems. Time delay for
LEO systems is on the order of 10 milliseconds, negligible for voice communication. The short
distance also reduces the requirement on power and antenna size. As a result, LEO satellite phones
are much more compact, which enables them to be carried by individual users. The smaller
distance, however, comes at a price. While three GEO satellites, separated by 120 degrees in
longitude, can cover the entire globe below 70 degrees of latitude, LEO constellations typically
require dozens of satellites to ensure continuous global coverage because the footprint of a LEO
satellite is much smaller. Technically, these systems are more challenging than GEO satellites,
because a LEO satellite will travel in the sky from West to East at roughly 7 km/sec and will only
be visible between 7 and 20 minutes depending on satellite altitude and user position relative to the
satellite’s ground track. Longer calls must therefore be seamlessly switched over from one satellite
to the next. This requires complex (and therefore expensive) switching hardware and software.
Also, many GEO satellites work in a one way broadcast mode, i.e. one source of transmission in
orbit and many receivers on the ground. LEO satellites on the other hand require two-way many-to-
many connections, which increases the need for frequency bandwidth as well as hardware and
software complexity of both space and terrestrial elements.
The following paragraphs will briefly cover the concepts of multiple access and spot beams,
which are the foundation of LEO communications constellations. This will help explain satellite
communications in general and will lay the foundation for subsequent units of this systems study.

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We can view radio frequency (RF) transmissions as propagating in three domains: the frequency
domain, time domain, and spatial domain. In the U.S., the frequency bands are assigned to
communication systems by the FCC. The assigned frequency band is then typically divided into
channels of equal bandwidth. Each channel carries one transmission. This scheme is called
frequency division multiple access (FDMA). The division typically happens inside a spot beam and
between neighboring spot beams (The concept of spot beams will be discussed below.) The FDMA
scheme is illustrated in Figure 3.
Channel
band
Guard
band
assigned frequency band
Figure 3. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) scheme
Besides frequency, access time to a system can also be divided into frames, and frames are
again divided into time slots. A basic channel is formed by a particular time slot inside every frame.
This is the time-division multiple access (TDMA) scheme. In the forward link (satellite-to-user
terminal downlink) and return link (user-to-satellite uplink), usually the same frame structure is
used. In order to avoid simultaneous transmission and reception of a user, the corresponding time
slots for the forward and return links are separated in time. The TDMA scheme is illustrated in
Figure 4.
uplink downlink uplink downlink uplink downlink uplink downlink
Time slot
Guard
time
time frame
F
Framing
time slot
Figure 4. Time division multiple access (TDMA) scheme
Frequently, satellite manufacturers have made use of hybrid multiple access schemes. In
multiple frequency-time division multiple access (MF-TDMA), multiple TDMA carriers at different
frequency channels are used to increase the total number of channels, as illustrated in Figure 5. In
this way, the same frequency band can be used more efficiently compared with pure FDMA.

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Duplex user
channel 1
Duplex user
channel 4
Duplex user
channel 3
Duplex user
channel 2
Duplex user
channel 5
Duplex user
channel 8
Duplex user
channel 6
Duplex user
channel 7
Duplex user
channel 9
Duplex user
channel 12
Duplex user
channel 10
Duplex user
channel 11
Duplex user
channel 473
Duplex user
channel 476
Duplex user
channel 474
Duplex user
channel 475
Duplex user
channel 477
Duplex user
channel 480
Duplex user
channel 478
Duplex user
channel 479
Time
slot 8
8.64 ms
Time
slot 7
8.64 ms
Time
slot 6
8.64 ms
Time
slot 5
8.64 ms
Time
slot 4
8.64 ms
Time
slot 3
8.64 ms
Time
slot 2
8.64 ms
Time
slot 1
8.64 ms
41.67KHz
Frequency
channel3
Time domain: frame length = 90 ms
Frequencydomain:bandwidth=5.15MHz
41.67KHz
Frequency
channel1
41.67KHz
Frequency
channel2…41.67KHz
Frequency
channel119
41.67KHz
Frequency
channel120
Uplink Downlink Uplink DownlinkUplink DownlinkUplink Downlink
Duplex time channel 1 Duplex time channel 2 Duplex time channel 3 Duplex time channel 4
Figure 5. Multiple frequency-time division multiple access (MF-TDMA) scheme for Iridium
Aside from FDMA and TDMA, there exists a third popular multiple access scheme. Using a
unique pseudorandom noise (PN) code, a code division multiple access (CDMA) transmitting
station spreads the signal in a bandwidth wider than actually needed. Each authorized receiving
station must have a matching PN code to retrieve the information. Other channels may operate
simultaneously within the same frequency spectrum as long as different, orthogonal codes are used.
The CDMA scheme is illustrated in Figure 6. This is the primary operating mode of most ground-
based cellular telephone systems. In MF-CDMA, multiple CDMA carriers at different frequencies
are used to increase the total number of channels.
Figure 6. Code division multiple access (CDMA) scheme.

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LEO communication satellites typically concentrate their transmission power in multiple spot
beams. Each spot beam covers a cell on the ground, and all the cells together form the footprint of
the satellite. The spot beam contour is usually defined by the area where the antenna concentrates
50% of its radiation power. (This is equivalent to a -3dB decrease in antenna gain relative to the
peak gain.) The usage of spot beams offers two advantages: 1. Focusing transmitted power on a
much smaller area than the total coverage area of the satellite, spot beams increase the transmitter
gain and therefore improve the link budget. 2. The reuse of frequency bands in different cells
further improves bandwidth efficiency because cells that do not neighbor each other can use the
same frequency band. Figure 7 shows the footprint pattern of an Iridium satellite. The circles
containing the same letter represent spot beams that use the same frequency band.
Figure 7. Footprint pattern of an Iridium satellite.
Equipped with the above technical knowledge on LEO communication satellite constellations
one may now consider the business aspects.
Communications Satellite Economics 101 (The Business Case)
Part of the information listed below for Iridium and Globalstar is about the financial aspects of
the systems. Good system architects and designer must be concerned with not only technical
aspects, but also be aware of the underlying economics. A brief introduction to cost, financing and
pricing of communications satellite systems is provided below.

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System Lifecycle Cost
Cost must be used in parallel with technical performance metrics in judging the merits of a
satellite project in order to achieve a cost-effective system. According to Larson and Wertz, the
lifecycle cost of a space system can be broken down into three main phases.3
The Research,
Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E) phase including design, analysis, and test of
breadboards, brassboards, prototypes and qualification units. It also includes prototype flight units
and nonrecurring ground station costs. The Production phase incorporates the cost of producing
flight units and launching them. The Operations and Support phase consists of ongoing operations
and maintenance costs, including spacecraft unit replacements. Replacement satellites and launches
after the space system’s initial operating capability (IOC) has been established are also included in
this phase.
Dividing life-cycle cost (LCC) into the above-mentioned three components, an estimate of LCC
can be obtained by means of cost estimating relationships (CER) which express the cost as a
function of key design variables and performance parameters. Using CERs, a designer is able to
estimate the space and ground segment cost, the operations cost and launch costs systematically.
While such estimates might be uncertain, they are often useful for preparing bids or for comparing
competing architectures.
To get a basic idea of the cost of a space system, one may consider examples of actual systems.
Table 1 shows the specific cost (cost per unit mass) of four types of spacecraft. By the time this
table was prepared, CERs for LEO communication satellites were yet to be developed; therefore the
data for LEO communication satellites are not included in this table.
Type of space systems Typical range of specific
cost ($k/kg)
Communication satellites in GEO 70-150
Surveillance satellites 50-150
Meteorological satellites 50-150
Interplanetary spacecraft >130
Table 1. Specific cost of spacecraft (data from SMAD)
The specific costs listed above are for spacecraft alone. The National Aeronautics and Space
Association (NASA) has supplied an approximate breakdown of mission cost of its small
spacecraft.4
According to NASA, the spacecraft cost (bus, instruments, integration, and associated
ground equipment) represents about 60% of the total mission cost (TMC). The breakdown is shown
in Figure 8.

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Launch Vehicle, 21.0%
LV integration, 0.6%
Operation, 8.0%
Ground system, 2.6%
Science, 1.7%
Management, 4.6%
Planning and mission design,
3.3%
Structural, 6.6%
Thermal, 0.5%
ACS, 7.1%
C&DH, 4.3%
EPS, 5.0%
RF Comm, 3.8%
Proplulsion, 3.9%
Softw are, 1.9%
Harness, 0.5%
GSE, 1.1%
GFE, 1.0%
Systems engineering, 1.6%
Product assurance, 1.1%
Parts, 2.4%
Contamination, 0.1%
Integration and test, 3.2%
Instrument, 14.3%
41% TMCSpacecraft bus cost
407 kg.Dry mass
3 yearsMission development time
$145MTotal mission cost
Average NASA small satellite mission
41% TMCSpacecraft bus cost
407 kg.Dry mass
3 yearsMission development time
$145MTotal mission cost
Average NASA small satellite mission
Figure 8. Average NASA Small Spacecraft Mission
The NASA data is helpful in getting a basic idea of the cost of LEO communication satellite
systems. For systems like Iridium and Globalstar, more than one spacecraft is produced. Therefore,
fixed costs such as RDT&E costs are nonrecurring while variable costs, including most production,
launch and operation costs, increase with the number of spacecraft. For production cost, a learning
curve effect can be considered because as experience and economies of scale increase, the unit cost
per spacecraft decreases. Iridium presented a cost estimation in its 1990 FCC filing, as listed in
Table 2. Although this estimation was significantly lower than the actual cost, it nevertheless
provides a basic picture of the cost distribution over system segments and development time. The
costs are given in terms of 1990 dollars.
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Pre-operating
expenses
3 10 20 23 52 61 83 42
Research and
development
8 43 130 133 97 46 46 46
Satellite
construction
83 273 352 257 141

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Launch services
and insurance
51 260 260
System control
facility
25 41 15
Interest 4 5 34 63 102 136 154
Depreciation 47 216 385
Total costs 11 57 263 504 630 773 882 627
Table 2. Projected total system costs ($M) in Iridium FCC filing
The cost of the entire system from 1990 to 1997 was predicted to be $3.7 billion. Globalstar’s
FCC filing in 1991 also contains a breakdown of the anticipated costs, although it was distributed
over system segments only (not over time). The data is listed in Table 3. The money is referenced to
1991 U.S. dollars.
Research, development, and
experimental program
58
Construction of 48 satellites 384
Launch of 48 satellites 242
Ground control facility 29
Pre-operational, operational,
interest and administrative costs
through first year of operation
174
Total costs at the end of first year
of operation
887
Table 3. Projected total system costs ($M) in Globalstar FCC filing
It should be noted that in the above cost data, the ground segment includes only the control
stations. The gateway costs are carried by third party gateway operators around the world. This
reflects a fundamental difference in the business strategy between Globalstar and Iridium. Gumbert
and Hastings estimated that the gateway cost of a 66-satellite LEO constellation would be $106
million with operations cost per year on the order of $67 million. For a 48-satellite LEO
constellation without intersatellite links, the gateway cost is $164 million and the operations cost is
$91 million per year. All monetary terms cited here are in 1994 dollar values.5
The gateway cost for
the second type of system is higher (despite the smaller number of satellites) because much of the
complexity is contained on the ground rather than on the satellites themselves (no intersatellite
links).
Financing
As private enterprises, these projects were financed via a mix of debt financing, private
investment, and initial public offering (IPO). From July 1993 to December 1998 Iridium spent a
total of approximately $4.8 billion. The expenditure was funded with 1) $500 million in secured
bank debt; 2) $625 million in bank debt guaranteed by Motorola; 3) $1.62 billion from the issuance
of debt securities; 4) $2.26 billion from the issuance of stock (private placement and IPO); and 5)
$86 million of vendor financing. Iridium investors included private corporations, entrepreneurial
companies, and equipment manufacturers. Besides Motorola providing a large percentage of the

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financing, other large institutional investors included Raytheon, Lockheed Martin, Hewlett Packard
and Siemens.
Price charged for Service
Another important consideration is the price that should be charged to customers for one unit of
service. This is not a simple question to answer apriori. A method for determining the minimum
price to charge is based on a cost per function (CPF) pricing model. The “unit of service” for
communications satellite constellations is “one minute of two-way (duplex) connectivity at a fixed
data rate, bit-error-rate and link margin”6
. These three attributes of the communications channel
drive the quality of service (QOS). The following equation expresses the CPF for a typical
communications satellite system such as Iridium.
,
1
,
1
1
100
365 24 60
T T
ops i
i
T
s f i
i
k
I C
CPF
C L
=
=
 
+ + 
 =
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
∑
∑
(1)
The numerator contains the lifecycle cost (LCC), which is represented by the total non-recurring
investment cost, I ,and the associated interest accrued at rate k over T years of life as well as the
sum of yearly operations costs Cops of the system. This assumes that the operations cost does not get
discounted. The denominator on the other hand represents the total number of billable minutes
generated by the system over T years. The capacity of the system, Cs, is given as the number of
simultaneous channels the system can support at any given time, while Lf,i is the average load factor
of the system in the i-th year. The load factor is the fraction of available capacity that is actually
used. The load factor is estimated as follows:
365 24 60min
1.0
u u
sf
N A
CL
⋅

⋅ ⋅ ⋅= 

 (2)
where Nu is the expected number of subscribers to the service and Au is the average user activity
expressed in minutes/year. The load factor is always a number between 0 and 1. So, what are
reasonable numbers for CPF for the types of systems that are discussed in this systems study?
Let us substitute numbers into Eq. (1) and (2) that are representative of systems similar to
Iridium and Globalstar:

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1,200 [min/y]uA =
0.20 [$/min]CPF =
3 [B$]I =
5 [%]k =
300 [M$/y]opsC =
100,000 [#ch]sC =
6
3 10uN = ⋅ 0.068fL =
15 [y]T =
1,200 [min/y]uA =
0.20 [$/min]CPF =
3 [B$]I =
5 [%]k =
300 [M$/y]opsC =
100,000 [#ch]sC =
6
3 10uN = ⋅ 0.068fL =
15 [y]T =
(3)
So, the minimum charge per minute for a satellite telephone call would be 20 cents per minute.
In reality one would add some amount of profit and terrestrial connection fees by other service
providers to this figure. By and large this appears to be a reasonable proposition. Note, however that
a number of important simplifying assumptions were made in the process:
- The interest rate corresponds to a low, “risk-free” rate
- The investment cost is not spread over time or discounted, i.e. it has to be all spent at the
beginning of the first year.
- The number of subscribers and their activity level are actually achievable and constant
throughout the life of the system
- The yearly operations costs are much smaller than the investment cost and don’t have to
be discounted over the years
- The effect of competition is not reflected
- There is zero inflation over the life of the system
- The capacity of the system remains constant throughout its life (no degradation or
upgrade of system capacity will occur)
While such back-of-the-envelope calculations are useful during conceptual design, they must be
interpreted with caution. Take, for example, the expected number of subscribers (users), Nu. This
number, along with Au, is often obtained from market surveys before the system is built and put in
to service. What happens to the CPF if the number of subscribers is much lower than three million
as assumed above?
By substituting Nu=50,000 - a number similar to Iridium’s subscriber base in March 2000 – in Eq.
(2) and substituting Lf in Eq. (1) we obtain a CPF= 12.02 [$/min]. This changes the business case
significantly and potentially makes the system non-competitive.
Unit 2 of this study will consider a large set of architectures in the lifecycle cost versus capacity
space. We will see that minimizing CPF tends to promote large scale, high capacity systems due to
potential economies of scale. This makes sense if there is a high degree of certainty that a
substantial fraction of total system capacity will actually be used. If this turns out to be false, the
system is significantly oversized and actually more expensive – in terms of CPF – relative to a
smaller system. This important point will be revisited in Unit 4.
Market Predictions
The number of users, Nu, and user activity level, Au, are the two key variables that need to be
estimated for any particular type of service. Typically, these estimates are obtained from market

14
surveys of potential customers, from focus groups and “clinics”, using early prototypes as well as
from analysis and extrapolation of demographic data.
The uncertainty grows as one forecasts demand further into the future as well as with the level of
novelty of the product or service. We will see that the user prediction for Iridium (see page 58 of
389 of the FCC filing) was 6,076,000 subscribers in 1990. Retrospectively, this number turned out
to be much too optimistic.
Predictions made in 1991 for the number of terrestrial cellular subscribers, on the other hand, were
too pessimistic. Figure 9 shows this fact by comparing the forecast of U.S. subscribers (green)
versus the actual evolution of demand (blue).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Year
Millionsofsubscribers
US (forecast) US (actual)
Figure 9. Market predictions (in 1991) versus actual number of terrestrial cellular network subscribers in the
United States for the 1991-2000 period.7
. The following discussion focuses on the two “big LEO” systems that were actually deployed:
Iridium and Globalstar1
.
Iridium System
An (unverified) anecdote says that the idea for Iridium was created in 1985 when the wife of a
Motorola engineer complained about the lack of cellular telephone coverage during a Caribbean
vacation. Subsequently, the Iridium system was conceived to support global voice, messaging, and
paging service that would enable mobile subscribers to “send and receive telephone calls virtually
anywhere in the world, all with one phone, one phone number, and one customer bill”. Motorola,
the driving force behind Iridium announced the system as follows: “A global communications
system that will allow people to communicate by telephone anywhere on Earth – whether on land,
at sea or in the air – via portable cellular radiotelephones operating as part of a satellite-based
1
A third LEO constellation is Orbcomm, however, it does not provide continuous global coverage and two-way
synchronous communications. Orbcomm is designed primarily for paging and messaging rather than two way telephone
service.

15
system.” An international consortium of telecommunications, aerospace and construction
companies, including Motorola, Kyocera, Lockheed Martin, Raytheon, and Bechtel developed the
Iridium system. The main components of the Iridium system are:
a) The space segment which includes the LEO satellites and related control facilities. The
nominal number of satellites is 66 (6 satellites each in 11 orbital planes), while the actual
number of satellites launched was 79, including on-orbit spares and replacements of failed
satellites. The Satellite Network Operations Center is located in Landsdowne, VA, near
Dulles International Airport with 250 engineers and operators manning the satellite control
stations 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
b) The ground stations (gateways) which link the satellites to terrestrial communications
systems. The main Iridium North American Gateway is located in Tempe, AZ. During its
peak the Iridium system was operating 12 gateways in various parts of the globe. These
regional gateways handle call setup procedures and interface Iridium with the existing
PSTN.
c) The Iridium subscriber equipment (phones and pagers) which provide mobile access to the
satellite system and terrestrial wireless systems. A dual mode that allows users to access
either a compatible cellular telephone network or Iridium was added after it became
apparent that Iridium could not operate in complete isolation of terrestrial cellular systems.
d) The terrestrial wireless interprotocol roaming infrastructure. Iridium is designed to
provide cellular like service in situations where terrestrial cellular service is unavailable, or
areas where the PSTN is not well developed.8
The interprotocol roaming infrastructure
allows use of Iridium phones and pagers when the user is within terrestrial network
coverage.
Originally, the system was envisioned to have seventy-seven satellites in low Earth orbit
working as a digitally-switched communications network in space. The name of the system was
inspired by the chemical element Iridium, which has the atomic number 77. The name was kept,
even after the constellation was scaled back to 66 satellites9
. Iridium was the frontrunner of a
new class of systems, fueling considerable enthusiasm in the marketplace in the mid-1990s.10
This optimism also led to a very positive outlook for the commercial launch market as late as
1998.
Three major contracts were awarded for development and building of the system: The Space
Systems Contract (between Iridium LLC and Motorola) in the amount of $3.45 billion for the
design, development, production and delivery in orbit of the space segment. The Space Systems
Contract provided for 47 milestones with scheduled completion dates ranging from January 29,
1994 to September 23, 1998. The Operations and Maintenance (O&M) Contract (between
Iridium LLC and Motorola) covered operation and monitoring of the entire Iridium space
system as well as the upgrading of hardware and software and the launch of replacement
satellites for a period of five years after completion of the Space Systems Contract in November
1998. It’s value was estimated at between $1.8 billion and $2.89 billion over a period of five
years. Finally, the Terrestrial Network Development Contract covered the development of
gateway hardware and software. Motorola’s Satellite Communications Division was general
contractor for the space system and terrestrial network components and also had the contract to
provide O&M. Lockheed Martin Corporation designed and constructed the satellite bus, and
Raytheon Corporation designed the antenna for communication between the satellites and
Iridium telephones. Substantially all of the initial capital raised by Iridium was used to make

16
payments to Motorola under the three abovementioned contracts. Commercial service of Iridium
was introduced on November 1, 1998:
“After 11 years of hard work, we are proud to announce that we are open for business. Iridium
will open up the world of business, commerce, disaster relief and humanitarian assistance with
our first-of-its-kind global communications service… The potential uses of Iridium products are
boundless.”
Excerpt from Iridium press release, November 1, 1998
The current status of Iridium can be seen at the official company website: www.iridium.com
Iridium History11
1985: Karen Bertiger (a real estate broker) complains to her husband
Bary (a Motorola engineer) that she couldn’t get her cell phone
to connect to a client in the U.S. during a Bahamas vacation
1986: Small R&D group formed within Motorola’s Strategic
Electronics Division
1987: Start of conceptual design at Motorola’s facilities in Arizona,
Iridium idea invented, initial patent applications
June 1990: Motorola publicly unveils the idea of a global personal
communications system called “Iridium” with simultaneous
press conferences in Beijing, London, Melbourne and New
York
Dec. 1990: FCC filing for construction permit and frequency allocation
June 1991: Incorporation of Iridium LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of
Motorola
1992 Provisional spectrum allocation by the FCC pending approval
1993 Iridium private offering of $800 million in common stock,
Motorola buys $300 million, the remainder is purchased by
various strategic partners such as Sprint Corp., Kyocera,
Vebacom (Germany), Lockheed and Raytheon
1994: Second round of equity financing is conducted, total
capitalization reaches $1.6 billion
Sept. 1994: Market research by D.S. Howard & Associates, asserts that
professional business travelers would have “little interest”, but
results are not published.
Jan. 1995: FCC license received from the U.S. Government
1995-1997 Detailed design and satellite manufacturing mainly at
Motorola’s Satellite Communications Group facilities in
Chandler, Arizona
1997: Iridium IPO on Nasdaq - $240 million raised at $20 per share
May 5, 1997: First satellite launch (5 satellites with a Delta II rocket)
July 1997 Iridium sells $1.45 billion in bonds with interest rates ranging
from 10.88 to 14 percent
Dec. 1997: Manufactured and deployed 46 out of 66 satellites
May 1998: Full satellite constellation in orbit, stock peaks at $68 7/8 with

17
Iridium’s total market capitalization near $10 billion
June 1998 Iridium launches a $140 million advertising campaign,
“Freedom to Communicate” to create brand awareness and
stimulate interest
Sept. 23, 1998 Originally planned start of operations
Nov. 1, 1998: Actual start of operation (telephony only)
Nov. 15, 1998 Start of commercial paging service
End of 1998: Technical problems with 23 satellites of the constellation
Dec 23, 1998 Iridium obtains new bank credits for $1.95 billion
Dec. 31, 1998 Iridium reports having sold about 6000-8000 phones, and
actually has about 3000 paying subscribers, with fourth
quarter revenues of $186,000
Feb. 8, 1999 Iridium reports having 6,009 voice subscribers and $535,000
in accrued revenues
March 1999 Iridium Chief Financial Officer resigns
May 13, 1999
May 14, 1999
Iridium announces that it won’t meet subscriber targets, stock
price declines by $4.063 per share to close at $10.438 (-28%)
May 1999 Iridium announces 10,294 first quarter subscribers
June 1999 Prices of phones and service reduced, 15% of staff laid off
Aug. 3, 1999 Iridium defaults on its debt
Aug.13, 1999: NASDAQ suspends trading Iridium stock. Having debt over
$4 billion, Iridium files for bankruptcy under Chapter 11
Sept. 1999 Consulting firm Alvarez & Marsal hired to develop
restructuring plan
March 2000: Iridium has 50,000 subscribers, plans to terminate service by
March 17 and subsequently deorbit the satellite constellation
Iridium Financial Data
Total system cost: $5.7 billion
Annual operational cost: $500 million - $1 billion (including satellite
replenishment and interest payments)
Financed amount: $4.4 billion
Handheld terminal price: Between $2,200 and $3,400 retail (before June
1999), $1,500 (after June 1999)
Airtime charge: $2-7 per minute (before June 1999), $1.5-3 per
minute (after June 1999)
Estimated break even 500,000-600,000 subscribers
Iridium Technical Data
Ground segment
- Number of gateways: 12
- Control station: 1 (plus 1 for backup)
Space segment
- Constellation type: Polar
- Number of satellites: 66 (+ 6 on-orbit spares)
- Number of orbital planes: 6

18
- Orbital altitude: 780 km
- Inclination angle: 86.4o
- Minimum elevation angle: 8.2o
- Satellite in-orbit mass: 689 kg
- Radio-frequency (RF)
power:
400 W
- Life cycle: 5 years
- Launch vehicles Delta II (USA), Long March (China), and
Proton (Russia)
Communications segment
- User uplink and downlink
bandwidth:
1621.35-1626.5 MHz
- Telephony and modem data
rate:
2.4 kb/s
- Satellite capacity: 1,100 duplex channels
- Total system capacity: 72,600 duplex channels
- Link margin: 16 dB
- Number of inter-satellite
links (ISL) per satellite:
4
- ISL frequency bandwidth: 23.18-23.38 GHz
- Feeder link frequency
bandwidth:
29.1-29.3 GHz (uplink), 19.4-19.6 GHz
(downlink)
- Onboard Switching Yes
User Terminals
- Mass: 400 g (circa 0.8 pounds)
- Antenna length: 15 cm (phone overall length 7 inches~20 cm)
- Talk time: 2 h
- Standby time: 20 h
- Peak transmit power: 7 W
- Mean transmit power: 0.6 W
- Antenna gain: 2 dBi
- G/T: 23 dB/K
Notes:
• The polar constellation is formed by 6 orbital planes with 11 satellites per plane. The
orbital planes are co-axial at the polar axis, separated from each other at an angle of
nearly 30 degrees.
• Inclination angle is the angle between the orbital plane and the equatorial plane.
• Minimum elevation angle is the minimum angle between the user’s line-of-sight of the
satellite and the local horizon.
• A graphical representation of an Iridium satellite is shown in Figure 10.
• The name Iridium is derived from the chemical element “Iridium” which has an atomic
number of 77. The original architecture of Iridium had 77 satellites, but later the altitude
was raised, leading to a 66-satellite constellation.

19
Figure 10. (left) Individual Iridium satellite in deployed on-orbit configuration
(right) Motorola and Kyocera Iridium handheld satellite telephones
Follow-up Story12
Although beyond the scope of this case study, it is interested to know about the follow-up story
of the Iridium bankruptcy. The deorbiting of the constellation did not happen after all. In December
2000, Iridium Satellite LLC acquired Iridium LLC at a price of $25 million (approximately $6.5
million in cash and an unsecured note in the approximate amount of $18.5 million). In the same
month, Iridium Satellite LLC (the new company) signed a contract with the U.S. Defense
Department in the amount of $72 million for military communications services using Iridium
satellites. The two-year contract included options to extend the deal until 2007. In 2001, Gino
Picasso, the CEO of Iridium Satellite LLC, said he hoped to generate $90 to $100 million in annual
revenue by the end of 2002, enough to cover operating expenses. In 2002, Picasso claimed that the
current fleet of satellites was performing well and expected to last until at least 2010. As a sign of
re-vitalized business, Iridium was planning replacement of the current constellation with a new
generation of spacecraft. It appears that some of the recent political events, in the aftermath of
September 11, 2001, have increased the need for Iridium’s services and have led to a sort of rebirth
of the system13
.
A number of class action lawsuits are pending in court, filed by various unsecured creditors and
investors of Iridium LLC14
. These suits seek to recover losses from Motorola, claiming that Iridium
was set up as a pure “investment vehicle” company to reduce Motorola’s own risks in this venture
while developing new technologies for its own benefit and defrauding the investing public. It is
alleged that Motorola was – at the same time – Iridium LLC’s main shareholder, but also it’s main
contractor, which prevented “arm’s length” negotiations between Iridium and Motorola and created
an inherent conflict of interest. Some of this litigation is ongoing as of the writing of this system’s
study.
Globalstar System15
The Globalstar system was designed to bring affordable cellular-type voice and data
communications to the entire globe. In this sense it was a direct competitor to Iridium. Globalstar
was a partnership of a number of companies. Loral and Qualcomm served as general partners, and

20
10 other companies served as limited partners. Similar to the Iridium system, Globalstar has
satellites, gateways, and user handsets as its major components. The major technical differences are
that Globalstar is based on CDMA, while Iridium uses a hybrid MF-TDMA scheme. Furthermore,
Globalstar does not use intersatellite links like Iridium. This simplifies the on-orbit satellites, but
requires more gateways on the ground to ensure good coverage. Globalstar’s satellites are
essentially flying repeaters in a “bent-pipe” architecture. While Globalstar appeared to be a lower
cost, more flexible system, it ultimately met a similar fate than Iridium. The effect that the
preceding Iridium failure had on Globalstar is summarized in a September 6, 1999 article in Forbes
magazine.16
Globalstar History
June 1991 FCC filing for construction permit and frequency allocation
Jan. 1995: FCC license received
Feb. 1998: First satellite launch (4 satellites with a Delta II rocket)
Sept. 1998: Loss of 12 satellites during a Zenith (Ukrainian/Russian
rocket) launch failure
Oct. 1999: Start of pre-operational service with 32 satellites and 9
gateways
End of 1999: 40,000 handsets shipped to distributors
March 2000 Start of commercial service with full satellite constellation and
38 gateways
Feb. 2002 Having a debt of $3.34 billion, Globalstar files for chapter 11
bankruptcy protection.17
Globalstar Financial Data
Total system cost: $3.3 billion (excluding gateways)
Financed amount: $3.8 billion (fully financed) – Loral owned 45% -
other investors included Qualcomm, France
Telecomm and AirTouch (now part of Vodaphone)
Handheld terminal price: $1,000-$1,500
Airtime charge: $1-3 per minute, trial period promotions of $0.49 per
minute (U.S.)
Estimated break-even 1,000,000 subscribers
Globalstar Technical Data
Ground segment
- Number of gateways: 50
- Control station: 2 ground operation control centers + 2 satellite
operation control centers
Space segment
- Constellation type: Walker
- Number of satellites: 48
- Number of orbital planes: 8
- Orbital altitude: 1414 km
- Inclination angle: 52o

21
- Minimum elevation angle: 10o
- satellite in-orbit mass: 450 kg
- Radio-frequency (RF)
power:
380 W
- Life cycle: 7.5 years
- Launch vehicles Delta II, Zenith-2 (Russia), Soyuz (Russia)
Communication segment
- User uplink and downlink
bandwidth:
1610-1626.5 MHz (uplink), 2483.5-2500 MHz
(downlink)
- Telephony data rate: 2.4 kb/s
- Satellite capacity: 2,500 duplex channels
- System capacity: 120,000 duplex channels
- Link margin: 6 dB
- Number of inter-satellite
links (ISL) per satellite:
0
- ISL frequency bandwidth: N/A
- Feeder link frequency
bandwidth:
5091-5250 MHz (uplink), 6875-7055 MHz
(downlink)
- Onboard Switching No
User Terminals
- Mass: 370 g (11 ounces)
- Talk time: 3.5 h
- Standby time: 9 h
- Peak transmit power: 400 mW
- Minimum transmit power: 50 mW
- Antenna gain: 2.6 dBi
A representation of an individual Globalstar satellite is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. (left) Individual Globalstar satellite in deployed on-orbit configuration, (right)
Globalstar end user terminal (“satellite telephone”)
Follow-up Story

22
In early 1999, Globalstar expected a subscriber base of around 500,000 by the end of 2000 and
an ultimate subscriber base of 7.5 million. After it filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in mid-
February 2002, Globalstar has undergone restructuring and is still in business today.
For the current status of the company, please visit www.globalstar.com.
Successes and Failures18
Because Iridium was the first commercial “big” LEO satellite constellation to be built, most of
the discussion has focused on this particular system. The story of Iridium is unique and yet
representative of its genre. The following paragraphs briefly summarize the successes and failures
that Iridium has experienced. In this, the authors attempt to present a balanced view.
Technical challenges
Iridium was successful in deploying and operating an extremely complex engineering system.
Motorola, as prime contractor, completed the project on time and on budget and within
specifications. It met the project deadline and achieved the technical requirements, despite some
startup difficulties with dropped calls and voice quality during initial operations in 1998 and 1999.
It was the first space project involving mass-manufacturing and mass-launching of large quantities
of spacecraft in a short time period, i.e. 72 satellites were deployed on 15 launches from three
countries in 12 months and 12 days. This was unprecedented and has not been repeated since then.
Although a 2-15% failure rate for satellite deployment was normal, Motorola had a perfect record in
initial satellite deployment. It took Lockheed Martin 28 days to manufacture a single spacecraft
during peak production. Because ten satellites were assembled simultaneously at any moment, a
satellite rolled off the production line every 4 and a half days. At that time the industry standard for
satellite manufacturing was 12-18 months. Iridium also assembled and installed 12 gateways in 11
countries in 18 months.
Iridium pioneered the industry by being the first to implement many cutting-edge technologies
in space. It was the world’s first global wireless digital (packetized) communication system. It
overcame the time lag associated with GEO communication by staying in low orbits as discussed
earlier. Iridium is also the first space system to utilize intersatellite links in LEO, thus avoiding
unnecessary signal traffic through the atmosphere with the associated signal degradation. The
onboard processing enables the system to have minimum reliance on the ground infrastructure –
handing off calls from one satellite to another - which therefore improves its level of autonomy,
especially over the oceans where permanent ground stations cannot be placed.
On the other hand, although utilizing new technologies, the system’s communications
performance was not satisfactory to all customers in urban areas or during periods of high usage.
The polar formation used by the constellation dictates that the diversity of the constellation is just
one. This low diversity makes shadowing, the obstruction of transmission signals by land objects, a
serious problem. The 16dB link margin designed into the system was not sufficient for the space
signals to penetrate buildings without the use of ground repeaters. It has been reported that users of

23
the Iridium handset must stand by windows or step outdoors to obtain a connection.19
These
limitations were not clear to all potential subscribers in the 1998-2000 timeframe. Nevertheless, the
problem of requiring a clear line-of-sight to a satellite turned out to be a minimal limitation for users
in rural areas.
As a result of the high system complexity and the relatively harsh environment in low Earth
orbit, Iridium suffered a high failure rate. The system was architected to operate in a partially
degraded mode. Within half a year after the final deployment, 23 satellites of the constellation
exhibited various technical problems.
The design of the user handset experienced problems of its own. Weighing nearly a pound, the
handset was inconvenient to carry around compared to terrestrial cellular phones in the late 1990s.
The Iridium phones, however, where sleek and lightweight compared to the analog radiotelephones
of the mid 1980’s. There have been some reports that the weight and size of the handset hurt
Iridium’s popularity among potential users, even though they had responded enthusiastically to such
a potential device in the early 1990s. There is no data to corroborate these statements.
Regulatory Challenges
Iridium overcame almost all hurdles in the regulatory arena to achieve what it wanted. It
defeated an attempt by radio astronomers to prevent it from getting the 5.15 MHz bandwidth in the
L band. The claim was that operations of Iridium would cause interference and pollute science
measurements in neighboring bands (which did indeed happen). Substantial resistance to spectrum
allocation in 1992 was also mounted by INMARSAT, a global satellite communications company
owned by about 80 governments. INMARSAT, whose main service was and is emergency
communications for ocean-going ships, waged an unsuccessful battle to prevent Iridium from
obtaining an operating license.
Iridium also successfully obtained approval from key countries where gateways were
strategically placed. These countries agreed to act as regional distributors of services that are
responsible for acquiring regulatory approvals for each country in the region. By 1998, Iridium
reached agreements with 90 priority countries that represented 85% of its business plan. This was
enabled by its network of strategic partners and operating companies (Table 4). The gateway
partners were supposed to share in the revenue generated by Iridium calls. Although a few countries
chose not to participate, most of the world’s population was within Iridium’s service area.
Iridium Strategic Partners Iridium Operating Companies
AIG Affiliated Companies
Iridium Africa Corporation
Iridium Sud America Corporation
Iridium Middle East Corporation
Khrunichev State Research and Production
Space Center (Russia)
Lockheed Martin Corporation
Iridium Canada, Inc.
Iridium China (Hong Kong) Ltd.
Iridium India Telecom Limited
Iridium Italia S.p.A.
Raytheon Company
Iridium Africa Services, (South Africa)
Iridium Central America and Mexico
Iridium China
Iridium Communication Germany
Iridium Eurasia (Moscow)
Iridium India Telecom Limited
Iridium Italia
Iridium Korea Corporation
Iridium Middle East Corporation (Dubai)
Iridium North America
Iridium Canada
Nippon Iridium Corporation

24
SK Telecom
South Pacific Iridium Holdings Limited
Sprint Iridium Inc.
Thai Satellite Telecommunications Co., Ltd.
Motorola, Inc.
Nippon Iridium (Bermuda) Limited
Vebacom Holdings, Inc.
Pacific Asia Communications Ltd.
Pacific Iridium Telecom Corp. (Taiwan)
Iridium Southeast Asia (Thailand)
Iridium South Pacific (Australia)
Iridium Brasil
Iridium Cono Sur (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile,
Paraguay, Uruguay)
Iridium Sud America North (Venezuela)
Table 4. Iridium strategic partners (left) and operating companies (right)
Iridium also acquired export permissions from the State Department and Commerce
Department on establishing ground stations abroad and using foreign launch vehicles. Later in the
decade, the use of foreign launch vehicles became an issue as international tensions and concerns
over technology export mounted. This aspect will be further discussed in Unit 3.
Business Challenges
In the early 1990’s Motorola’s target market was the specialty/corporate segment with a
projected one million subscribers by 2004. Later the professional traveler market was added with a
potential subscriber base of five million subscribers in 2004. Significant resources were invested in
market research. Despite some doubts on whether professional travelers would indeed be willing to
pay the expected $3,000 for a satellite telephone and the $2-7 per minute service charge, Iridium
succeeded in financing the expensive project through debt financing, private investment, and initial
public offering. Approximately $5 billion was raised. The main competitive advantage compared to
INMARSAT (the existing GEO-based satellite telephone provider) was the portability of the end
user equipment. Soon after initialization of commercial service in November 1998, Iridium ran into
financial problems as a result of failure in meeting the expected market size and number of paying
subscribers.
While some individuals claim to have predicted this outcome, it must be said that the vast
majority of technical experts and financial analysts were swept up in the euphoria of the
telecommunications sector in the 1995-1999 period. On October 27, 1998, The San Francisco
Chronicle published an article stating that Strategis Group predicted about 8.8 million satellite
phone users over 10 years. The traditional cellular market would have about 200 million subscribers
worldwide. Iridium stated at that time that it’s own research placed the global market potential for
satellite telephone services closer to 12 million subscribers, while Globalstar said that the market
could reach 30 million subscribers worldwide.
By the time Iridium was conceived in late 1980s to early 1990s, terrestrial cellular phone
services were fragmented along national borders. Europe, for example, had many national standards
that were incompatible with each other. A phone that could be used in France could not be used in
Germany. This was inconvenient for frequent international travelers. Iridium saw an opportunity in
developing a global phone that could be used anywhere on Earth. They perceived a high demand for
this service, particularly among international business travelers and the military.
While the concept of Iridium was in its incubation stage, Europe started to work on the GSM
standard aimed at providing high quality and low cost international roaming cellular service. The
GSM standard has been successful since its initial deployment in 1991. More than 200 GSM

25
networks in 110 countries now provide service to 480 million users worldwide (January 2000). In a
few years this number is expected to reach one billion users worldwide. By comparison, Iridium
could provide relatively low quality communications at a higher cost. It is suspected that a large
number of the projected customers for Iridium were seized by the GSM-type services. With the cost
of terrestrial cellular telephones having fallen below $100 in some cases, astute international
travelers would carry a set of 2-3 small cellular phones that would work in particular regions of the
globe (USA, Europe, Japan …). These phones had become a low cost commodity. Newer cellular
telephones in 2003 are tri-band which allow roaming in the U.S., Europe and Asia with the same
handset.
As a result of this unanticipated competition, the actual subscriptions of Iridium fell far short of
the predictions. In order to secure bank loans in early 1999, the following subscriber targets
(“covenants”) were set for Iridium: 52,000 by March 31, 1999; 213,000 by June 30, 1999 and
454,000 by September 30, 1999. Even though never publicly disclosed, the break-even point for
Iridium was expected to be between 500,000 and 600,000. In order to reach this level, Iridium
would have had to add roughly 50,000 subscribers per month in 1999. In reality, in March 1999,
Iridium only had 10,000 subscribers. The number of three to six million subscribers expected by
2001 was never reached. A comparison between the predicted subscriptions and reality is shown in
Figure 12.
Iridum customer number: prediction vs. reality
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000
Nov-98 Feb-99 May-99 Aug-99 Dec-99 Mar-00 Jun-00 Oct-00 Jan-01 Apr-01
Time
Customernumber
Expectation
Reality
Figure 12. Iridium expected number of customers (predicted in 1991) versus reality in 1998-2000.
Iridium also made a series of mistakes in marketing its product and failed to capture the initial
market response. First, being too generic, the marketing failed to target a specific sector or
distinguish Iridium from other wireless companies. The ad message did not clarify Iridium’s limits
such as serious signal shadowing in urban areas. These limits were unpleasant surprises to
customers. Although the advertisement generated more than one million inquiries, Iridium failed to

26
turn them into real business by promptly following up on them. The commercial operation also
suffered from delay in initial distribution of subscriber equipment. This was mainly caused by
software development delays of the Motorola and Kyocera handsets. As a result of lack of extensive
testing and debugging, Iridium’s reputation was hurt because of the initial technical problems
experienced by customers.
Overall, Iridium achieved great success in the space-related technical challenges, in acquiring
financing, and in acquiring licenses and regulatory approvals; moderate success in providing
telecommunications services; and ultimate failure in capturing its intended market. Motorola’s
estimated financial exposure to the bankruptcy of Iridium was $2.2 billion. The remaining losses
were absorbed by the partner companies, various banks and the investing public.
Summary
In this unit, we briefly reviewed the historical background of communications satellites in
general and of LEO communication satellite constellations in particular. Several key technical
concepts of these systems have been introduced, including constellations, multiple access, and spot
beams. The business case was discussed in terms of cost and revenue models. In 1991 there was an
enormous amount of enthusiasm and hope for such systems. Indeed, the business case looked good
in terms of the need for global wireless services. Substantial amounts of money were invested by
Motorola and Loral in market research in the late 1980s and early 1990s. A global subscriber base
for Iridium on the order of 3-6 million users appeared to be within reach.
We paid particular attention to Iridium and Globalstar, the two major LEO communication
systems that have actually been launched. We have used Iridium as the sample for analyzing
successes and failures of LEO systems, and come to realize that although largely successful in the
technological and policy fields, the business case ultimately failed. Globalstar was the second
system to be deployed, and albeit differences in its technical specification, it also had to file for
bankruptcy. In the assignments connected to this unit you will do a critical analysis of both systems,
try to understand the root causes of what occurred, negotiate post-bankruptcy scenarios and extract
lessons learned for the design of future Engineering Systems with similar characteristics: large
investment required, global reach, new technologies, break with existing paradigms.
References and Endnotes
1
Lloyd Wood’s satellite constellations website: http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/L.Wood/constellations/
2
This includes various paging devices.
3
W.J. Larson and J.R. Wertz. Space Mission Analysis and Design. Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, CA, 1992.
4
Spacecraft cost comparison. http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR864/MR864.apA.pdf [5 July 2003].
5
C.C. Gumbert. Assessing Future Growth Potential of Mobile Satellite Systems Using a Cost per Billable Minute
Metric, S.M. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 1996.
6
A. Kelic, G. B. Shaw, and Daniel E. Hastings. “Metrics for systems evaluation and design of satellite-based
internet links.” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 35(1):73-81, Jan-Feb 1998.

27
7
W.J. Ciesluk L.M. Gaffney N.D. Hulkover L. Klein P.A. Oliver M.S. Pavloff R.A. Pompoui W.A. Welch. An
evaluation of selected mobile satellite communications systems and their environment. ESA Contract Report,
1992.
8
C.E. Fossa, et.al. An overview of the Iridium low earth orbit (LEO) satellite system. Proceedings of IEEE 1998
National Aerospace and Electronics Conference 1998; (A99-17228 03-01): 152-159.
9
The name of the element with the atomic number 66 is Dysprosium. The name is derived from the greek word
“dysprositos” meaning “hard to obtain” – a less than ideal name for a commercial service or product.
10
Stacy Lu, “Iridium gets off the ground”, Forbes, June 19, 1997, http://www.forbes.com/1997/06/19/news.html
11
Unless cited otherwise, the information on the Iridium system in this section is from E. Lutz, M. Werner, and A.
Jahn. Satellite Systems for Personal and Broadband Communications. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 2000.
12
See reports in Sam Silverstein, “Iridium Sets Plans For New Generation of Spacecraft,” Spacenews, 8 April
2002, pp.3.
13
Ben Charny, New focus, new fears aid Iridium relaunch, News.com, November 8, 2001,
http://news.com.com/2100-1033-275603.html?legacy=cnet
14
Iridium LLC Chapter 11 Filing , Case No. 99-45005-CB, United States Bankruptcy Court, Southern District of
New York
15
From Lutz, Werner, and Jahn unless cited otherwise.
16
Quentin Hardy, “Surviving Iridium”, Forbes, September 6, 1999:
http://www.forbes.com/global/1999/0906/0217032a.html
17
Globalstar files for bankruptcy protection. http://www.spaceandtech.com/digest/flash2002/flash2002-012.shtml
[25 June 2003].
18
This section is written based on information from A. Inkpen, M Martin, and I. Fas-Pacheco. The Rise and Fall
of Iridium. Thunderbird, the American Graduate School of International Management: 2000, and C.B. Christensen
and S. Beard. Iridium: Failure & Successes. IAF, International Astronautical Congress, 51st
, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, Oct. 2-6, 2000.
19
This has been reported in many documents and has been confirmed by author’s interviews.

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