Windows Operating system notes taken from somewhere

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002
22.1
Operating System Concepts
Module 22: Windows XP
 History
 Design Principles
 System Components
 Environmental Subsystems
 File system
 Networking
 Programmer Interface

22.2
Windows XP
 32-bit preemptive multitasking operating system for
Intel microprocessors.
 Key goals for the system:
 portability
 security
 POSIX compliance
 multiprocessor support
 extensibility
 international support
 compatibility with MS-DOS and MS-Windows applications.
 Uses a micro-kernel architecture.
 Available in four versions, Professional, Server,
Advanced Server, National Server.
 In 1996, more NT server licenses were sold than
UNIX licenses

22.3
History
 In 1988, Microsoft decided to develop a “new technology”
(NT) portable operating system that supported both the
OS/2 and POSIX APIs.
 Originally, NT was supposed to use the OS/2 API as its
native environment but during development NT was
changed to use the Win32 API, reflecting the popularity of
Windows 3.0.

22.4
Design Principles
 Extensibility — layered architecture.
 Executive, which runs in protected mode, provides the basic
system services.
 On top of the executive, several server subsystems operate
in user mode.
 Modular structure allows additional environmental
subsystems to be added without affecting the executive.
 Portability —XP can be moved from on hardware
architecture to another with relatively few changes.
 Written in C and C++.
 Processor-dependent code is isolated in a dynamic link
library (DLL) called the “hardware abstraction layer” (HAL).

22.5
Design Principles (Cont.)
 Reliability —XP uses hardware protection for virtual
memory, and software protection mechanisms for
operating system resources.
 Compatibility — applications that follow the IEEE 1003.1
(POSIX) standard can be complied to run on XP without
changing the source code.
 Performance —XP subsystems can communicate with
one another via high-performance message passing.
 Preemption of low priority threads enables the system to
respond quickly to external events.
 Designed for symmetrical multiprocessing
 International support — supports different locales via the
national language support (NLS) API.

22.6
XP Architecture
 Layered system of modules.
 Protected mode — HAL, kernel, executive.
 User mode — collection of subsystems
 Environmental subsystems emulate different operating
systems.
 Protection subsystems provide security functions.

22.7
Depiction of XP Architecture

22.8
 Foundation for the executive and the subsystems.
 Never paged out of memory; execution is never
preempted.
 Four main responsibilities:
 thread scheduling
 interrupt and exception handling
 low-level processor synchronization
 recovery after a power failure
 Kernel is object-oriented, uses two sets of
objects.
 dispatcher objects control dispatching and
synchronization (events, mutants, mutexes,
semaphores, threads and timers).
 control objects (asynchronous procedure calls,
interrupts, power notify, power status, process and
profile objects.)
System Components — Kernel

22.9
Kernel — Process and Threads
 The process has a virtual memory address space,
information (such as a base priority), and an affinity for
one or more processors.
 Threads are the unit of execution scheduled by the
kernel’s dispatcher.
 Each thread has its own state, including a priority,
processor affinity, and accounting information.
 A thread can be one of six states: ready, standby,
running, waiting, transition, and terminated.

22.10
Kernel — Scheduling
 The dispatcher uses a 32-level priority scheme to
determine the order of thread execution. Priorities are
divided into two classes.
 The real-time class contains threads with priorities ranging
from 16 to 31.
 The variable class contains threads having priorities from 0 to
15.
 Characteristics of XP’s priority strategy.
 Trends to give very good response times to interactive
threads that are using the mouse and windows.
 Enables I/O-bound threads to keep the I/O devices busy.
 Complete-bound threads soak up the spare CPU cycles in
the background.

22.11
Kernel — Scheduling (Cont.)
 Scheduling can occur when a thread enters the
ready or wait state, when a thread terminates, or
when an application changes a thread’s priority or
processor affinity.
 Real-time threads are given preferential access to
the CPU; but XPdoes not guarantee that a real-time
thread will start to execute within any particular time
limit. (This is known as soft realtime.)

22.12
Windows XP Interrupt Request Levels

22.13
Kernel — Trap Handling
 The kernel provides trap handling when exceptions and
interrupts are generated by hardware of software.
 Exceptions that cannot be handled by the trap handler
are handled by the kernel's exception dispatcher.
 The interrupt dispatcher in the kernel handles interrupts
by calling either an interrupt service routine (such as in a
device driver) or an internal kernel routine.
 The kernel uses spin locks that reside in global memory
to achieve multiprocessor mutual exclusion.

22.14
Executive — Object Manager
 XP uses objects for all its services and entities; the object
manger supervises the use of all the objects.
 Generates an object handle
 Checks security.
 Keeps track of which processes are using each object.
 Objects are manipulated by a standard set of methods,
namely create, open, close, delete, query
name, parse and security.

22.15
Executive — Naming Objects
 The XP executive allows any object to be given a name, which
may be either permanent or temporary.
 Object names are structured like file path names in MS-DOS
and UNIX.
 XP implements a symbolic link object, which is similar to
symbolic links in UNIX that allow multiple nicknames or aliases
to refer to the same file.
 A process gets an object handle by creating an object by
opening an existing one, by receiving a duplicated handle from
another process, or by inheriting a handle from a parent
process.
 Each object is protected by an access control list.

22.16
Executive — Virtual Memory Manager
 The design of the VM manager assumes that the underlying
hardware supports virtual to physical mapping a paging
mechanism, transparent cache coherence on multiprocessor
systems, and virtual addressing aliasing.
 The VM manager in XP uses a page-based management
scheme with a page size of 4 KB.
 The XP VM manager uses a two step process to allocate
memory.
 The first step reserves a portion of the process’s address space.
 The second step commits the allocation by assigning space in the
2000 paging file.

22.17
Virtual-Memory Layout

22.18
Virtual Memory Manager (Cont.)
 The virtual address translation in XP uses several data
structures.
 Each process has a page directory that contains 1024 page directory
entries of size 4 bytes.
 Each page directory entry points to a page table which contains 1024
page table entries (PTEs) of size 4 bytes.
 Each PTE points to a 4 KB page frame in physical memory.
 A 10-bit integer can represent all the values form 0 to
1023, therefore, can select any entry in the page directory,
or in a page table.
 This property is used when translating a virtual address
pointer to a bye address in physical memory.
 A page can be in one of six states: valid, zeroed, free
standby, modified and bad.

22.19
Virtual-to-Physical Address Translation
 10 bits for page directory entry, 20 bits for page
table entry, and 12 bits for byte offset in page.

22.20
Page File Page-Table Entry
 5 bits for page protection, 20 bits for page frame address, 4
bits to select a paging file, and 3 bits that describe the page
state. V = 0

22.21
Executive — Process Manager
 Provides services for creating, deleting, and using
threads and processes.
 Issues such as parent/child relationships or process
hierarchies are left to the particular environmental
subsystem that owns the process.

22.22
Executive — Local Procedure Call Facility
 The LPC passes requests and results between client and
server processes within a single machine.
 In particular, it is used to request services from the various XP
subsystems.
 When a LPC channel is created, one of three types of message
passing techniques must be specified.
 First type is suitable for small messages, up to 256 bytes; port's
message queue is used as intermediate storage, and the
messages are copied from one process to the other.
 Second type avoids copying large messages by pointing to a
shared memory section object created for the channel.
 Third method, called quick LPC was used by graphical display
portions of the Win32 subsystem.

22.23
Executive — I/O Manager
 The I/O manager is responsible for
 file systems
 cache management
 device drivers
 network drivers
 Keeps track of which installable file systems are
loaded, and manages buffers for I/O requests.
 Works with VM Manager to provide memory-mapped
file I/O.
 Controls the XP cache manager, which handles
caching for the entire I/O system.
 Supports both synchronous and asynchronous
operations, provides time outs for drivers, and has
mechanisms for one driver to call another.

22.24
File I/O

22.25
Executive — Security Reference Monitor
 The object-oriented nature of XP enables the use of a uniform
mechanism to perform runtime access validation and audit
checks for every entity in the system.
 Whenever a process opens a handle to an object, the security
reference monitor checks the process’s security token and the
object’s access control list to see whether the process has the
necessary rights.

22.26
Executive – Plug-and-Play Manager
 Plug-and-Play (PnP) manager is used to recognize and
adapt to changes in the hardware configuration.
 When new devices are added (for example, PCI or
USB), the PnP manager loads the appropriate driver.
 The manager also keeps track of the resources used by
each device.

22.27
Environmental Subsystems
 User-mode processes layered over the native XP
executive services to enable XP to run programs
developed for other operating system.
 XP uses the Win32 subsystem as the main operating
environment; Win32 is used to start all processes. It
also provides all the keyboard, mouse and graphical
display capabilities.
 MS-DOS environment is provided by a Win32
application called the virtual dos machine (VDM), a user-
mode process that is paged and dispatched like any
other XP thread.

22.28
Environmental Subsystems (Cont.)
 16-Bit Windows Environment:
 Provided by a VDM that incorporates Windows on Windows.
 Provides the Windows 3.1 kernel routines and sub routines
for window manager and GDI functions.
 The POSIX subsystem is designed to run POSIX
applications following the POSIX.1 standard which is
based on the UNIX model.

22.29
Environmental Subsystems (Cont.)
 OS/2 subsystems runs OS/2 applications.
 Logon and Security Subsystems authenticates users logging
to to Windows XP systems. Users are required to have
account names and passwords.
- The authentication package authenticates users whenever
they attempt to access an object in the system. Windows XP
uses Kerberos as the default authentication package.

22.30
File System
 The fundamental structure of the XP file system (NTFS) is a
volume.
 Created by the XP disk administrator utility.
 Based on a logical disk partition.
 May occupy a portions of a disk, an entire disk, or span across
several disks.
 All metadata, such as information about the volume, is stored
in a regular file.
 NTFS uses clusters as the underlying unit of disk allocation.
 A cluster is a number of disk sectors that is a power of two.
 Because the cluster size is smaller than for the 16-bit FAT file
system, the amount of internal fragmentation is reduced.

22.31
File System — Internal Layout
 NTFS uses logical cluster numbers (LCNs) as disk addresses.
 A file in NTFS is not a simple byte stream, as in MS-DOS or
UNIX, rather, it is a structured object consisting of attributes.
 Every file in NTFS is described by one or more records in an
array stored in a special file called the Master File Table (MFT).
 Each file on an NTFS volume has a unique ID called a file
reference.
 64-bit quantity that consists of a 48-bit file number and a 16-bit sequence
number.
 Can be used to perform internal consistency checks.
 The NTFS name space is organized by a hierarchy of
directories; the index root contains the top level of the B+ tree.

22.32
File System — Recovery
 All file system data structure updates are performed inside
transactions that are logged.
 Before a data structure is altered, the transaction writes a log
record that contains redo and undo information.
 After the data structure has been changed, a commit record is
written to the log to signify that the transaction succeeded.
 After a crash, the file system data structures can be restored to
a consistent state by processing the log records.

22.33
File System — Recovery (Cont.)
 This scheme does not guarantee that all the user file data can
be recovered after a crash, just that the file system data
structures (the metadata files) are undamaged and reflect
some consistent state prior to the crash.
 The log is stored in the third metadata file at the beginning of
the volume.
 The logging functionality is provided by the XP log file service.

22.34
File System — Security
 Security of an NTFS volume is derived from the XP object
model.
 Each file object has a security descriptor attribute stored in this
MFT record.
 This attribute contains the access token of the owner of the
file, and an access control list that states the access privileges
that are granted to each user that has access to the file.

22.35
Volume Management and Fault
Tolerance
 FtDisk, the fault tolerant disk driver for XP, provides several
ways to combine multiple SCSI disk drives into one logical
volume.
 Logically concatenate multiple disks to form a large logical
volume, a volume set.
 Interleave multiple physical partitions in round-robin fashion to
form a stripe set (also called RAID level 0, or “disk striping”).
 Variation: stripe set with parity, or RAID level 5.
 Disk mirroring, or RAID level 1, is a robust scheme that uses a
mirror set — two equally sized partitions on tow disks with
identical data contents.
 To deal with disk sectors that go bad, FtDisk, uses a hardware
technique called sector sparing and NTFS uses a software
technique called cluster remapping.

22.36
Volume Set On Two Drives

22.37
Stripe Set on Two Drives

22.38
Stripe Set With Parity on Three Drives

22.39
Mirror Set on Two Drives

22.40
File System — Compression
 To compress a file, NTFS divides the file’s data into compression
units, which are blocks of 16 contiguous clusters.
 For sparse files, NTFS uses another technique to save space.
 Clusters that contain all zeros are not actually allocated or stored on
disk.
 Instead, gaps are left in the sequence of virtual cluster numbers
stored in the MFT entry for the file.
 When reading a file, if a gap in the virtual cluster numbers is found,
NTFS just zero-fills that portion of the caller’s buffer.

22.41
File System — Reparse Points
 A reparse point returns an error code when accessed. The
reparse data tells the I/O manager what to do next.
 Reparse points can be used to provide the functionality of UNIX
mounts
 Reparse points can also be used to access files that have been
moved to offline storage.

22.42
Networking
 XP supports both peer-to-peer and client/server networking; it
also has facilities for network management.
 To describe networking in XP, we refer to two of the internal
networking interfaces:
 NDIS (Network Device Interface Specification) — Separates
network adapters from the transport protocols so that either can be
changed without affecting the other.
 TDI (Transport Driver Interface) — Enables any session layer
component to use any available transport mechanism.
 XP implements transport protocols as drivers that can be loaded
and unloaded from the system dynamically.

22.43
Networking — Protocols
 The server message block (SMB) protocol is used to
send I/O requests over the network. It has four message
types:
- Session control
- File
- Printer
- Message
 The network basic Input/Output system (NetBIOS) is a
hardware abstraction interface for networks. Used to:
 Establish logical names on the network.
 Establish logical connections of sessions between two
logical names on the network.
 Support reliable data transfer for a session via NetBIOS
requests or SMBs

22.44
Networking — Protocols (Cont.)
 NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface): default protocol
for Windows 95 peer networking and Windows for
Workgroups; used when XP wants to share resources with
these networks.
 XP uses the TCP/IP Internet protocol to connect to a wide
variety of operating systems and hardware platforms.
 PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol) is used to
communicate between Remote Access Server modules
running on XP machines that are connected over the Internet.
 The XP NWLink protocol connects the NetBIOS to Novell
NetWare networks.

22.45
Networking — Protocols (Cont.)
 The Data Link Control protocol (DLC) is used to
access IBM mainframes and HP printers that are
directly connected to the network.
 XP systems can communicate with Macintosh
computers via the Apple Talk protocol if an XP Server
on the network is running the Windows XP Services
for Macintosh package.

22.46
Networking — Dist. Processing Mechanisms
 XP supports distributed applications via named NetBIOS,
named pipes and mailslots, Windows Sockets, Remote
Procedure Calls (RPC), and Network Dynamic Data Exchange
(NetDDE).
 NetBIOS applications can communicate over the network using
NetBEUI, NWLink, or TCP/IP.
 Named pipes are connection-oriented messaging mechanism
that are named via the uniform naming convention (UNC).
 Mailslots are a connectionless messaging mechanism that are
used for broadcast applications, such as for finding
components on the network,
 Winsock, the windows sockets API, is a session-layer interface
that provides a standardized interface to many transport
protocols that may have different addressing schemes.

22.47
Distributed Processing Mechanisms (Cont.)
 The XP RPC mechanism follows the widely-used Distributed
Computing Environment standard for RPC messages, so
programs written to use XP RPCs are very portable.
 RPC messages are sent using NetBIOS, or Winsock on TCP/IP
networks, or named pipes on LAN Manager networks.
 XP provides the Microsoft Interface Definition Language to
describe the remote procedure names, arguments, and results.

22.48
Networking — Redirectors and Servers
 In XP , an application can use the XP I/O API to access
files from a remote computer as if they were local,
provided that the remote computer is running an MS-
NET server.
 A redirector is the client-side object that forwards I/O
requests to remote files, where they are satisfied by a
server.
 For performance and security, the redirectors and
servers run in kernel mode.

22.49
Access to a Remote File
 The application calls the I/O manager to request that a file be
opened (we assume that the file name is in the standard UNC
format).
 The I/O manager builds an I/O request packet.
 The I/O manager recognizes that the access is for a remote
file, and calls a driver called a Multiple Universal Naming
Convention Provider (MUP).
 The MUP sends the I/O request packet asynchronously to all
registered redirectors.
 A redirector that can satisfy the request responds to the MUP.
 To avoid asking all the redirectors the same question in the future, the
MUP uses a cache to remember with redirector can handle this file.

22.50
Access to a Remote File (Cont.)
 The redirector sends the network request to the remote
system.
 The remote system network drivers receive the request
and pass it to the server driver.
 The server driver hands the request to the proper local
file system driver.
 The proper device driver is called to access the data.
 The results are returned to the server driver, which
sends the data back to the requesting redirector.

22.51
Networking — Domains
 NT uses the concept of a domain to manage global
access rights within groups.
 A domain is a group of machines running NT server
that share a common security policy and user
database.
 XP provides three models of setting up trust
relationships.
 One way, A trusts B
 Two way, transitive, A trusts B, B trusts C so A, B, C trust
each other
 Crosslink – allows authentication to bypass hierarchy to
cut down on authentication traffic.

22.52
Name Resolution in TCP/IP Networks
 On an IP network, name resolution is the process of converting
a computer name to an IP address.
e.g., www.bell-labs.com resolves to 135.104.1.14
 XP provides several methods of name resolution:
 Windows Internet Name Service (WINS)
 broadcast name resolution
 domain name system (DNS)
 a host file
 an LMHOSTS file

22.53
Name Resolution (Cont.)
 WINS consists of two or more WINS servers that
maintain a dynamic database of name to IP address
bindings, and client software to query the servers.
 WINS uses the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP), which automatically updates address
configurations in the WINS database, without user or
administrator intervention.

22.54
Programmer Interface — Access to Kernel Obj.
 A process gains access to a kernel object named XXX by calling
the CreateXXX function to open a handle to XXX; the handle is
unique to that process.
 A handle can be closed by calling the CloseHandle function;
the system may delete the object if the count of processes using
the object drops to 0.
 XP provides three ways to share objects between processes.
 A child process inherits a handle to the object.
 One process gives the object a name when it is created and the
second process opens that name.
 DuplicateHandle function:
 Given a handle to process and the handle’s value a second
process can get a handle to the same object, and thus share it.

22.55
Programmer Interface — Process Management
 Process is started via the CreateProcess routine which loads
any dynamic link libraries that are used by the process, and
creates a primary thread.
 Additional threads can be created by the CreateThread
function.
 Every dynamic link library or executable file that is loaded into
the address space of a process is identified by an instance
handle.

22.56
Process Management (Cont.)
 Scheduling in Win32 utilizes four priority classes:
- IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (priority level 4)
- NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (level8 — typical for most processes
- HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (level 13)
- REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (level 24)
 To provide performance levels needed for interactive programs,
XP has a special scheduling rule for processes in the
NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS.
 XP distinguishes between the foreground process that is currently
selected on the screen, and the background processes that are
not currently selected.
 When a process moves into the foreground, XP increases the
scheduling quantum by some factor, typically 3.

22.57
 The kernel dynamically adjusts the priority of a thread
depending on whether it is I/O-bound or CPU-bound.
 To synchronize the concurrent access to shared objects by
threads, the kernel provides synchronization objects, such as
semaphores and mutexes.
 In addition, threads can synchronize by using the
WaitForSingleObject or WaitForMultipleObjects
functions.
 Another method of synchronization in the Win32 API is the
critical section.

22.58
 A fiber is user-mode code that gets scheduled according
to a user-defined scheduling algorithm.
 Only one fiber at a time is permitted to execute, even on
multiprocessor hardware.
 XP includes fibers to facilitate the porting of legacy UNIX
applications that are written for a fiber execution model.

22.59
Programmer Interface — Interprocess Comm.
 Win32 applications can have interprocess communication by
sharing kernel objects.
 An alternate means of interprocess communications is
message passing, which is particularly popular for Windows
GUI applications.
 One thread sends a message to another thread or to a window.
 A thread can also send data with the message.
 Every Win32 thread has its own input queue from which the
thread receives messages.
 This is more reliable than the shared input queue of 16-bit
windows, because with separate queues, one stuck application
cannot block input to the other applications.

22.60
Programmer Interface — Memory Management
 Virtual memory:
 VirtualAlloc reserves or commits virtual memory.
 VirtualFree decommits or releases the memory.
 These functions enable the application to determine the
virtual address at which the memory is allocated.
 An application can use memory by memory mapping
a file into its address space.
 Multistage process.
 Two processes share memory by mapping the same
file into their virtual memory.

22.61
Memory Management (Cont.)
 A heap in the Win32 environment is a region of
reserved address space.
 A Win 32 process is created with a 1 MB default heap.
 Access is synchronized to protect the heap’s space
allocation data structures from damage by concurrent
updates by multiple threads.
 Because functions that rely on global or static data
typically fail to work properly in a multithreaded
environment, the thread-local storage mechanism
allocates global storage on a per-thread basis.
 The mechanism provides both dynamic and static
methods of creating thread-local storage.

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