Vskills certified computer fundamentals ms office professional sample material

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1.1.1.1. COMPUTER APPRECIATIOCOMPUTER APPRECIATIOCOMPUTER APPRECIATIOCOMPUTER APPRECIATIONNNN
1.11.11.11.1 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction ---- What is Computer?What is Computer?What is Computer?What is Computer?
Computer is an electronic device, which is used for computing and processing the data. The word
computer is derived from compute; meaning to calculate, thus it is a machine, which can perform
arithmetical operations at a higher speed. Computer is a device used for computing, logical
decision-making, sorting, merging and communication.
People would not only do most of their work on or with a computer, nearly every aspect of their
homes and personal lives would be affected by computers, it was envisioned that consumers would
pay bills and do most of their shopping on the computer.
1.21.21.21.2 Characteristics of computerCharacteristics of computerCharacteristics of computerCharacteristics of computer
SpeedSpeedSpeedSpeed It refers to the speed of computation. A computer is a high-speed device. It can perform a
task in seconds for which, manual manpower may require a year or even more. The units of speed
are measured in microseconds and nanoseconds. A computer is capable of performing 3 to 4
million simple arithmetic calculations per second.
AccuracyAccuracyAccuracyAccuracy It refers to the precision with which calculations can be done. A computer maintains
high degree of accuracy provided there is no human mistake i.e. faulty programming or inaccurate
dates. If 10 million calculations are to be performed, the computer will do with same accuracy.
ConsistencyConsistencyConsistencyConsistency It means continuous. A computer can work for hours without lack of concentration
or emotional feelings. It does not get tired and will do the jobs with same speed and accuracy even
if is first job or its millionth job.
VersatilityVersatilityVersatilityVersatility It means dynamic or varied. A computer can perform various types of jobs like it can
do scientific calculation, make drawings, etc. It can change over to various types of jobs within a
very short span of time. With the help of multitasking, the processor can switch to various jobs
associated with it can do typing as well as printing at the same time. One moment it is preparing
results and the next moment it is busy preparing fee slips.
Remembrance powerRemembrance powerRemembrance powerRemembrance power Human brains are volatile and remember only imp. Information, which
may be lost as the time passes. A computer has permanent storage device where each and every
piece of information can be retained for a long period. This power of the computer has two
aspects
The information remains in the same format, as it was stored and when so ever it is
retrieved
Computer’s memory can be increased or decreased as per needs
Lack of IQLack of IQLack of IQLack of IQ IQ means Intelligence Quotient or intelligence to take decisions. A computer can
only perform operations programmed or instructed by a person.
MalfunctionMalfunctionMalfunctionMalfunction Just like any man -made machine, it is subject to occasional breakdown or
malfunction.

Wrong outputWrong outputWrong outputWrong output It cannot correct wrong instructions by itself so; wrong input results in wrong
output.
No feelingsNo feelingsNo feelingsNo feelings since computer is a machine it is free from emotional and sentimental feelings.
1.31.31.31.3 Generation of computersGeneration of computersGeneration of computersGeneration of computers
The progress of human technology to make life easier has brought many changes in computers.
Generation of computers details, how computer technology has progressed to its current state from
ancestors. Thus, ‘Generation’ signifies the advancements in computers. In 600BC a manual device
was used for purpose of calculation.
First GenerationFirst GenerationFirst GenerationFirst Generation CCCComputersomputersomputersomputers
Vacuum tube technology was used in this generation of computers.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator & calculator) was first general purpose computer
developed in USA was designed using 1800 vacuum tubes (Diode or Triode valves)
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable auto Computer) was able to store programs and data in the
memory. It is considered, as first digital computer using 1’s and 0’s to represent all characters.
UNIVAC –I (Universal automatic Computer) first digital computer produced on mass scale for
commercial use.
Advantages of First Generation computers
They were faster than other computing devices
Electronic devices now were able to do computation, as this generation had shown the
technology
Disadvantages of First Generation computers
Vacuum tube required lots of power for operation
Vacuum tube generated a lot of heat, hence air-conditioning was required
Computers were bulky and were not portable
Computers occupied a lot of space
Due to frequent breakdown, constant maintenance was required
Second Generation ComputersSecond Generation ComputersSecond Generation ComputersSecond Generation Computers
They were designed using transistors. Ferrite core was used for main memory. For secondary
memory Magnetic tape/ Disks/Drums were used. High-level languages like FORTRAN, ALGOL
COBOL, were used for programming. SGC were more reliable and faster. They used to generate
less heat but air-conditioning was required. IBM-1620, IBM – 7090 CDC-1604, PDP-1, PDP-5.
Advantages of Second Generation computers
They were faster in computation, than the first generation computers
They occupied less space, as transistors were small, as compared to the first generation
computers
Disadvantages of Second Generation computers
Transistors generated heat, hence air-conditioning was required
Computers were still bulky and were not portable

Computers occupied a lot of space
Due to breakdown, frequent maintenance was required
Third Generation ComputersThird Generation ComputersThird Generation ComputersThird Generation Computers
They were designed using integrated circuits (IC’s) technology. They have core magnetic memory
or semiconductor memories (RAM and ROM) Computers were having the cache memory feature.
Secondary storage memories were similar to 2nd generation computers. Concept of
multiprocessing and multiprogramming was introduced. IC chip means integrated circuit chip i.e. a
chip is an area less than 5mm. Square and IC chip means integrating or joining electronic circuits
in less 5mm. Square area.
Advantages of Third Generation computers
They were faster in computation, than the second-generation computers
They occupied less space, as IC chip were small, as compared to the transistors
Due to high reliability less maintenance was required
Disadvantages of Third Generation computers
IC chip technology was more complex and thus, expert persons were required
Fourth Generation ComputerFourth Generation ComputerFourth Generation ComputerFourth Generation Computer
Its features are
Uses VLSI chips for memory & CPU
RAM 1to 256 MB or more available
Cache memory on CPU chips
Concept of super computer having more than 1 CPU’s
Additional Numerical processor
Larger hard disks 1.2-6.5 GB or more
Optical Disks for mass storage
Audio/Video capability
e.g. IBM PC 8086/8088/80286/80386/80486, PENTIUM-MMX, PENTIUM II/III, IBM-
AS/400, CRAY Y-MPC, PARAM 10000.
Advantages of Fourth Generation computers
They were faster in computation, than the third generation computers
They occupied less space, as it shrunk the area required by electronic circuits
They were more reliable and low maintenance was required
Disadvantages of Fourth Generation computers
Due to breakdown, frequent maintenance was required
IC chip technology was more complex and thus, expert persons were required
Fifth GenerationFifth GenerationFifth GenerationFifth Generation CCCComputersomputersomputersomputers
The aim of 5th generation is to bring machines with general intelligence, the ability to reason
logically. It is not just data processing but knowledge processing. Some of the expected features of
5th generation computers are as follows

These computers will use ULSI chips (Ultra Large scale integration) to achieve more
efficiency
The input and output is speech & graphics, in future they will understand languages like
English, Japanese
Computer will do the job of programming
Extensive use of parallel processing will be used
All data may not be stored in main memory; they may flow through processing units by
activating them according to the computers
These computers are yet to come and scientists are doing research on them. Computer will be
having its own intelligence. Hence, it will take decisions on its own. ULSI and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) technology will be used in these computers.
1.41.41.41.4 ClassifClassifClassifClassificationicationicationication oooof Computersf Computersf Computersf Computers
Computers can be classified on basis of design, usage and size. Classification is detailed as
Super ComputerSuper ComputerSuper ComputerSuper Computer
Super computer is the most powerful computer in world, which is used for solving complex
problems. They use parallel processing. A super computer has multiple processors (100 or more)
fitted inside. It is used mainly in spaceship control, defense and meteorological departments.
Scientists build their complex processes and simulate them on supercomputers. PARAM is an
example of such computer, which is made in India by C-DAC. CRAY, USA also makes super
computer.
Mainframe ComputerMainframe ComputerMainframe ComputerMainframe Computer
They are used where large number of computers (100+) needs frequent access to the information.
The mainframe computers are big in size and require big room for installation. HP 9000, IBM
es/9000 are examples of same.
Mini ComputerMini ComputerMini ComputerMini Computer
These computers are comparatively smaller than mainframe. These computers are used as servers
with many computers (usually less than 100) connected to them. The computers are used by
Banks, and Data Processing Centers. E.g. PDP-11, IBM As/400.
Personal ComputerPersonal ComputerPersonal ComputerPersonal Computer
PC’s are most popular computers in today’s world
It is used for various purposes like office management, education designing etc.
They are smaller in size and can be placed on table
They are available with microprocessor chips, manufactured by Intel or AMD
Some of other common computers types are
Notebook computerNotebook computerNotebook computerNotebook computer
It can fit easily inside a briefcase or bag. Laptops can operate on plug – in current or with in-built
batteries. Laptops with small screen (10”) are called netbook and are also low in price.

Personal Digital AssistantPersonal Digital AssistantPersonal Digital AssistantPersonal Digital Assistant
They are the smallest of portable computers. They are used for small operations like displaying
telephone numbers.
WorkstationWorkstationWorkstationWorkstation
The most powerful PC’s, which are used by engineers, scientists and graphic artist, are known as
workstations.
Home ComputerHome ComputerHome ComputerHome Computer
They are PC’s used in homes for entertainment and computational purposes.
1.51.51.51.5 Applications of ComputerApplications of ComputerApplications of ComputerApplications of Computer
Some of the fields where computers are being used are
OfficesOfficesOfficesOffices
Computers are widely being used in offices to perform day to day works like preparation of forms,
letters contract documents memorandums, project reports, create budgets, communicate with co-
workers, find information etc. Computers are vital in accounting department, for manipulating
large set of numbers, which accounting departments do daily. Word processing and spreadsheet
packages like work-sheet Ami-pro, Excel, are popular office packages that help in creating a paper
less office.
Publication and PrintingPublication and PrintingPublication and PrintingPublication and Printing
Popularly known as desktop publishing, design, layout and composition of books, brochures
leaflets, visiting cards, letter heads using popular packages like PageMaker, Ventura, CorelDraw,
QuarkXPress etc. Output of the designs is taken on laser printer. Using a camera negative/
positive design is prepared which is used in offset/screen printing according to the colors specified.
EducationEducationEducationEducation
In educational departments, institutes, computer is used as teaching aid, which is referred as
computer assisted instructions (CAI). The CAI programs can be prepared in a variety of modes
like tutorial, problem solving modeling etc. For multimedia computers CD’s are also available for
educational /training purposes on almost every subject with audio/video features known as CBT
(Computer Based Training).
Computer Aided DesigningComputer Aided DesigningComputer Aided DesigningComputer Aided Designing
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM) are one of the most
powerful application applications Engineers, scientist and designers use CAD software to design a
machine, car, building etc. These designs can be viewed in 3D before the production of
machines. Computers can also control manufacturing machines like drill, lathe machines. An
integrated CAD/CAM system help to produce quality machines, where a software takes designing
information from CASD database and convert them into other program which controls and
activate the manufacturing machines.

Computers in MedicalComputers in MedicalComputers in MedicalComputers in Medical
Computer aided diagnostic machines are used to diagnose various types of disease. It also helps in
surgery and treatment. Eye testing, scanning of internal parts of brain, by pass surgery, pathological
tests are the examples where computers are used effectively.
Animation & GraphicsAnimation & GraphicsAnimation & GraphicsAnimation & Graphics
Specialized software like Corel Draw, Harvard graphics Photoshop, etc., can be used to draw
pictures and designs. It helps an artist to improve his skill and reduces the time consumed when
drawn manually.
MilitaryMilitaryMilitaryMilitary
For the defense purposes in military computer plays an important role. A guided missile fitted with
its own
computer that decides about the target and path. Similarly system uses for processing data and
image display.
Fighter planes are fitted with computerized system controls to decide about range height etc. of the
target.
1.61.61.61.6 CommonlCommonlCommonlCommonly Used Computer Termsy Used Computer Termsy Used Computer Termsy Used Computer Terms
HardwareHardwareHardwareHardware
Physical components of the computer system are known as hardware e.g. Monitor, keyboard,
mouse, chips, wires, buses etc. They are tangible hence, can be touched or seen by humans.
SoftwareSoftwareSoftwareSoftware
Instructions, programs, written for the computer to run specific task are known as software. They
are of two types System Software and Application Software. E.g. Word Application Package,
Operating Systems Software etc. They cannot be touched or seen by humans.
FirmwareFirmwareFirmwareFirmware
Instructions or software substituted for hardware and stored in read-only memory. Software
programs made available on hardware i.e. ROM used as BIOS.
1.71.71.71.7 Basic OperationsBasic OperationsBasic OperationsBasic Operations ooooffff aaaa ComputerComputerComputerComputer –––– Input, Process and OutputInput, Process and OutputInput, Process and OutputInput, Process and Output
All computer systems perform the following 5 basic operations
InputInputInputInput
The process of entering the data and instruction into computer System. It involves three steps -
accepting the list of instruction from user in their format. Then converting these instructions in
computer acceptable form. Supplying the instructions to computer system for processing.
ProcessProcessProcessProcess
It is the actual processing in the CPU that takes place on the data, as per the given instructions.

OutputOutputOutputOutput
The process of output of the data from the computer system. It accepts the results produced by
computer, which are in coded form. It converts the coded form to human acceptable form. It
supplies the converted results to user.
Block Diagram of a Computer
1.81.81.81.8 Units of a computer systemUnits of a computer systemUnits of a computer systemUnits of a computer system
Input UnitInput UnitInput UnitInput Unit
Data and instructions from the user are given by this unit. It consists of keyboard, mouse etc.
Output UnitOutput UnitOutput UnitOutput Unit
Processed data is given to the user by this unit. It consists of printer, monitor etc.
Storage UnitStorage UnitStorage UnitStorage Unit
All the data to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored in it. It also stores
the intermediate and final results of processing before the results are released to output device.
Central Processing UnitCentral Processing UnitCentral Processing UnitCentral Processing Unit
The Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit of system are jointly known as CPU. It is the brain
of the system.
Arithmetic Logical Unit
It is a place where actual execution of instructions takes place during processing of data.
Computations of arithmetic (addition, division etc.) and logical (less than, equals, etc.) takes place
in it.
Control Unit
It is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system by selecting interpreting
and seeing to the execution of program instruction. It controls the flow of information in the
computer.

1.91.91.91.9 Representation of informationRepresentation of informationRepresentation of informationRepresentation of information
Difference between Data and InformationDifference between Data and InformationDifference between Data and InformationDifference between Data and Information
Data Information
Data themselves are meaningless Information is meaningful
Data is raw facts like numbers, characters etc.
For e.g. Number of items sold today is data, as
it is just a number.
Information is processed or manipulated
data. For e.g. Which product sells more in a
week.
Binary Number SystemBinary Number SystemBinary Number SystemBinary Number System
This number system use only two symbols to represent data, i.e. 0 and 1. Therefore the base of
binary number system is 2. In the table given below the decimal numbers are shown with their
binary equivalents.
DECIMAL BINARY
0 0
1 1
2 10
Computer being a device easily understands two states i.e. ON (Current is coming) or OFF
(Current is not coming). Thus all data and instruction given to a computer is expressed in these
two states, known as binary states (Bi meaning two). Hence, data is also measured by computer on
the basis of these two states, as we measure distance in Kilometer, time in minutes or seconds,
similarly we measure the amount of data in various terms as
Memory Size (Bit, Byte, KB, MB)Memory Size (Bit, Byte, KB, MB)Memory Size (Bit, Byte, KB, MB)Memory Size (Bit, Byte, KB, MB)
BIT
It is the basic unit of information. It means BInary digit (BIT). It represents either a zero (0) or
One (1). Computer
works on the principle of “on” or “off” of electronic pulses. 1 represents the passing of the pulse
while 0 means
blocking of pulse. Bit is therefore the smallest unit of information.
For example 0 1 bit
11 2 bit
110 3 bit
NIBBLE
It is a collection of 4 bits
BYTE
It is a collection of 8 bits.

KILOBYTE (KB)
It is equals a thousand (Kilo) bytes, but in Binary form it is represented as 1024 (210). Thus 1KB=
1024 bytes.
MEGABYTE (MB)
It equals thousand Kilo Bytes or 1 MB= 1024 KB or 1 MB = 220 bytes.
GIGABYTE (GB)
It equals thousand Mega Bytes or 1 GB= 1024 MB or 1 GMB = 230 bytes. Thus above
information can be summarized as
Unit Equals
1 Bit 0 or 1
1 Nibble 4 bits
1 Byte 8 bits
1 KB 1024 bytes
1 MB 1024 KB
1 GB 1024 MB
ASCII
In computer system data is stored in a format that cannot be read by human beings. Every
computer stores numbers, letters and other special character in a coded form. The most widely
used coding system is the American standard code for information technology (ASCII) which can
represent 256 different symbols by using 8 bits.
1.101.101.101.10 InputInputInputInput DDDDevicesevicesevicesevices
KeyboardKeyboardKeyboardKeyboard
A computer keyboard is similar to a typewriter keyboard. It is an input device. Data can be entered
into a computer through the keyboard. Usually it has 101 keys arranged in 5 groups
Alphanumeric keysAlphanumeric keysAlphanumeric keysAlphanumeric keys - in QWERTY layout (the first six letters on the top row of the letters
are Q,W,E,R,T,Y) with A-Z ,0-9 plus some more characters.
Modifier keysModifier keysModifier keysModifier keys- In addition to letters and punctuation marks, the alphanumeric keys include
the modifier keys as they are used in conjunction with other keys. E.g. Shift, Ctrl (control
key), Alt (alternate key).
Function keysFunction keysFunction keysFunction keys- The function keys (F1, F2….F12) are usually arranged in a row along the
top of the keyboard. They allow us to give the computer commands.
Cursor movement keysCursor movement keysCursor movement keysCursor movement keys---- Arrow keys which let us change the position of cursor on the
screen. In a word processing program, there is a mark on the screen where characters we
type will be entered, this is called insertion point or cursor.
Special purpose keysSpecial purpose keysSpecial purpose keysSpecial purpose keys - Each of the special keys performs a specialised function.
EscEscEscEsc- Key is used to back up one level in a multilevel environment, it can be used
to close multiple opened programs in reverse order.
Print screenPrint screenPrint screenPrint screen - This key copies an image of the screen’s contents to the clipboard.
Scroll lockScroll lockScroll lockScroll lock - Scroll lock causes the cursor to remain stationary on the screen and
the document’s contents move around it, as in MS-Excel.

PausePausePausePause- In some programs, the pause key can be used to stop a command in
progress.
The numeric keypad usually located on the right side of the keyboard looks like an adding
machine with ten digits and mathematical operators (+,-,/ and *).
MouseMouseMouseMouse
Mouse is a pointing device used to position the pointer. The pointer is an on-screen object usually
an arrow, that is used to select a text, menus, move files or interact with programs, files or data that
appear on screens. It also allows us to create graphic elements on the screens, such as lines, curves
and freehand shapes. Clicking and drag-and-drop editing technique is used with the mouse.
Earlier, ball-mouse connected via PS/2 port was used but now USB port connected optical mouse
is prevalent.
ScannersScannersScannersScanners
Image scanners
Image scanners convert any printed image into electronic image by shining light onto the image
and sensing the intensity of the reflection at every point. Bar code reader is an image scanner.
Optical CharacterOptical CharacterOptical CharacterOptical Character Recognition (OCR)Recognition (OCR)Recognition (OCR)Recognition (OCR)
It is used to translate the image into text that we can edit. It uses specialized OCR software.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)Optical Mark Reader (OMR)Optical Mark Reader (OMR)Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
These scanners are capable of recognizing a pre-specified type of mark made by pencil or pen.
They are used in evaluation of answer sheets of objective test.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
They are used in banking industry to process cheques. Cheques have bank identification code and
cheque numbers in a special ink that is read by MICR devices.
Touch Screens, Voice Recognition Devices are also some of the input devices.
1.111.111.111.11 OutputOutputOutputOutput DDDDevicesevicesevicesevices
MonitorMonitorMonitorMonitor
It is also called as screen. It is a soft copy output device. It is similar to television. Earlier
monochrome (Black & White) or Colour CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors were used but now
LED & LCD monitors are prevalent. We can see the input information supplied to the computer
as well as the results obtained after processing on monitor. The computer screen is divided into
rows and columns. The number of rows and columns that can be displayed is known as the
resolution like 640 x 480, 1024 x 768, etc. The intersection of row and column is called a pixel
(Picture Element).
Following are the different types of monitors generally used with computers
LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitor
SVGA (Super Video Graphic Array) Monitor
LCD (Liquid Crystal Diode) Monitor

PrintersPrintersPrintersPrinters
Printers are used for producing the hard copy output on paper. Printers can be broadly classified
into Impact Printers & Non-impact Printers.
Impact Printers
Dot Matrix PrinterDot Matrix PrinterDot Matrix PrinterDot Matrix Printer A printer that produces output by printing dots onto the page. They are often
inexpensive. They are available in 80 and 132 columns with print speeds from 100 characters per
second to 1200 characters per second.
Non- Impact Printers
Ink jet PrinterInk jet PrinterInk jet PrinterInk jet Printer It uses nozzles which spray jets of ink onto the paper. The operating cost of the ink
jet is low and expensive maintenance is rare. The only part that needs replacement is the ink
cartridge, which typically costs less. Its speed is to print 2-4 pages per minute.
Laser PrinterLaser PrinterLaser PrinterLaser Printer Laser printers are more expensive than inkjet printers. Their print quality is higher
and is faster. They use direct scanning of laser beam on the roller which fuses ink to the paper.
PlottersPlottersPlottersPlotters
Plotters are output devices, which plots big size drawings on to the sheets. They are used in plotting
of engineering drawings, architectural maps, design layouts, etc.
1.121.121.121.12 StorageStorageStorageStorage DevicesDevicesDevicesDevices
It is an important unit of computer. It is further divided into primary and secondary memory.
There is important difference between address number and the contents of the address. The
contents stored may be any text, number or any thing but the address at which they are stored is
fixed.
Primary StoragePrimary StoragePrimary StoragePrimary Storage DevicesDevicesDevicesDevices
A primary or internal storage section is in all computers and consists of cache, processor register
ROM & RAM.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
It provides random selection and usage of memory location to store and retrieve data. It is also
called read/write memory because information can be read and can also be written into it. It is a
volatile memory; it gets erased as and when the computer is switched off. Whenever a new data is
stored, the previous data is erased and new data takes place. It is present in 512/1024 MB.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
A read only memory (ROM) is one in which information is permanently stored. The information
from the memory can only be read and it is not possible to write into it. It is non-volatile, i.e. when
the power supply is switched off, the contents on ROM do not get erased, and they are permanent
and are written only by the manufacturer. The programs, which are always required for running
the machine, are stored in ROM. The ROM usually contains the BIOS (Basic Input & Output
System) which checks the hardware for proper functioning and in case of problem it stops booting
of computer and audio beeps are given. BIOS also load the Operating System into the memory.

Processor Registers
They are located in the CPU to load instructions for execution by the CPU. They function with
speed of CPU and hence are the fastest memory. It is present in few KB.
Processor Cache
Processor cache is used for speeding up the data supply to CPU. It stores the most frequently used
data from the main memory. When the CPU needs the particular data item, it can simply access
the cache memory which is closely located, instead of accessing the much slower main memory. It
is present in KB (256/512).
Secondary Storage DevicesSecondary Storage DevicesSecondary Storage DevicesSecondary Storage Devices
Magnetic Tape
The magnetic tape is similar in appearance to an audiocassette. This storage device uses plastic
strip coated with the magnetic material as a storage medium. The strip is present in plastic casing.
The strip is a plastic ribbon approximately ½ inch in width. The strip is housed in the cartridge.
Magnetic tape is slower in accessing the data, but there input and output speeds are high. They are
available up to 5120 GB capacity.
Disk Drives
A drive is the name for several types of storage media. They are assigned a drive letter. During start
up, drives are typically recognized by System Software (ROM BIOS + Operating System). At the
end of this configuration, the appropriate drive letter is identified with each drive. If a drive is not
“seen” during start up, it will not be accessible to the operating system. Some examples are
Storage Media Drive Letter
Floppy Disks
Hard Disk
CDROM/ DVD
USB
A: B:
C: D: E:
F:
G: H:
Track & SectorsTrack & SectorsTrack & SectorsTrack & Sectors
The disk surface comprises several tracks arranged in concentric circles called tracks which are
further subdivided into sectors. The greater the number of tracks, the more is the storage capacity
of the disk. When all the sectors, of a track are full, drive starts using the next track.

Figure – Hard Disk
Hard Disk Drive
Hard disk is used for mass storage of data needed for direct access. It is non-volatile random
access memory. The disk comes in different sizes such as 3.5, inch, 5.5 inch and 8 inch. Hard
disk. It has disk platters mounted on a spindle, on which data is read/written by read/write head. It
comes in 250-1024 GB capacity.
AdvantagesAdvantagesAdvantagesAdvantages
Large storage capacity
Low per MB cost
Direct addressing leading to random access addition and deletion of records
Floppy Disk Drive
A floppy disk is made of flexible plastic material which is coated magnetic substance. Each floppy
disk is packaged in a protective paper or plastic envelope from which it is never removed. Floppy
disks are mainly used, for the purpose of backup and transportability of data, for small data
volumes. Floppy comes in different sizes. 5.25”and 3.5”floppies. Floppy have 1.2 MB and 1.44
MB capacity.

Figure – Floppy Disk
Optical Disk
An optical disk uses optics or light for storage and retrieval of information. The disk is made up of
polycarbonate. The disk is coated with a reflective material, whose reflecting property changes
when high power laser beam is focused on it. The high power laser beam burns the surface of disk
as per the data to be stored on the disk. Low power laser beam is used for reading data from the
disk. Most common optical disk is the CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory). CD-
ROM has an important property of speed rating, which means the amount of data that can be
transferred from the disk. 1X refers to 150 Kbps, 2X refers to 300 Kbps, similarly 4X, 8X, 16X,
etc. These days CD- ROM drives have speed rating of 52X. CD-ROM has 700 MB capacity. DVD
is high capacity optical disk which can store up to 4.3 GB of data. Blue ray disk is upcoming
optical disk technology which can store up to 50 GB data.
Flash Memory
The practical application of this type of volatile computer memory can be seen in USB flash
drives, memory cards and portable hard discs. These allow the data to be written to them and can
be detached from the system. They can be attached to another computer system to read and
transfer the data to it.
Central Processing Unit (C.P.U)Central Processing Unit (C.P.U)Central Processing Unit (C.P.U)Central Processing Unit (C.P.U)
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the
commands from the computer's hardware and software. It is often called the "brains" of the
computer. The CPU is also known as processor, microprocessor, and central processor. The
Central Processing Unit (C.P.U) can be further divide into the following ways.
Control Unit
The control unit is the circuitry that controls the flow of information through the processor, and
coordinates the activities of the other units within it. It generates signal as per which the processing
is done and is given in MHz/GHz (mega Hertz/ Giga Hertz) .In a way, it is the "brain within the
brain", as it controls what happens inside the processor, which in turn controls the rest of the PC.
The functions performed by the control unit vary greatly by the internal architecture of the CPU,
since the control unit really implements this architecture.

Functions of Control UnitFunctions of Control UnitFunctions of Control UnitFunctions of Control Unit
A control unit can be described as a sort of circuitry that supervises and controls the path of
information that runs over the processor and organizes the various activities of those units that lie
inside it.
It controls the execution of instructions in a sequential order.
It guides the flow of data through the different parts of the computer.
It interprets the instructions.
It regulates the time controls of the processor.
It sends and receives control signals from various peripheral devices.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs all arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division) and logic operations. The data required to perform the
arithmetic and logical functions are inputs from the designated CPU registers and operands. The
ALU relies on basic items to perform its operations.
Functions of Arithmetic Logic UnitFunctions of Arithmetic Logic UnitFunctions of Arithmetic Logic UnitFunctions of Arithmetic Logic Unit
Almost all the calculations of the computer are done by it. It gets its data from processor register.
After the data gets processed, its results get stored in output registers of the arithmetic logic unit.
It performs integer arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, etc.
It can also perform bitwise logic operations like AND, OR, XOR, etc.
1.131.131.131.13 Types of SoftwareTypes of SoftwareTypes of SoftwareTypes of Software
As, we earlier noted that software is instructions, programs for the computer, but there are various
types of software. Software can be classified as
System SoftwareSystem SoftwareSystem SoftwareSystem Software
Software which control the operation of a computer system. They directly interface with the
hardware of the computer system. They provide a platform over which application software runs.
It controls the execution of application programs. For example Operating System like MS-DOS,
MS-WINDOWS XP/ 2003, LINUX
Operating System Software
It is a type of system software. It is a master program which runs in the computer and controls the
hardware and running of the application software. It is the software, which is loaded into the
memory first, when a computer is started. The operating system manages the data in the computer
system, various jobs or task assigned to it and is responsible for the security and proper functioning
of the computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other
programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard,
sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. LINUX, Windows XP/2003, MS-
DOS are common examples of operating system.
The major functions of an Operating System are
Resource management - The resource management function of an OS allocates computer
resources such as CPU time, main memory, secondary storage, and input and output
devices for use.

Data management - The data management functions of an OS govern the input and output
of the data and their location, storage, and retrieval.
Task management - The Task management function of an OS prepares, schedules,
controls, and monitors jobs submitted for execution to ensure the most efficient
processing. A job is a collection of one or more related programs and their data.
Command Interpretation - The OS establishes a standard means of communication
between users and their computer systems. It does this by providing a user interface
(Graphical based as in Windows or Character based as in DOS) and a standard set of
commands that control the hardware.
Some of the typical uses of an Operating System are
1. Executing application programs.
2. Formatting floppy or hard or flash disk.
3. Setting up directories to organize your files.
4. Displaying a list of files stored on a particular disk.
5. Verifying that there is enough room on a disk to save a file.
6. Protecting and backing up your files by copying them to other disks for safekeeping.
Device Drivers
A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to computer.
There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, diskette drives, and so on.
When you buy an operating system, many device drivers are built into the product. However, if
you later buy a new type of device that the operating system didn't anticipate, you'll have to install
the new device driver. A device driver essentially converts the more general input/output
instructions of the operating system to messages that the device type can understand. In Windows
operating systems, a device driver file usually has a file name suffix of DLL or EXE. A virtual
device driver usually has the suffix of VXD.
Application SoftwareApplication SoftwareApplication SoftwareApplication Software
These types of software fulfill a specific user’s requirement. They run over the system software.
Application programmers develop the application software. They carry out operation for a specific
application. For example accounting software, word processor software, etc. Some of application
packages are
Word Processing Software
This software is used to create and to edit documents such as letters, reports, essays etc. The word
processing software provides several features for document editing and formatting. In. editing
process, text is entered into the document, deleted, copied or moved to another location etc. In
formatting process, different formats can be applied on the text to make the document more
attractive before to print on the printer. The most popular word processing software programs are
Microsoft Word, Word Perfect etc.
Spreadsheet Software
Spreadsheet software is used to store and process data in an electronic sheet having columns and
rows. The data is entered into the cells of the sheet. The intersection of a row and a column is
known as cell. Each cell is a unique address. The numbers and formulas are entered into the cells

and the computer can automatically perform the calculation on numerical data in cells. The
spreadsheet software is commonly used for business application such as for performing financial
calculations and recording transactions. The most popular example of spreadsheet software is
Microsoft Excel etc.
Database Management Software
Database management software is used to create and manage databases. A database is a collection
of related information or records on any subject such as records of the books in a library,
information about the students of a college etc. Database Management Software stores and
manages records in databases. These records can be accessed very quickly when required. The
Microsoft Access, Oracle etc. are most popular examples of Database Management Software.
Presentation Graphics Software
The presentation graphic software is used to create slides for making presentations. The
presentation graphic software also has pre-drawn clip art images, which can be inserted into slides
and can be modified. The PowerPoint is an example of presentation graphic software.
Communication Software
The Communication software is used to exchange information electronically. It is most commonly
used software to send and receive information on the Internet. It also allows for sending and
receiving faxes directly. The computer files can also be transferred from one PC to another
through this software. The Internet Explorer is an example of this software.
Other Software TermsOther Software TermsOther Software TermsOther Software Terms
Utility software
This software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize and
maintain the computer. A single unit of utility software is usually called a utility or tool. They are
often rather technical and targeted at people with an advanced level of computer knowledge. Most
utilities are highly specialized and designed to perform only a single task or a small range of tasks.
However, there are also some utility suites that combine several features in one piece of software.
Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities. Disk defragmenter, disk
cleanup, backup are common utilities of Windows.
Custom Made Software
Custom Made Software is the software, which is made for fulfillment of the user’s requirement.
Software programmers develop the software for the customer, as per the customer’s needs.
Packaged Software
Off the shelf or packaged software is readymade software, which we purchase like a commodity.
TranslatorsTranslatorsTranslatorsTranslators
A language translator or a language processor is a general term used for any assembler, compiler or
other routine that accepts statements in one language and produces equivalent statements in
another language. The language processor reads instructions in a language called source program
and converts to other language usually in machine language, also called the executable program.

Computers understand machine language which we humans do not understand hence, a translator
between human and machine language is needed. Three types of translators are
Assembler
This is a program used to translate assembly language program to machine code. It was used
earlier and is not widely used these days.
Compiler
A computer translates program written in high-level language into executable program. Compiler is
more complex program than assembler or other system programs and hence they need more
memory. The language processor translates the complete source program as a whole in machine
code before execution. The C and C++ compilers are best examples of compilers.
Interpreter
It also translates high-level language into machine language. But unlike compilers it translates a
statement in program and executes the statement immediately before to translate the next
statement. When an error occurs in the program the program is halted and an error message is
displayed. An interpreter does not generate a permanent saved object code file. Whenever a
program is re-executed the translation process is repeated. The OWBASIC is an example of
interpreter.
1.141.141.141.14 Disk OrganizationDisk OrganizationDisk OrganizationDisk Organization
Disk organization refers to the manner in which the disk drive is organized for storage of data.
Some related terms are discussed.
Disk Storage CapacityDisk Storage CapacityDisk Storage CapacityDisk Storage Capacity
It refers to the amount of data that a disk drive can store. It is measured in Megabyte or Gigabyte
(MB, GB).
Boot RecordBoot RecordBoot RecordBoot Record
It is present on the first sector also called as the boot sector of a disk drive, from where the
operating system starts to be loaded into the memory when the computer is started.
Disk partitioningDisk partitioningDisk partitioningDisk partitioning
It is the process of creating primary and extended partitions on the disk drive. These partitions are
logical division of the disk drive that can be used for formatting for use by a file system. Different
partitions are required for better utilization of disk drive’s storage capacity and backup of critical
information.
File Allocation Table (FAT)File Allocation Table (FAT)File Allocation Table (FAT)File Allocation Table (FAT)
It is a file system used by MS-DOS and MS-WINDOWS. As per the name, it is a table, which
stores information about sectors of disk, which all are occupied by a file or not. With the help of
FAT, operating system is able to locate a file and do processing as instructed. Since, it is very
important, MS-DOS keeps another duplicate copy of FAT, which will be used if the first FAT gets
corrupted. FAT also stores details of damaged sectors of a disk.

MemoryMemoryMemoryMemory CapacityCapacityCapacityCapacity
It refers to the amount of data a storage device can hold. It is measured in KB or MB or GB.
Access timeAccess timeAccess timeAccess time
It is time measured in milliseconds to access a data element for a storage device.
MemoryMemoryMemoryMemory AddressAddressAddressAddress
Generally, in a personal computer data is stored in storage locations termed as address or memory
address. The computer process the data by accessing data by the memory address where data is
present.
1.151.151.151.15 Operating SystemOperating SystemOperating SystemOperating System
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
An Operating System is system software, which may be viewed as an organized collection of
software consisting of procedures for operating a computer and providing an environment for
execution of programs. Operating system is an interface between the user and the hardware of a
computer. There are many important reasons for studying operating systems. Some of them are
User interacts with the computer through operating system in order to accomplish his/her
task since it is his primary interface with the computer
It helps users to understand the inner functions of a computer very closely.
Many concepts and techniques found in operating system have general applicability in
other applications.
Operating System interaction
What is an Operating System?What is an Operating System?What is an Operating System?What is an Operating System?
An Operating System is a large collection of software, which manages resources of the computer
system, such as memory, processor, file system and input/output device. It keeps track of the status
of each resource and decides who will have a control over computer resources.

An Operating System is a set of programs that control the operations of a central processing unit
(CPU) and enable the user to communicate with the system. The major ones for microcomputers
are DOS, WINDOWS and UNIX.
Before the user starts interacting with the computer, a series of steps are executed. As a first step
the processor starts executing the ROM-BIOS instructions stored permanently in ROM and is
activated each time when machine is switched on. ROM-BIOS stand for READ ONLY
MEMORY BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT SYSTEM. The first ROM-BIOS instruction is the start-up
routine. These instructions test to see if computer is in good working order. It checks all the area
of RAM and looks all the connections to see if they are functional. This testing activity of ROM-
BIOS is called POST (POWER-ON SELF TEST).
Roles of ORoles of ORoles of ORoles of Operatingperatingperatingperating SSSSystemystemystemystem
It processes commands, which are entered at the command prompt.
It helps to load program from external storage to internal storage.
It helps in managing the hardware.
It allows to control the reading and writing of data on to floppies and hard disk
It helps in controlling and printing operations.
It communicates messages to the user through monitor and takes input from the keyboard.
It provides facilities such as copying, deleting, renaming etc. of files
Terms Related to Operating SystemTerms Related to Operating SystemTerms Related to Operating SystemTerms Related to Operating System
Batch Processing
In batch mode, each user prepares his program off-line and submits it to the computer centre.
Then these programs are collected on top of another and then they are executed after loading.
The method of batch processing reduces the idle time of the computer system because transition
from one job to another does not require operator’s intervention.
In batch processing the data are collected for a given period of time and the resulting “batch” of
data is processed as a single job. Batch processing is quite useful when majority of records in a
large database must be processed at the same time. Many organizations prefer to use batch-
processing method for billing. Telephone, gas and electric, for example, prepare their bills using
batch processing, salary calculations.
On-Line Processing
On Line processing permits transaction data to be fed under CPU control directly into secondary
on-line storage devices from the point where data originates without first being sorted. The CPU
can make programmed input control checks during this process. Using these input data,
appropriate records (which are normally organized in the secondary storage unit in random
fashion) may be quickly updated. The access to and retrieval from that record is quick and direct.
On-line processing and direct access to records require unique hardware and software. E.g.
Business transactions, on-line transactions on Internet.
On – line systems can reduce data – processing costs, offer better customer service and provide a
strategic advantage over competitors. In this approach the CPU processes data instantly. As a
result, whenever a user is interested to access or enter data, the request is granted with in a few

seconds. Unlike batch processing, each request is processed individually – there is no waiting while
groups of requests are batched and processed together. On-line systems are thus preferred when
selected records must be processed at any single point of time or when the user and computer
system must interact.
Real Time Processing
Real time means immediate response from the computer. A system, in which a transaction
accesses and updates a file quickly enough to affect the original decision making, is called a real
time system. Real time processing system may be described as an online processing system with
severe time limitations (with tighter constraints on response time and availability). It may be noted
here that a real-time system uses on-line processing, but an on-line system need not necessarily
operate in real time mode. E.g. Airline Reservation Systems, Traffic Control, Stock market
evaluations. In these systems data is processed to make results available within a time scale that can
influence external events, either automatically as in process control system, or via a human
resource.
Multiprocessing
The term multiprocessing is used to describe interconnected computer configurations or
computers with two or more independent CPU’s that have the ability to simultaneously execute
several programs. Different CPU’s can process instructions from different and independent
programs at the same time.
Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved execution of two or more different and
independent programs by the same computer. In order to overcome the problem of under-
utilization of main memory and CPU, the concept of multiprogramming was introduced in
operating systems. The CPU switches from the one program to another almost instantaneously.
Since the operating speed of CPU is much faster than that of I/O operations, the CPU can allocate
time to several programs instead of remaining idle when one is busy with I/O operations.
Time Sharing
Time Sharing is a term to describe a processing system with a number of independent, relatively
low speeds, online simultaneously usable stations. Each station provides direct access to CPU.
Time-sharing refers to the allocation of computer resources in a time independent fashion to
several programs simultaneously. The principal notion of a timesharing system is to provide a large
number of user direct accesses to the computer for problem solving. In Time Sharing system, the
CPU time is divided among all the users on a scheduled basis to allow all user programs to have a
brief share of the CPU time in turn.
This short period of time during which a user gets the attention of the CPU is known as time slice.
All the users who are using a Time Sharing system will fall in one of the following three status
groups.

Active The users program currently has control of the CPU. Only one user will be active at
a time.
Ready The user’s program is ready to continue but is waiting for its turn to get the attention
of CPU.
Wait The user has made no request for execution of his job or the user’s program is
waiting for some I/O operations.
Advantages of Time Sharing
Reduces CPU idle time
Provides advantages of quick response
Reduces the output of paper
Avoids duplication of software
Spooling
Spooling is a technique that has been successfully used on a computer system to reduce the speed
mismatch and in turn the idle time of the CPU. It is the process of placing all data that comes from
an input device or goes to an output device on either a magnetic tape or disk. Special spooling
programs are executed by the operating system to transfer the data from the disk or tape to the
main memory or an input or output device. The disk or tape device acts as a buffer area between
main storage, which is extremely fast, and I/O devices, which are relatively slow. Spooling
programs are executed when the CPU is not too busy with other jobs

File
It is like a physical file having specific information. It has two main parts File name, which is the
name given to the file to distinguish it from other files and file extension, which tells us about the
application software used to create or edit this file and the type of data in the file for example MS-
Word file have ‘DOC’ file extension and the file will be having letter or memo information but
MS-Excel files have ‘XLS’ extension and stores numbers and formulas for calculation.
Directory
It is collection to store related files like a physical file rack having specific types of files. For
example maps of a colony are stored in specific rack thus each map refers to a computer file and a
computer directory refers to the rack. It is also called as folder.
Pointer or Cursor
It is an indicator used to show the position on a computer monitor or other display device that will
respond to input from a text input (keyboard) or pointing device (mouse). The flashing text cursor
may be referred to as a caret in some cases. The mouse cursor may be referred to as a mouse
pointer, owing to its arrow shape on some systems.
Mouse-cursor and hand pointer

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