Wireless notes

Wireless Networking in
the Developing World
Second Edition

A practical guide to planning and building low-cost
telecommunications infrastructure

Wireless Networking in the Developing World
For more information about this project, visit us online at http://wndw.net/

First edition, January 2006
Second edition, December 2007

Many designations used by manufacturers and vendors to distinguish their
products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in
this book, and the authors were aware of a trademark claim, the designations
have been printed in all caps or initial caps. All other trademarks are property
of their respective owners.

The authors and publisher have taken due care in preparation of this book,
but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no
responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or
consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the
information contained herein.

© 2007 Hacker Friendly LLC, http://hackerfriendly.com/

This work is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
3.0 license. For more details regarding your rights to use and redistribute
this work, see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

Contents
Where to Begin 1
Purpose of this book ........................................................................................................................... 2
Fitting wireless into your existing network.......................................................................................... 3
Wireless networking protocols............................................................................................................. 3
Question & Answer ............................................................................................................................. 5

A Practical Introduction to Radio Physics 9
What is a wave?................................................................................................................................. 9
Polarization...................................................................................................................................... 13
The electromagnetic spectrum........................................................................................................... 13
Bandwidth........................................................................................................................................ 15
Frequencies and channels................................................................................................................. 15
Behavior of radio waves................................................................................................................... 15
Line of sight...................................................................................................................................... 22
Power............................................................................................................................................... 24
Physics in the real world ................................................................................................................... 26

Network Design 27
Designing the physical network......................................................................................................... 51
802.11 wireless networks.................................................................................................................. 54
Mesh networking with OLSR.............................................................................................................. 56
Estimating capacity ........................................................................................................................... 65
Traffic optimization........................................................................................................................... 79
Internet link optimization................................................................................................................. 89
More information..............................................................................................................................93

Antennas & Transmission Lines 95
Cables.............................................................................................................................................. 95
Waveguides...................................................................................................................................... 97
Connectors and adapters .................................................................................................................100
Antennas & radiation patterns........................................................................................................ 102
Reflector theory.............................................................................................................................. 114
Amplifiers....................................................................................................................................... 115
Practical antenna designs................................................................................................................116

Networking Hardware 135
Wired wireless ................................................................................................................................ 135
Choosing wireless components........................................................................................................ 137
Commercial vs. DIY solutions........................................................................................................... 139
Building an access point from a PC ..................................................................................................143

Security & Monitoring 157
Physical security ............................................................................................................................. 158
Threats to the network .................................................................................................................... 160
Authentication................................................................................................................................ 162
Privacy ........................................................................................................................................... 167
Network Monitoring........................................................................................................................ 174
What is normal? ............................................................................................................................. 203

Solar Power 211
Solar energy................................................................................................................................... 211
Photovoltaic system components..................................................................................................... 212
The solar panel............................................................................................................................... 217
The battery..................................................................................................................................... 222
The power charge regulator ............................................................................................................ 229
Converters...................................................................................................................................... 231
Equipment or load.......................................................................................................................... 232
How to size your photovoltaic system.............................................................................................. 238
Cost of a solar installation...............................................................................................................246

Building an Outdoor Node 249
Waterproof enclosures.................................................................................................................... 249
Providing power..............................................................................................................................250
Mounting considerations................................................................................................................. 251
Safety.............................................................................................................................................257
Aligning antennas on a long distance link....................................................................................... 258
Surge and lightning protection........................................................................................................ 263

Troubleshooting 267
Building your team......................................................................................................................... 267
Proper troubleshooting technique................................................................................................... 270
Common network problems ............................................................................................................ 271

Economic Sustainability 281
Create a Mission Statement............................................................................................................. 282
Evaluate the Demand for Potential Offerings ...................................................................................283
Establish Appropriate Incentives...................................................................................................... 284
Research the Regulatory Environment for Wireless.......................................................................... 286
Analyze the Competition................................................................................................................. 286
Determine Initial and Recurring Costs and Pricing........................................................................... 287
Secure the Financing....................................................................................................................... 291
Evaluate the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Internal Situation..................................................... 293
Putting it All Together..................................................................................................................... 294
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................... 297

Case Studies 299
General advice ................................................................................................................................299
Case study: Crossing the divide with a simple bridge in Timbuktu.................................................... 302
Case study: Finding solid ground in Gao.......................................................................................... 305
Case Study: Fantsuam Foundation's Community Wireless Network................................................... 308
Case study: The quest for affordable Internet in rural Mali.............................................................. 319
Case study: Commercial deployments in East Africa......................................................................... 325
Case study: Dharamsala Community Wireless Mesh Network ........................................................... 332
Case study: Networking Mérida State .............................................................................................. 334
Case study: Chilesincables.org......................................................................................................... 345
Case study: Long Distance 802.11.................................................................................................... 355

Appendix A: Resources 371
Appendix B: Channel Allocations 379
Appendix C: Path Loss 381
Appendix D: Cable Sizes 382
Appendix E: Solar Dimensioning 383

About This Book
This book is part of a set of related materials about the same topic: Wireless
Networking in the Developing World. The WNDW project includes:

• Printed books, available on demand
• Several translations, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Arabic,
and others
• A DRM-free PDF and HTML version of the book
• An archived mailing list for discussion of the concepts and techniques
described in the book
• Additional case studies, training course material, and related information

For all of this material and more, see our website at http://wndw.net/

The book and PDF file are published under a Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike 3.0 license. This allows anyone to make copies, and even sell them
for a profit, as long as proper attribution is given to the authors and any deriva-
tive works are made available under the same terms. Any copies or derivative
works must include a prominent link to our website, http://wndw.net/.
See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ for more information about
these terms. Printed copies may be ordered from Lulu.com, a print-on-demand
service. Consult the website (http://wndw.net/) for details on ordering a printed
copy. The PDF will be updated periodically, and ordering from the print-on-
demand service ensures that you will always receive the latest revision.

The website will include additional case studies, currently available equip-
ment, and more external website references. Volunteers and ideas are wel-
come. Please join the mailing list and send ideas.

The training course material was written for courses given by the Associa-
tion for Progressive Communications and the Abdus Salam International
Center for Theoretical Physics. See http://www.apc.org/wireless/ and
http://wireless.ictp.trieste.it/ for more details on those courses and their
material. Additional information was provided by the International Network
for the Availability of Scientific Publications, http://www.inasp.info/. Some
of this material has been incorporated directly into this book. Additional ma-
terial was adapted from How To Accelerate Your Internet, http://bwmo.net/.

Credits
This book was started as the BookSprint project at the 2005 session of
WSFII, in London, England (http://www.wsfii.org/). A core team of seven
people built the initial outline over the course of the event, presented the
results at the conference, and wrote the book over the course of a few
months. Throughout the project, the core group has actively solicited con-
tributions and feedback from the wireless networking community. Add your
own feedback and updates to the WNDW wiki at http://wiki.wndw.net/.

• Rob Flickenger was the lead author and editor of this book. Rob has written
and edited several books about wireless networking and Linux, including
Wireless Hacks (O Reilly Media) and How To Accelerate Your Internet
(http://bwmo.net/). He is proud to be a hacker, amateur mad scientist, and
proponent of free networks everywhere.
• Corinna “Elektra” Aichele. Elektra s main interests include autonomous
power systems and wireless communication (antennas, wireless long
shots, mesh networking). She made a small linux distro based on slack-
ware geared to wireless mesh networking. This information is of course
redundant if one reads the book... http://www.scii.nl/~elektra
• Sebastian Büttrich (http://wire.less.dk/) is a generalist in technology with
a background in scientiﬁc programming and physics. Originally from Ber-
lin, Germany, he worked with IconMedialab in Copenhagen from 1997 until
2002. He holds a Ph.D. in quantum physics from the Technical University
of Berlin. His physics background includes ﬁelds like RF and microwave
spectroscopy, photovoltaic systems, and advanced maths.
He is also a performing and recording musician.
• Laura M. Drewett is a Co-Founder of Adapted Consulting Inc., a social en-
terprise that specializes in adapting technology and business solutions for
the developing world. Since Laura first lived in Mali in the 1990s and wrote
her thesis on girls education programs, she has strived to find sustainable
solutions for development. An expert in sustainability for ICT projects in de-
veloping world environments, she has designed and managed projects for a
diversity of clients in Africa, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. Laura
holds a Bachelors of Arts with Distinction in Foreign Affairs and French from
the University of Virginia and a Master s Certificate in Project Management
from the George Washington University School of Business.
• Alberto Escudero-Pascual and Louise Berthilson are the founders of
IT +46, a Swedish consultancy company with focus on information technol-
ogy in developing regions. IT +46 is internationally known for promoting and
implementing wireless Internet infrastructure in rural areas of Africa and Lati-
noamerica. Since 2004, the company has trained over 350 people in 14

countries and released over 600 pages of documentation under Creative
Commons License. More information can be found at http://www.it46.se/
• Carlo Fonda is a member of the Radio Communications Unit at the Abdus
Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy.
• Jim Forster has spent his career in software development, mostly work-
ing on operating systems and networking in product companies. He has
experience with several failed startup companies in Silicon Valley, and
one successful one, Cisco Systems. After a lot of product development
work there, his more recent activities involve projects and policies for im-
proving Internet access in developing countries. He can be reached at
jrforster@mac.com.
• Ian Howard. After flying around the world for seven years as a paratrooper
in the Canadian military, Ian Howard decided to trade his gun for a computer.
After finishing a degree in environmental sciences at the University of Wa-
terloo he wrote in a proposal, "Wireless technology has the opportunity to
bridge the digital divide. Poor nations, who do not have the infrastructure
for interconnectivity as we do, will now be able to create a wireless infra-
structure." As a reward, Geekcorps sent him to Mali as the Geekcorps Mali
Program Manager, where he led a team equipping radio stations with wire-
less interconnections and designed content sharing systems.
He is now a consultant on various Geekcorps programs.
• Kyle Johnston, http://www.schoolnet.na/
• Tomas Krag spends his days working with wire.less.dk, a registered non-
profit, based in Copenhagen, which he founded with his friend and col-
league Sebastian Büttrich in early 2002. wire.less.dk specialises in com-
munity wireless networking solutions, and has a special focus on low-cost
wireless networks for the developing world.
Tomas is also an associate of the Tactical Technology Collective
http://www.tacticaltech.org/, an Amsterdam-based non-profit “to
strengthen social technology movements and networks in developing and
transition countries, as well as promote civil society s effective, conscious
and creative use of new technologies.” Currently most of his energy goes
into the Wireless Roadshow (http://www.thewirelessroadshow.org/), a pro-
ject that supports civil society partners in the developing world in planning,
building and sustaining connectivity solutions based on license-exempt
spectrum, open technology and open knowledge.
• Gina Kupfermann is graduate engineer in energy management and holds a
degree in engineering and business. Besides her profession as financial con-
troller she has worked for various self-organised community projects and non-
profit organisations. Since 2005 she is member of the executive board of the
development association for free networks, the legal entity of freifunk.net.

• Adam Messer. Originally trained as an insect scientist, Adam Messer
metamorphosed into a telecommunications professional after a chance
conversation in 1995 led him to start one of Africa's first ISPs. Pioneering
wireless data services in Tanzania, Messer worked for 11 years in eastern
and southern Africa in voice and data communications for startups and
multinational cellular carriers. He now resides in Amman, Jordan.
• Juergen Neumann (http://www.ergomedia.de/) started working with in-
formation technology in 1984 and since then has been looking for ways to
deploy ICT in useful ways for organizations and society. As a consultant for
ICT strategy and implementation, he has worked for major German and
international companies and many non-profit projects. In 2002 he co-
founded www.freifunk.net, a campaign for spreading knowledge and social
networking about free and open networks. Freifunk is globally regarded as
one of the most successful community-projects in this field.
• Ermanno Pietrosemoli has been involved in planning and building com-
puter networks for the last twenty years. As president of the Latin American
Networking School, Escuela Latinoamericana de Redes “EsLaRed”,
www.eslared.org.ve, he has been teaching wireless data communications
in several countries while keeping his base at Mérida, Venezuela.
• Frédéric Renet is a co-founder of Technical Solutions at Adapted Consulting,
Inc. Frédéric has been involved in ICT for more than 10 years and has worked
with computers since his childhood. He began his ICT career in the early
1990s with a bulletin board system (BBS) on an analog modem and has since
continued to create systems that enhance communication. Most recently,
Frédéric spent more than a year at IESC/Geekcorps Mali as a consultant. In
this capacity, he designed many innovative solutions for FM radio broadcast-
ing, school computer labs and lighting systems for rural communities.
• Marco Zennaro, aka marcusgennaroz, is an electronic engineer working at
the ICTP in Trieste, Italy. He has been using BBSes and ham radios since
he was a teenager, and he is happy to have merged the two together work-
ing in the field of wireless networking. He still carries his Apple Newton.

Support
• Lisa Chan (http://www.cowinanorange.com/) was the lead copy editor.
• Casey Halverson (http://seattlewireless.net/~casey/) provided technical
review and suggestions.
• Jessie Heaven Lotz (http://jessieheavenlotz.com/) provided several updated
illustrations for this edition.
• Richard Lotz (http://greenbits.net/~rlotz/) provided technical review and
suggestions. He works on SeattleWireless projects and would like to take
his node (and his house) off the grid.
• Catherine Sharp (http://odessablue.com/) provided copy edit support.

• Lara Sobel designed the cover for WNDW 2nd Edition. She is an artist
currently living in Seattle, WA.
• Matt Westervelt (http://seattlewireless.net/~mattw/) provided technical re-
view and copy edit support. Matt is the founder of SeattleWireless
(http://seattlewireless.net/) and is an evangelist for FreeNetworks worldwide.

About the solar power guide
The source material for the Solar Power chapter was translated and
developed by Alberto Escudero-Pascual. In 1998, the organization
Engineering without Borders (Spanish Federation) published the first version
of a handbook titled "Manual de Energía Solar Fotovoltaica y Cooperación al
Desarrollo". The handbook was written and published by members of the
NGO and experts of the Institute of Energy Solar of the Polytechnical
University of Madrid. By curiosities of life, none of the members of the
editorial team kept the document in electronic format and more editions were
never made. They have passed almost ten years from that very first edition
and this document is an effort to rescue and to extend the handbook.

As part of this rescue operation Alberto would like to thank the coordinators
of the first original edition and his mentors in his years at University: Miguel
Ángel Eguido Aguilera, Mercedes Montero Bartolomé y Julio Amador. This
new work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0.
We hope that this material becomes a new departure point for new editions
including new contributions by the community.

This second and extended edition of the solar power guide has received
valuable input from Frédéric Renet and Louise Berthilson.

Special thanks
The core team would like to thank the organizers of WSFII for providing the
space, support, and occasional bandwidth that served as the incubator for this
project. We would especially like to thank community networkers everywhere,
who devote so much of their time and energy towards fulfilling the promise of
the global Internet. Without you, community networks could not exist.

The publication of this work has been supported by Canada s International
Development Research Centre, http://www.idrc.ca/. Additional support was
provided by NetworktheWorld.org.

1
Where to Begin

This book was created by a team of individuals who each, in their own field,
are actively participating in the ever-expanding Internet by pushing its reach
farther than ever before. The massive popularity of wireless networking has
caused equipment costs to continually plummet, while equipment capabilities
continue to sharply increase. We believe that by taking advantage of this
state of affairs, people can finally begin to have a stake in building their own
communications infrastructure. We hope to not only convince you that this is
possible, but also show how we have done it, and to give you the information
and tools you need to start a network project in your local community.

Wireless infrastructure can be built for very little cost compared to traditional
wired alternatives. But building wireless networks is only partly about saving
money. By providing people in your local community with cheaper and easier
access to information, they will directly benefit from what the Internet has to
offer. The time and effort saved by having access to the global network of
information translates into wealth on a local scale, as more work can be done
in less time and with less effort.

Likewise, the network becomes all the more valuable as more people are
connected to it. Communities connected to the Internet at high speed have a
voice in a global marketplace, where transactions happen around the world
at the speed of light. People all over the world are finding that Internet ac-
cess gives them a voice to discuss their problems, politics, and whatever
else is important to their lives, in a way that the telephone and television sim-
ply cannot compete with. What has until recently sounded like science fiction
is now becoming a reality, and that reality is being built on wireless networks.

1

2 Chapter 1: Where to Begin

But even without access to the Internet, wireless community networks have
tremendous value. They allow people to collaborate on projects across wide
distances. Voice communications, email, and other data can be exchanged
for very little cost. By getting local people involved in the construction of the
network, knowledge and trust are spread throughout the community, and
people begin to understand the importance of having a share in their com-
munications infrastructure. Ultimately, they realize that communication net-
works are built to allow people to connect with each other.

In this book we will focus on wireless data networking technologies in the
802.11 family. While such a network can carry data, voice, and video (as
well as traditional web and Internet traffic), the networks described in this
book are data networks. We specifically do not cover GSM, CDMA, or other
wireless voice technologies, since the cost of deploying these technologies is
well beyond the reach of most community projects.

Purpose of this book
The overall goal of this book is to help you build affordable communication
technology in your local community by making best use of whatever re-
sources are available. Using inexpensive off-the-shelf equipment, you can
build high speed data networks that connect remote areas together, provide
broadband network access in areas that even dialup does not exist, and ulti-
mately connect you and your neighbors to the global Internet. By using local
sources for materials and fabricating parts yourself, you can build reliable
network links with very little budget. And by working with your local commu-
nity, you can build a telecommunications infrastructure that benefits everyone
who participates in it.

This book is not a guide to configuring a radio card in your laptop or choosing
consumer grade gear for your home network. The emphasis is on building
infrastructure links intended to be used as the backbone for wide area wire-
less networks. With that goal in mind, information is presented from many
points of view, including technical, social, and financial factors. The exten-
sive collection of case studies present various groups attempts at building
these networks, the resources that were committed to them, and the ultimate
results of these attempts.

Since the first spark gap experiments at the turn of the last century, wireless has
been a rapidly evolving area of communications technology. While we provide
specific examples of how to build working high speed data links, the techniques
described in this book are not intended to replace existing wired infrastructure
(such as telephone systems or fiber optic backbone). Rather, these tech-
niques are intended to augment existing systems, and provide connectivity in
areas where running fiber or other physical cable would be impractical.

Chapter 1: Where to Begin 3

We hope you find this book useful for solving your communication challenges.

Fitting wireless into your existing network
If you are a network administrator, you may wonder how wireless might fit
into your existing network infrastructure. Wireless can serve in many capaci-
ties, from a simple extension (like a several kilometer Ethernet cable) to a
distribution point (like a large hub). Here just a few examples of how your
network can benefit from wireless technology.

10+ Km wireless link
Internet University Remote office

Wireless
client
Campus Firewall Access point
network

Wireless
client

Wireless
client
Wireless
Wireless mesh node
Wireless
mesh node
mesh node

Wireless Wireless
mesh node mesh node Internet
Wireless
Wireless mesh node
mesh node

Figure 1.1: Some wireless networking examples.

Wireless networking protocols
The primary technology used for building low-cost wireless networks is cur-
rently the 802.11 family of protocols, also known in many circles as Wi-Fi.
The 802.11 family of radio protocols (802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g) have
enjoyed an incredible popularity in the United States and Europe. By imple-
menting a common set of protocols, manufacturers world wide have built
highly interoperable equipment. This decision has proven to be a significant
boon to the industry and the consumer. Consumers are able to use equip-
ment that implements 802.11 without fear of “vendor lock-in”. As a result,
consumers are able to purchase low-cost equipment at a volume which has
benefitted manufacturers. If manufacturers had chosen to implement their


own proprietary protocols, it is unlikely that wireless networking would be as
inexpensive and ubiquitous as it is today.

While new protocols such as 802.16 (also known as WiMax) will likely solve
some difficult problems currently observed with 802.11, they have a long way
to go to match the popularity and price point of 802.11 equipment. As
equipment that supports WiMax is just becoming available at the time of this
writing, we will focus primarily on the 802.11 family.

There are many protocols in the 802.11 family, and not all are directly related
to the radio protocol itself. The three wireless standards currently imple-
mented in most readily available gear are:

• 802.11b. Ratified by the IEEE on September 16, 1999, 802.11b is proba-
bly the most popular wireless networking protocol in use today. Millions of
devices supporting it have shipped since 1999. It uses a modulation called
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) in a portion of the ISM band
from 2.400 to 2.495 GHz. It has a maximum rate of 11 Mbps, with actual
usable data speeds up to about 5 Mbps.
• 802.11g. As it wasn t finalized until June 2003, 802.11g is a relative late-
comer to the wireless marketplace. Despite the late start, 802.11g is now
the de facto standard wireless networking protocol as it now ships as a
standard feature on virtually all laptops and most handheld devices.
802.11g uses the same ISM range as 802.11b, but uses a modulation
scheme called Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). It
has a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps (with usable throughput of about
22 Mbps), and can fall back to 11 Mbps DSSS or slower for backwards
compatibility with the hugely popular 802.11b.
• 802.11a. Also ratified by the IEEE on September 16, 1999, 802.11a uses
OFDM. It has a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps, with actual throughput of
up to 27 Mbps. 802.11a operates in the ISM band between 5.745 and
5.805 GHz, and in a portion of the UNII band between 5.150 and
5.320 GHz. This makes it incompatible with 802.11b or 802.11g, and the
higher frequency means shorter range compared to 802.11b/g at the same
power. While this portion of the spectrum is relatively unused compared to
2.4 GHz, it is unfortunately only legal for use in a few parts of the world.
Check with your local authorities before using 802.11a equipment, particu-
larly in outdoor applications. 802.11a equipment is still quite inexpensive,
but is not nearly as popular as 802.11b/g.

In addition to the above standards, there are a number of vendor-specific exten-
sions to equipment, touting higher speeds, stronger encryption, and increased
range. Unfortunately these extensions will not operate between equipment from
different manufacturers, and purchasing them will effectively lock you into that
vendor for every part of your network. New equipment and standards (such as


802.11y, 802.11n, 802.16, MIMO and WiMAX) promise significant increases
in speed and reliability, but this equipment is just starting to ship at the time
of this writing, and availability and vendor interoperability is still uncertain.

Due to the ubiquity of equipment and unlicensed nature of the 2.4 GHz ISM band,
this book will concentrate on building networks using 802.11b and 802.11g.

Question & Answer
If you are new to wireless networking, you likely have a number of questions
about what the technology can do and what it will cost. Here are some com-
monly asked questions, with answers and suggestions on the listed page.

Power
• How can I supply power to my radio equipment, if there is no grid power
available? Page 211
• Do I need to run a power cable all the way up the tower? Page 250
• How can I use solar panel to power my wireless node while keeping it on-
line overnight? Page 217
• How long will my access point run on a battery? Page 238
• Can I use a wind generator to power my equipment at night? Page 212

Management
• How much bandwidth will I need to purchase for my users? Page 65
• How can I monitor and manage remote access points from my office?
Page 174
• What do I do when the network breaks? Page 174, 267
• What are the most common problems encountered on wireless networks,
and how do I fix them? Page 267

Distance
• How good is the range of my access point? Page 67
• Is there any formula I can use to know how far I can go with a given access
point? Page 67
• How can I know if a remote place can be connected to Internet using a
wireless link? Page 67
• Is there any software that can help me estimate the feasibility of a long
distance wireless link? Page 74


• The manufacturer says my access point has a range of 300 meters. Is that
true? Page 67
• How can I provide wireless connectivity to many remote clients, spread all
around the city? Page 53
• Is it true that I can reach a much greater distance adding a tin can or alu-
minum foil to my AP's antenna? Page 116
• Can I use wireless to connect to a remote site and share a single central
Internet connection? Page 51
• My wireless link looks like it will be too long to work well. Can I use a
repeater in the middle to make it better? Page 77
• Should I use an ampliﬁer instead? Page 115

Installation
• How can I install my indoor AP on the top of a mast on my roof? Page 249
• Is it really useful to add a lightning protector and proper grounding to my
antenna mast, or can I go without them? Page 263
• Can I build an antenna mast by myself? How high can I go? Page 251
• Why does my antenna work much better when I mount it “sideways”?
Page 13
• Which channel should I use? Page 15
• Will radio waves travel through buildings and trees? What about people?
Page 16
• Will radio waves travel through a hill that is in the way? Page 17
• How do I build a mesh network? Page 56
• What kind of antenna is the best one for my network? Page 102
• Can I build an access point using a recycled PC? Page 143
• How can I install Linux on my AP? Why should I do so? Page 152

Money
• How can I know if a wireless link is achievable with a limited amount of
money? Page 281
• Which is the best AP with the lowest price? Page 137
• How can I track and bill customers for using my wireless network?
Page 165, 190


Partners and Customers
• If I am supplying connectivity, do I still need service from an ISP? Why?
Page 27
• How many customers do I need to cover my costs? Page 287
• How many customers will my wireless network support? Page 65
• How do I make my wireless network go faster? Page 79
• Is my Internet connection as fast as it can be? Page 90

Security
• How can I protect my wireless network from unauthorized access? Page 157
• Is it true that a wireless network is always insecure and open to attacks by
hackers? Page 160
• Is it true that the use of open source software makes my network less se-
cure? Page 167
• How can I see what is happening on my network? Page 174

Information and Licensing
• What other books should I read to improve my wireless networking skills?
Page 355
• Where can I ﬁnd more information online? Page 349, http://wndw.net/
• Can I use parts of this book for my own teaching? Can I print and sell cop-
ies of this book? Yes. See About This Book for more details.

2
A Practical Introduction to
Radio Physics

Wireless communications make use of electromagnetic waves to send sig-
nals across long distances. From a user s perspective, wireless connections
are not particularly different from any other network connection: your web
browser, email, and other applications all work as you would expect. But
radio waves have some unexpected properties compared to Ethernet cable.
For example, it s very easy to see the path that an Ethernet cable takes: lo-
cate the plug sticking out of your computer, follow the cable to the other end,
and you ve found it! You can also be conﬁdent that running many Ethernet
cables alongside each other won t cause problems, since the cables effec-
tively keep their signals contained within the wire itself.

But how do you know where the waves emanating from your wireless card
are going? What happens when these waves bounce off of objects in the
room or other buildings in an outdoor link? How can several wireless cards
be used in the same area without interfering with each other?

In order to build stable high-speed wireless links, it is important to understand
how radio waves behave in the real world.

What is a wave?
We are all familiar with vibrations or oscillations in various forms: a pendu-
lum, a tree swaying in the wind, the string of a guitar - these are all examples
of oscillations.

9

10 Chapter 2: A Practical Introduction to Radio Physics

What they have in common is that something, some medium or object, is
swinging in a periodic manner, with a certain number of cycles per unit of
time. This kind of wave is sometimes called a mechanical wave, since it is
defined by the motion of an object or its propagating medium.

When such oscillations travel (that is, when the swinging does not stay
bound to one place) then we speak of waves propagating in space. For ex-
ample, a singer singing creates periodic oscillations in his or her vocal cords.
These oscillations periodically compress and decompress the air, and this
periodic change of air pressure then leaves the singers mouth and travels, at
the speed of sound. A stone plunging into a lake causes a disturbance, which
then travels across the lake as a wave.

A wave has a certain speed, frequency, and wavelength. These are con-
nected by a simple relation:

Speed = Frequency * Wavelength

The wavelength (sometimes referred to as lambda, ) is the distance meas-
ured from a point on one wave to the equivalent part of the next, for example
from the top of one peak to the next. The frequency is the number of whole
waves that pass a fixed point in a period of time. Speed is measured in
meters/second, frequency is measured in cycles per second (or Hertz, ab-
breviated Hz), and wavelength is measured in meters.

For example, if a wave on water travels at one meter per second, and it oscil-
lates five times per second, then each wave will be twenty centimeters long:

1 meter/second = 5 cycles/second * W
W = 1 / 5 meters
W = 0.2 meters = 20 cm

Waves also have a property called amplitude. This is the distance from the
center of the wave to the extreme of one of its peaks, and can be thought of
as the “height” of a water wave. The relationship between frequency, wave-
length, and amplitude are shown in Figure 2.1.

Waves in water are easy to visualize. Simply drop a stone into the lake and
you can see the waves as they move across the water over time. In the case
of electromagnetic waves, the part that might be hardest to understand is:
“What is it that is oscillating?”

In order to understand that, you need to understand electromagnetic forces.

Chapter 2: A Practical Introduction to Radio Physics 11

time: 1 second

wavelength ( )

amplitude

amplitude

wavelength ( )

Figure 2.1: Wavelength, amplitude, and frequency. For this wave, the frequency is 2
cycles per second, or 2 Hz.

Electromagnetic forces
Electromagnetic forces are the forces between electrical charges and cur-
rents. Our most direct access to those is when our hand touches a door
handle after walking on synthetic carpet, or brushing up against an electrical
fence. A more powerful example of electromagnetic forces is the lightning we
see during thunderstorms. The electrical force is the force between electri-
cal charges. The magnetic force is the force between electrical currents.

Electrons are particles that carry a negative electrical charge. There are
other particles too, but electrons are responsible for most of what we need to
know about how radio behaves.

Let us look at what is happening in a piece of straight wire, in which we push
the electrons from one and to the other and back, periodically. At one mo-
ment, the top of the wire is negatively charged - all the negative electrons are
gathered there. This creates an electric field from plus to minus along the
wire. The next moment, the electrons have all been driven to the other side,
and the electric field points the other way. As this happens again and again,
the electric field vectors (arrows from plus to minus) are leaving the wire, so
to speak, and are radiated out into the space around the wire.

What we have just described is known as a dipole (because of the two poles,
plus and minus), or more commonly a dipole antenna. This is the simplest
form of omnidirectional antenna. The motion of the electric field is commonly
referred to as an electromagnetic wave.

Let us come back to the relation:

Speed = Frequency * Wavelength


In the case of electromagnetic waves, the speed is c, the speed of light.

c = 300,000 km/s = 300,000,000 m/s = 3*108 m/s
c = f *

Electromagnetic waves differ from mechanical waves in that they require no
medium in which to propagate. Electromagnetic waves will even propagate
through the vacuum of space.

Powers of ten
In physics, math, and engineering, we often express numbers by powers of
ten. We will meet these terms again, e.g. in Giga-Hertz (GHz), Centi-meters
(cm), Micro-seconds ( s), and so on.

Powers of Ten
Nano- 10-9 1/1000000000 n

Micro- 10-6 1/1000000 μ

Milli- 10-3 1/1000 m

Centi- 10-2 1/100 c

Kilo- 103 1 000 k

Mega- 106 1 000 000 M

Giga- 109 1 000 000 000 G

Knowing the speed of light, we can calculate the wavelength for a given fre-
quency. Let us take the example of the frequency of 802.11b wireless net-
working, which is

f = 2.4 GHz
= 2,400,000,000 cycles / second

wavelength lambda ( ) = c / f
= 3*108 / 2.4*109
= 1.25*10-1 m
= 12.5 cm

Frequency and wavelength determine most of an electromagnetic wave s be-
havior, from antennas that we build to objects that are in the way of the networks
we intend to run. They are responsible for many of the differences between dif-


ferent standards we might be choosing. Therefore, an understanding of the basic
ideas of frequency and wavelength helps a lot in practical wireless work.

Polarization
Another important quality of electromagnetic waves is polarization. Polari-
zation describes the direction of the electrical field vector.

If you imagine a vertically aligned dipole antenna (the straight piece of wire),
electrons only move up and down, not sideways (because there is no room
to move) and thus electrical fields only ever point up or down, vertically. The
field leaving the wire and traveling as a wave has a strict linear (and in this
case, vertical) polarization. If we put the antenna flat on the ground, we
would find horizontal linear polarization.

direction of propagation

electric field

magnetic field

Figure 2.2: Electric field and complementary magnetic field components of an elec-
tromagnetic wave. Polarization describes the orientation of the electric field.

Linear polarization is just one special case, and is never quite so perfect: in gen-
eral, we will always have some component of the field pointing other directions
too. The most general case is elliptic polarization, with the extremes of linear
(only one direction) and circular polarizations (both directions at equal strength).

As one can imagine, polarization becomes important when aligning anten-
nas. If you ignore polarization, you might have very little signal even though
you have the strongest antennas. We call this polarization mismatch.

The electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves span a wide range of frequencies (and, accordingly,
wavelengths). This range of frequencies and wavelengths is called the elec-
tromagnetic spectrum. The part of the spectrum most familiar to humans is
probably light, the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light lies
roughly between the frequencies of 7.5*1014 Hz and 3.8*1014 Hz, correspond-
ing to wavelengths from circa 400 nm (violet/blue) to 800 nm (red).


We are also regularly exposed to other regions of the electromagnetic spec-
trum, including Alternating Current (AC) or grid electricity at 50/60 Hz, Ul-
traviolet (on the higher frequencies side of visible light), Infrared (on the lower
frequencies side of visible light), X-Rays / Roentgen radiation, and many oth-
ers. Radio is the term used for the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
in which waves can be generated by applying alternating current to an an-
tenna. This is true for the range from 3 Hz to 300 GHz, but in the more nar-
row sense of the term, the upper frequency limit would be 1 GHz.

When talking about radio, many people think of FM radio, which uses a fre-
quency around 100 MHz. In between radio and infrared we ﬁnd the region of
microwaves - with frequencies from about 1 GHz to 300 GHz, and wave-
lengths from 30 cm to 1 mm.

The most popular use of microwaves might be the microwave oven, which in
fact works in exactly the same region as the wireless standards we are deal-
ing with. These regions lie within the bands that are being kept open for gen-
eral unlicensed use. This region is called the ISM band, which stands for
Industrial, Scientiﬁc, and Medical. Most other parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum are tightly controlled by licensing legislation, with license values
being a huge economic factor. This goes especially for those parts of the
spectrum that are suitable for broadcast (TV, radio) as well as voice and data
communication. In most countries, the ISM bands have been reserved for
unlicensed use.

Approximate frequency in Hz

104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024

microwave visible light X rays

radio infrared ultraviolet gamma rays

104 102 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14 10-16

Approximate wavelength in meters

Figure 2.3: The electromagnetic spectrum.

The frequencies most interesting to us are 2.400 - 2.495 GHz, which is used
by the 802.11b and 802.11g radio standards (corresponding to wavelengths
of about 12.5 cm). Other commonly available equipment uses the 802.11a
standard, which operates at 5.150 - 5.850 GHz (corresponding to wave-
lengths of about 5 to 6 cm).


Bandwidth
A term you will meet often in radio physics is bandwidth. Bandwidth is sim-
ply a measure of frequency range. If a range of 2.40 GHz to 2.48 GHz is
used by a device, then the bandwidth would be 0.08 GHz (or more commonly
stated as 80MHz).

It is easy to see that the bandwidth we define here is closely related to the
amount of data you can transmit within it - the more room in frequency
space, the more data you can fit in at a given moment. The term bandwidth is
often used for something we should rather call a data rate, as in “my Internet
connection has 1 Mbps of bandwidth”, meaning it can transmit data at 1
megabit per second.

Frequencies and channels
Let us look a bit closer at how the 2.4GHz band is used in 802.11b. The
spectrum is divided into evenly sized pieces distributed over the band as in-
dividual channels. Note that channels are 22MHz wide, but are only sepa-
rated by 5MHz. This means that adjacent channels overlap, and can inter-
fere with each other. This is represented visually in Figure 2.4.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Channel
2.412 2.417 2.422 2.427 2.432 2.437 2.442 2.447 2.452 2.457 2.462 2.467 2.472 2.484 Center Frequency
(GHz)

22 MHz

Figure 2.4: Channels and center frequencies for 802.11b. Note that channels 1, 6,
and 11 do not overlap.

For a complete list of channels and their center frequencies for 802.11b/g
and 802.11a, see Appendix B.

Behavior of radio waves
There are a few simple rules of thumb that can prove extremely useful when
making first plans for a wireless network:

• The longer the wavelength, the further it goes
• The longer the wavelength, the better it travels through and around things
• The shorter the wavelength, the more data it can transport


All of these rules, simpliﬁed as they may be, are rather easy to understand by
example.

Longer waves travel further
Assuming equal power levels, waves with longer wavelengths tend to travel
further than waves with shorter wavelengths. This effect is often seen in FM
radio, when comparing the range of an FM transmitter at 88MHz to the range
at 108MHz. Lower frequency transmitters tend to reach much greater dis-
tances than high frequency transmitters at the same power.

Longer waves pass around obstacles
A wave on water which is 5 meters long will not be stopped by a 5 mm piece
of wood sticking out of the water. If instead the piece of wood were 50 me-
ters big (e.g. a ship), it would be well in the way of the wave. The distance a
wave can travel depends on the relationship between the wavelength of the
wave and the size of obstacles in its path of propagation.

It is harder to visualize waves moving “through” solid objects, but this is the
case with electromagnetic waves. Longer wavelength (and therefore lower
frequency) waves tend to penetrate objects better than shorter wavelength
(and therefore higher frequency) waves. For example, FM radio (88-
108MHz) can travel through buildings and other obstacles easily, while
shorter waves (such as GSM phones operating at 900MHz or 1800MHz)
have a harder time penetrating buildings. This effect is partly due to the dif-
ference in power levels used for FM radio and GSM, but is also partly due to
the shorter wavelength of GSM signals.

Shorter waves can carry more data
The faster the wave swings or beats, the more information it can carry -
every beat or cycle could for example be used to transport a digital bit, a '0'
or a '1', a 'yes' or a 'no'.

There is another principle that can be applied to all kinds of waves, and
which is extremely useful for understanding radio wave propagation. This
principle is known as the Huygens Principle, named after Christiaan Huy-
gens, Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer 1629 - 1695.

Imagine you are taking a little stick and dipping it vertically into a still lake's
surface, causing the water to swing and dance. Waves will leave the center
of the stick - the place where you dip in - in circles. Now, wherever water par-
ticles are swinging and dancing, they will cause their neighbor particles to do


the same: from every point of disturbance, a new circular wave will start. This
is, in simple form, the Huygens principle. In the words of wikipedia.org:

“The Huygens' principle is a method of analysis applied to problems of
wave propagation in the far field limit. It recognizes that each point of an
advancing wave front is in fact the center of a fresh disturbance and the
source of a new train of waves; and that the advancing wave as a whole
may be regarded as the sum of all the secondary waves arising from
points in the medium already traversed. This view of wave propagation
helps better understand a variety of wave phenomena, such as diffrac-
tion.”

This principle holds true for radio waves as well as waves on water, for sound
as well as light - only for light the wavelength is far too short for human be-
ings to actually see the effects directly.

This principle will help us to understand diffraction as well as Fresnel zones,
the need for line of sight as well as the fact that sometimes we seem to be
able to go around corners, with no line of sight.

Let us now look into what happens to electromagnetic waves as they travel.

Absorption
When electromagnetic waves go through 'something' (some material), they
generally get weakened or dampened. How much they lose in power will de-
pend on their frequency and of course the material. Clear window glass is
obviously transparent for light, while the glass used in sunglasses filter out
quite a share of the light intensity and also the ultraviolet radiation.

Often, an absorption coefficient is used to describe a material s impact on
radiation. For microwaves, the two main absorbent materials are:

• Metal. Electrons can move freely in metals, and are readily able to swing
and thus absorb the energy of a passing wave.
• Water. Microwaves cause water molecules to jostle around, thus taking
away some of the wave s energy1.

For the purpose of practical wireless networking, we may well consider metal
and water perfect absorbers: we will not be able to go through them (al-

1. A commonly held myth is that water “resonates” at 2.4 GHz, which is why that frequency is
used in microwave ovens. Actually, water doesn t appear to have any particular “resonant” fre-
quency. Water spins and jostles around near radio, and will heat when in the presence of high
power radio waves at just about any frequency. 2.4 GHz is an unlicensed ISM frequency, and so
was a good political choice for use in microwave ovens.


though thin layers of water will let some power pass). They are to microwave
what a brick wall is to light. When talking about water, we have to remember
that it comes in different forms: rain, fog and mist, low clouds and so forth all
will be in the way of radio links. They have a strong influence, and in many
circumstances a change in weather can bring a radio link down.

There are other materials that have a more complex effect on radio absorp-
tion. For trees and wood, the amount of absorption depends on how much
water they contain. Old dead dry wood is more or less transparent, wet fresh
wood will absorb a lot.

Plastics and similar materials generally do not absorb a lot of radio energy-
but this varies depending on the frequency and type of material. Before you
build a component from plastic (e.g. weather protection for a radio device
and its antennas), it is always a good idea to measure and verify that the ma-
terial does not absorb radio energy around 2.4 GHz. One simple method of
measuring the absorption of plastic at 2.4 GHz is to put a sample in a micro-
wave oven for a couple of minutes. If the plastic heats up, then it absorbs
radio energy and should not be used for weatherproofing.

Lastly, let us talk about ourselves: humans (as well as other animals) are
largely made out of water. As far as radio networking is concerned, we may
well be described as big bags of water, with the same strong absorption. Ori-
enting an office access point in such a way that its signal must pass through
many people is a key mistake when building office networks. The same goes
for hotspots, cafe installations, libraries, and outdoor installations.

Reflection
Just like visible light, radio waves are reflected when they come in contact
with materials that are suited for that: for radio waves, the main sources of
reflection are metal and water surfaces. The rules for reflection are quite
simple: the angle at which a wave hits a surface is the same angle at which it
gets deflected. Note that in the eyes of a radio wave, a dense grid of bars
acts just the same as a solid surface, as long as the distance between bars is
small compared to the wavelength. At 2.4 GHz, a one cm metal grid will act
much the same as a metal plate.

Although the rules of reflection are quite simple, things can become very
complicated when you imagine an office interior with many many small metal
objects of various complicated shapes. The same goes for urban situations:
look around you in city environment and try to spot all of the metal objects.
This explains why multipath effects (i.e. signal reaching their target along
different paths, and therefore at different times) play such an important role in
wireless networking. Water surfaces, with waves and ripples changing all the


time, effectively make for a very complicated reflection object which is more
or less impossible to calculate and predict precisely.

i r
i= r

Figure 2.5: Reflection of radio waves. The angle of incidence is always equal to the
angle of reflection. A parabolic uses this effect to concentrate radio waves spread
out over its surface in a common direction.

We should also add that polarization has an impact: waves of different po-
larization in general will be reflected differently.

We use reflection to our advantage in antenna building: e.g. we put huge pa-
rabolas behind our radio transmitter/receiver to collect and bundle the radio
signal into a fine point.

Diffraction
Diffraction is the apparent bending of waves when hitting an object. It is the
effect of “waves going around corners”.

Imagine a wave on water traveling in a straight wave front, just like a wave
that we see rolling onto an ocean beach. Now we put a solid barrier, say a
wooden solid fence, in its way to block it. We cut a narrow slit opening into
that wall, like a small door. From this opening, a circular wave will start, and it
will of course reach points that are not in a direct line behind this opening, but
also on either side of it. If you look at this wavefront - and it might just as well
be an electromagnetic wave - as a beam (a straight line), it would be hard to
explain how it can reach points that should be hidden by a barrier. When
modeled as a wavefront, the phenomenon makes sense.


Diffraction

Straight wave front

Figure 2.6: Diffraction through a narrow slit.

The Huygens Principle provides one model for understanding this behavior.
Imagine that at any given instant, every point on a wavefront can be consid-
ered the starting point for a spherical “wavelet”. This idea was later extended
by Fresnel, and whether it adequately describes the phenomenon is still a
matter of debate. But for our purposes, the Huygens model describes the
effect quite well.

Diffraction

Potential spherical wavelets

Figure 2.7: The Huygens Principle.
Through means of the effect of diffraction, waves will “bend” around corners
or through an opening in a barrier. The wavelengths of visible light are far too
small for humans to observe this effect directly. Microwaves, with a wave-
length of several centimeters, will show the effects of diffraction when waves
hit walls, mountain peaks, and other obstacles. It seems as if the obstruction
causes the wave to change its direction and go around corners.


Figure 2.8: Diffraction over a mountain top.

Note that diffraction comes at the cost of power: the energy of the diffracted
wave is significantly less than that of the wavefront that caused it. But in
some very specific applications, you can take advantage of the diffraction
effect to circumvent obstacles.

Interference
When working with waves, one plus one does not necessarily equal two. It
can also result in zero.

+ =

+ =

Figure 2.9: Constructive and destructive interference.

This is easy to understand when you draw two sine waves and add up the
amplitudes. When peak hits peak, you will have maximum results (1 + 1 = 2).
This is called constructive interference. When peak hits valley, you will
have complete annihilation ((1 + (-)1 = 0) - destructive interference.

You can actually try this with waves on water and two little sticks to create
circular waves - you will see that where two waves cross, there will be areas
of higher wave peaks and others that remain almost flat and calm.


In order for whole trains of waves to add up or cancel each other out per-
fectly, they would have to have the exact same wavelength and a fixed phase
relation, this means fixed positions from the peaks of the one wave to the
other's.

In wireless technology, the word Interference is typically used in a wider
sense, for disturbance through other RF sources, e.g. neighboring channels.
So, when wireless networkers talk about interference they typically talk about
all kinds of disturbance by other networks, and other sources of microwave.
Interference is one of the main sources of difficulty in building wireless links,
especially in urban environments or closed spaces (such as a conference
space) where many networks may compete for use of the spectrum.

Whenever waves of equal amplitude and opposite phase cross paths, the
wave is annihilated and no signal can be received. The much more common
case is that waves will combine to form a completely garbled waveform that
cannot be effectively used for communication. The modulation techniques
and use of multiple channels help to deal with the problem of interference,
but does not completely eliminate it.

Line of sight
The term line of sight, often abbreviated as LOS, is quite easy to under-
stand when talking about visible light: if we can see a point B from point A
where we are, we have line of sight. Simply draw a line from A to B, and if
nothing is in the way, we have line of sight.

Things get a bit more complicated when we are dealing with microwaves.
Remember that most propagation characteristics of electromagnetic waves
scale with their wavelength. This is also the case for the widening of waves
as they travel. Light has a wavelength of about 0.5 micrometers, microwaves
as used in wireless networking have a wavelength of a few centimeters.
Consequently, their beams are a lot wider - they need more space, so to
speak.

Note that visible light beams widen just the same, and if you let them travel
long enough, you can see the results despite of their short wavelength. When
pointing a well focussed laser at the moon, its beam will widen to well over
100 meters in radius by the time it reaches the surface. You can see this
effect for yourself using an inexpensive laser pointer and a pair of binoculars
on a clear night. Rather than pointing at the moon, point at a distant moun-
tain or unoccupied structure (such as a water tower). The radius of your
beam will increase as the distance increases.


The line of sight that we need in order to have an optimal wireless connection
from A to B is more than just a thin line - its shape is more like that of a cigar,
an ellipse. Its width can be described by the concept of Fresnel zones.

Understanding the Fresnel zone
The exact theory of Fresnel (pronounced “Fray-nell”) zones is quite compli-
cated. However, the concept is quite easy to understand: we know from the
Huygens principle that at each point of a wavefront new circular waves start,
We know that microwave beams widen as they leave the antenna. We know
that waves of one frequency can interfere with each other. Fresnel zone the-
ory simply looks at a line from A to B, and then at the space around that line
that contributes to what is arriving at point B. Some waves travel directly from
A to B, while others travel on paths off axis. Consequently, their path is
longer, introducing a phase shift between the direct and indirect beam.
Whenever the phase shift is one full wavelength, you get constructive inter-
ference: the signals add up optimally. Taking this approach and calculating
accordingly, you find there are ring zones around the direct line A to B which
contribute to the signal arriving at point B.

Fresnel radius

Line of sight

Partial obstruction

Figure 2.10: The Fresnel zone is partially blocked on this link, although the visual line
of sight appears clear.

Note that there are many possible Fresnel zones, but we are chiefly con-
cerned with zone 1. If this area were partially blocked by an obstruction, e.g.
a tree or a building, the signal arriving at the far end would be diminished.
When building wireless links, we therefore need to be sure that these zones
be kept free of obstructions. Of course, nothing is ever perfect, so usually in
wireless networking we check that about 60 percent of the radius of the first
Fresnel zone should be kept free.

Here is one formula for calculating the first Fresnel zone:

r = 17.31 * sqrt((d1*d2)/(f*d))

...where r is the radius of the zone in meters, d1 and d2 are distances from
the obstacle to the link end points in meters, d is the total link distance in
meters, and f is the frequency in MHz. Note that this gives you the radius


of the zone, not the height above ground. To calculate the height above
ground, you need to subtract the result from a line drawn directly between
the tops of the two towers.

For example, let s calculate the size of the first Fresnel zone in the middle of
a 2km link, transmitting at 2.437 GHz (802.11b channel 6):

r = 17.31 sqrt((1000 * 1000) / (2437 * 2000))
r = 17.31 sqrt(1000000 / 4874000)
r = 7.84 meters

Assuming both of our towers were ten meters tall, the first Fresnel zone
would pass just 2.16 meters above ground level in the middle of the link. But
how tall could a structure at that point be to clear 60% of the first zone?

r = 0.6 * 17.31 sqrt((1000 * 1000) / (2437 * 2000))
r = 0.6 * 17.31 sqrt(600000 / 4874000)
r = 4.70 meters

Subtracting the result from 10 meters, we can see that a structure 5.3 meters
tall at the center of the link would block up to 40% of the first Fresnel zone.
This is normally acceptable, but to improve the situation we would need to
position our antennas higher up, or change the direction of the link to avoid
the obstacle.

Power
Any electromagnetic wave carries energy - we can feel that when we enjoy
(or suffer from) the warmth of the sun. The amount of energy received in a
certain amount of time is called power. The power P is of key importance for
making wireless links work: you need a certain minimum power in order for a
receiver to make sense of the signal.

We will come back to details of transmission power, losses, gains and radio
sensitivity in Chapter 3. Here we will briefly discuss how the power P is de-
fined and measured.

The electric field is measured in V/m (potential difference per meter), the
power contained within it is proportional to the square of the electric field

P ~ E2

Practically, we measure the power by means of some form of receiver, e.g.
an antenna and a voltmeter, power meter, oscilloscope, or even a radio card
and laptop. Looking at the signal s power directly means looking at the
square of the signal in Volts.


Calculating with dB
By far the most important technique when calculating power is calculating
with decibels (dB). There is no new physics hidden in this - it is just a con-
venient method which makes calculations a lot simpler.

The decibel is a dimensionless unit2, that is, it defines a relationship between
two measurements of power. It is defined by:

dB = 10 * Log (P1 / P0)

where P1 and P0 can be whatever two values you want to compare. Typi-
cally, in our case, this will be some amount of power.

Why are decibels so handy to use? Many phenomena in nature happen to
behave in a way we call exponential. For example, the human ear senses a
sound to be twice as loud as another one if it has ten times the physical signal.

Another example, quite close to our field of interest, is absorption. Suppose
a wall is in the path of our wireless link, and each meter of wall takes away
half of the available signal. The result would be:

0 meters = 1 (full signal)
1 meter = 1/2
2 meters = 1/4
3 meters = 1/8
4 meters = 1/16
n meters = 1/2n = 2-n

This is exponential behavior.

But once we have used the trick of applying the logarithm (log), things be-
come a lot easier: instead of taking a value to the n-th power, we just multiply
by n. Instead of multiplying values, we just add.

Here are some commonly used values that are important to remember:

+3 dB = double power
-3 dB = half the power
+10 dB = order of magnitude (10 times power)
-10 dB = one tenth power

2. Another example of a dimensionless unit is the percent (%) which can also be used in all
kinds of quantities or numbers. While measurements like feet and grams are fixed, dimension-
less units represent a relationship.


In addition to dimensionless dB, there are a number of relative definitions
that are based on a certain base value P0. The most relevant ones for us
are:

dBm relative to P0 = 1 mW
dBi relative to an ideal isotropic antenna

An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna that evenly distributes power
in all directions. It is approximated by a dipole, but a perfect isotropic an-
tenna cannot be built in reality. The isotropic model is useful for describing
the relative power gain of a real world antenna.

Another common (although less convenient) convention for expressing
power is in milliwatts. Here are equivalent power levels expressed in milli-
watts and dBm:

1 mW = 0 dBm
2 mW = 3 dBm
100 mW = 20 dBm
1 W = 30 dBm

Physics in the real world
Don t worry if the concepts in this chapter seem challenging. Understanding
how radio waves propagate and interact with the environment is a complex
field of study in itself. Most people find it difficult to understand phenomenon
that they can t even see with their own eyes. By now you should understand
that radio waves don t travel in a straight, predictable path. To make reliable
communication networks, you will need to be able to calculate how much
power is needed to cross a given distance, and predict how the waves will
travel along the way.

There is much more to learn about radio physics than we have room for here.
For more information about this evolving field, see the resources list in Ap-
pendix A.

3
Network Design

Before purchasing equipment or deciding on a hardware platform, you should
have a clear idea of the nature of your communications problem. Most likely,
you are reading this book because you need to connect computer networks
together in order to share resources and ultimately reach the larger global
Internet. The network design you choose to implement should fit the commu-
nications problem you are trying to solve. Do you need to connect a remote
site to an Internet connection in the center of your campus? Will your network
likely grow to include several remote sites? Will most of your network com-
ponents be installed in fixed locations, or will your network expand to include
hundreds of roaming laptops and other devices?

In this chapter, we will begin with a review of the networking concepts that
define TCP/IP, the primary family of networking protocols currently used on
the Internet. We will then see examples of how other people have built wire-
less networks to solve their communication problems, including diagrams of
the essential network structure. Finally, we will present several common
methods for getting your information to flow efficiently through your network
and on to the rest of the world.

Networking 101
TCP/IP refers to the suite of protocols that allow conversations to happen on
the global Internet. By understanding TCP/IP, you can build networks that will
scale to virtually any size, and will ultimately become part of the global Internet.

If you are already comfortable with the essentials of TCP/IP networking (in-
cluding addressing, routing, switches, firewalls, and routers), you may want

27

28 Chapter 3: Network Design

to skip ahead to Designing the Physical Network on Page 51. We will now
review the basics of Internet networking.

Introduction
Venice, Italy is a fantastic city to get lost in. The roads are mere foot paths
that cross water in hundreds of places, and never go in a simple straight line.
Postal carriers in Venice are some of the most highly trained in the world,
specializing in delivery to only one or two of the six sestieri (districts) of Ven-
ice. This is necessary due to the intricate layout of that ancient city. Many
people find that knowing the location of the water and the sun is far more
useful than trying to find a street name on a map.

Figure 3.1: Another kind of network mask.

Imagine a tourist who happens to find papier-mâché mask as a souvenir, and
wants to have it shipped from the studio in S. Polo, Venezia to an office in
Seattle, USA. This may sound like an ordinary (or even trivial) task, but let's
look at what actually happens.

The artist first packs the mask into a shipping box and addresses it to the
office in Seattle, USA. They then hand this off to a postal employee, who at-
taches some official forms and sends it to a central package processing hub
for international destinations. After several days, the package clears Italian
customs and finds its way onto a transatlantic flight, arriving at a central im-
port processing location in the U.S. Once it clears through U.S. customs, the
package is sent to the regional distribution point for the northwest U.S., then
on to the Seattle postal processing center. The package eventually makes its
way onto a delivery van which has a route that brings it to the proper ad-
dress, on the proper street, in the proper neighborhood. A clerk at the office

Chapter 3: Network Design 29

accepts the package and puts it in the proper incoming mail box. Once it ar-
rives, the package is retrieved and the mask itself is finally received.

The clerk at the office in Seattle neither knows nor cares about how to get to
the sestiere of S. Polo, Venezia. His job is simply to accept packages as they
arrive, and deliver them to the proper person. Similarly, the postal carrier in
Venice has no need to worry about how to get to the correct neighborhood in
Seattle. His job is to pick up packages from his local neighborhood and for-
ward them to the next closest hub in the delivery chain.

Internet

Router Router

Image.jpg Image.jpg
Part 1 of 10 Part 10 of 10
Computer Server

Figure 3.2: Internet networking. Packets are forwarded between routers until they
reach their ultimate destination.
This is very similar to how Internet routing works. A message is split up into
many individual packets, and are labeled with their source and destination.
The computer then sends these packets to a router, which decides where to
send them next. The router needs only to keep track of a handful of routes
(for example, how to get to the local network, the best route to a few other
local networks, and one route to a gateway to the rest of the Internet). This
list of possible routes is called the routing table. As packets arrive at the
router, the destination address is examined and compared against its internal
routing table. If the router has no explicit route to the destination in question,
it sends the packet to the closest match it can find, which is often its own
Internet gateway (via the default route). And the next router does the same,
and so forth, until the packet eventually arrives at its destination.

Packages can only make their way through the international postal system be-
cause we have established a standardized addressing scheme for packages.
For example, the destination address must be written legibly on the front of the
package, and include all critical information (such as the recipient's name,


street address, city, country, and postal code). Without this information, pack-
ages are either returned to the sender or are lost in the system.

Packets can only flow through the global Internet because we have agreed
on a common addressing scheme and protocol for forwarding packets.
These standard communication protocols make it possible to exchange in-
formation on a global scale.

Cooperative communications
Communication is only possible when the participants speak a common lan-
guage. But once the communication becomes more complex than a simple
conversation between two people, protocol becomes just as important as
language. All of the people in an auditorium may speak English, but without a
set of rules in place to establish who has the right to use the microphone, the
communication of an individual s ideas to the entire room is nearly impossi-
ble. Now imagine an auditorium as big as the world, full of all of the comput-
ers that exist. Without a common set of communication protocols to regulate
when and how each computer can speak, the Internet would be a chaotic
mess where every machine tries to speak at once.

People have developed a number of communications frameworks to address
this problem. The most well-known of these is the OSI model.

The OSI model
The international standard for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is de-
fined by the document ISO/IEC 7498-1, as outlined by the International
Standards Organization and the International Electrotechnical Commission.
The full standard is available as publication "ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994," available
from http://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/.

The OSI model divides network traffic into a number of layers. Each layer is
independent of the layers around it, and each builds on the services provided
by the layer below while providing new services to the layer above. The ab-
straction between layers makes it easy to design elaborate and highly reli-
able protocol stacks, such as the ubiquitous TCP/IP stack. A protocol stack
is an actual implementation of a layered communications framework. The
OSI model doesn't define the protocols to be used in a particular network, but
simply delegates each communications "job" to a single layer within a well-
defined hierarchy.

While the ISO/IEC 7498-1 specification details how layers should interact
with each other, it leaves the actual implementation details up to the manu-
facturer. Each layer can be implemented in hardware (more common for
lower layers) or software. As long as the interface between layers adheres to


the standard, implementers are free to use whatever means are available to
build their protocol stack. This means that any given layer from manufacturer
A can operate with the same layer from manufacturer B (assuming the rele-
vant speciﬁcations are implemented and interpreted correctly).

Here is a brief outline of the seven-layer OSI networking model:

Layer Name Description

7 Application The Application Layer is the layer that most net-
work users are exposed to, and is the level at which
human communication happens. HTTP, FTP, and
SMTP are all application layer protocols. The human
sits above this layer, interacting with the application.

6 Presentation The Presentation Layer deals with data representa-
tion, before it reaches the application. This would
include MIME encoding, data compression, format-
ting checks, byte ordering, etc.

5 Session The Session Layer manages the logical communica-
tions session between applications. NetBIOS and
RPC are two examples of a layer ﬁve protocol.

4 Transport The Transport Layer provides a method of reaching
a particular service on a given network node. Exam-
ples of protocols that operate at this layer are TCP
and UDP. Some protocols at the transport layer
(such as TCP) ensure that all of the data has arrived
at the destination, and is reassembled and delivered
to the next layer in the proper order. UDP is a "con-
nectionless" protocol commonly used for video and
audio streaming.

3 Network IP (the Internet Protocol) is the most common Net-
work Layer protocol. This is the layer where routing
occurs. Packets can leave the link local network and
be retransmitted on other networks. Routers perform
this function on a network by having at least two
network interfaces, one on each of the networks to
be interconnected. Nodes on the Internet are
reached by their globally unique IP address. Another
critical Network Layer protocol is ICMP, which is a
special protocol which provides various management
messages needed for correct operation of IP. This
layer is also sometimes referred to as the Internet
Layer.


Layer Name Description

2 Data Link Whenever two or more nodes share the same physi-
cal medium (for example, several computers plugged
into a hub, or a room full of wireless devices all using
the same radio channel) they use the Data Link
Layer to communicate. Common examples of data
link protocols are Ethernet, Token Ring, ATM, and
the wireless networking protocols (802.11a/b/g).
Communication on this layer is said to be link-local,
since all nodes connected at this layer communicate
with each other directly. This layer is sometimes
known as the Media Access Control (MAC) layer.
On networks modeled after Ethernet, nodes are re-
ferred to by their MAC address. This is a unique 48
bit number assigned to every networking device
when it is manufactured.

1 Physical The Physical Layer is the lowest layer in the OSI
model, and refers to the actual physical medium over
which communications take place. This can be a
copper CAT5 cable, a fiber optic bundle, radio
waves, or just about any other medium capable of
transmitting signals. Cut wires, broken fiber, and RF
interference are all physical layer problems.

The layers in this model are numbered one through seven, with seven at the
top. This is meant to reinforce the idea that each layer builds upon, and de-
pends upon, the layers below. Imagine the OSI model as a building, with the
foundation at layer one, the next layers as successive floors, and the roof at
layer seven. If you remove any single layer, the building will not stand. Simi-
larly, if the fourth floor is on fire, then nobody can pass through it in either
direction.

The first three layers (Physical, Data Link, and Network) all happen "on the
network." That is, activity at these layers is determined by the configuration of
cables, switches, routers, and similar devices. A network switch can only dis-
tribute packets by using MAC addresses, so it need only implement layers
one and two. A simple router can route packets using only their IP addresses,
so it need implement only layers one through three. A web server or a laptop
computer runs applications, so it must implement all seven layers. Some ad-
vanced routers may implement layer four and above, to allow them to make
decisions based on the higher-level information content in a packet, such as
the name of a website, or the attachments of an email.

The OSI model is internationally recognized, and is widely regarded as the
complete and definitive network model. It provides a framework for manufac-


turers and network protocol implementers that can be used to build network-
ing devices that interoperate in just about any part of the world.

From the perspective of a network engineer or troubleshooter, the OSI model
can seem needlessly complex. In particular, people who build and trouble-
shoot TCP/IP networks rarely need to deal with problems at the Session or
Presentation layers. For the majority of Internet network implementations, the
OSI model can be simplified into a smaller collection of five layers.

The TCP/IP model
Unlike the OSI model, the TCP/IP model is not an international standard and
its definitions vary. Nevertheless, it is often used as a pragmatic model for
understanding and troubleshooting Internet networks. The vast majority of
the Internet uses TCP/IP, and so we can make some assumptions about
networks that make them easier to understand. The TCP/IP model of net-
working describes the following five layers:

Layer Name

5 Application

4 Transport

3 Internet

2 Data Link

1 Physical

In terms of the OSI model, layers five through seven are rolled into the top-
most layer (the Application layer). The first four layers in both models are
identical. Many network engineers think of everything above layer four as
"just data" that varies from application to application. Since the first three lay-
ers are interoperable between virtually all manufacturers' equipment, and
layer four works between all hosts using TCP/IP, and everything above layer
four tends to apply to specific applications, this simplified model works well
when building and troubleshooting TCP/IP networks. We will use the TCP/IP
model when discussing networks in this book.

The TCP/IP model can be compared to a person delivering a letter to a
downtown office building. The person first needs to interact with the road it-
self (the Physical layer), pay attention to other traffic on the road (the Data
Link layer), turn at the proper place to connect to other roads and arrive at
the correct address (the Internet layer), go to the proper floor and room num-


ber (the Transport layer), and finally give it to a receptionist who can take the
letter from there (the Application layer). Once they have delivered the mes-
sage to the receptionist, the delivery person is free to go on their way.

The five layers can be easily remembered by using the mnemonic “Please
Don t Look In The Attic,” which of course stands for “Physical / Data Link /
Internet / Transport / Application.”

The Internet protocols
TCP/IP is the protocol stack most commonly used on the global Internet.
The acronym stands for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet
Protocol (IP), but actually refers to a whole family of related communications
protocols. TCP/IP is also called the Internet protocol suite, and it operates
at layers three and four of the TCP/IP model.

In this discussion, we will focus on version four of the IP protocol (IPv4) as
this is now the most widely deployed protocol on the Internet.

IP Addressing
In an IPv4 network, the address is a 32-bit number, normally written as four
8-bit numbers expressed in decimal form and separated by periods. Exam-
ples of IP addresses are 10.0.17.1, 192.168.1.1, or 172.16.5.23.

If you enumerated every possible IP address, they would range from 0.0.0.0
to 255.255.255.255. This yields a total of more than four billion possible IP
addresses (255 x 255 x 255 x 255 = 4,228,250,625); although many of these
are reserved for special purposes and should not be assigned to hosts. Each
of the usable IP addresses is a unique identifier that distinguishes one net-
work node from another.

Interconnected networks must agree on an IP addressing plan. IP addresses
must be unique and generally cannot be used in different places on the
Internet at the same time; otherwise, routers would not know how best to
route packets to them.

IP addresses are allocated by a central numbering authority that provides a
consistent and coherent numbering method. This ensures that duplicate ad-
dresses are not used by different networks. The authority assigns large
blocks of consecutive addresses to smaller authorities, who in turn assign
smaller consecutive blocks within these ranges to other authorities, or to their
customers. These groups of addresses are called sub-networks, or subnets
for short. Large subnets can be further subdivided into smaller subnets. A
group of related addresses is referred to as an address space.


? Internet

Server 10.1.1.2

PC Server 10.1.1.2

Figure 3.3: Without unique IP addresses, unambiguous global routing is impossible. If
the PC requests a web page from 10.1.1.2, which server will it reach?

Subnets
By applying a subnet mask (also called a network mask, or simply net-
mask) to an IP address, you can logically define both a host and the network
to which it belongs. Traditionally, subnet masks are expressed using dotted
decimal form, much like an IP address. For example, 255.255.255.0 is one
common netmask. You will find this notation used when configuring network
interfaces, creating routes, etc. However, subnet masks are more succinctly
expressed using CIDR notation, which simply enumerates the number of
bits in the mask after a forward slash (/). Thus, 255.255.255.0 can be simpli-
fied as /24. CIDR is short for Classless Inter-Domain Routing, and is de-
fined in RFC15181 .

A subnet mask determines the size of a given network. Using a /24 netmask,
8 bits are reserved for hosts (32 bits total - 24 bits of netmask = 8 bits for
hosts). This yields up to 256 possible host addresses (28 = 256). By conven-
tion, the first value is taken as the network address (.0 or 00000000), and
the last value is taken as the broadcast address (.255 or 11111111). This
leaves 254 addresses available for hosts on this network.

Subnet masks work by applying AND logic to the 32 bit IP number. In binary
notation, the "1" bits in the mask indicate the network address portion, and
"0" bits indicate the host address portion. A logical AND is performed by
comparing two bits. The result is "1" if both of the bits being compared are

1. RFC is short for Request For Comments. RFCs are a numbered series of documents pub-
lished by the Internet Society that document ideas and concepts related to Internet technologies.
Not all RFCs are actual standards. RFCs can be viewed online at http://rfc.net/


also "1". Otherwise the result is "0". Here are all of the possible outcomes of
a binary AND comparison between two bits.

Bit 1 Bit 2 Result

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

To understand how a netmask is applied to an IP address, ﬁrst convert every-
thing to binary. The netmask 255.255.255.0 in binary contains twenty-four "1"
bits:

255 255 255 0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

When this netmask is combined with the IP address 10.10.10.10, we can
apply a logical AND to each of the bits to determine the network address.

10.10.10.10: 00001010.00001010.00001010.00001010
255.255.255.0: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
-----------------------------------
10.10.10.0: 00001010.00001010.00001010.00000000

This results in the network 10.10.10.0/24. This network consists of the hosts
10.10.10.1 through 10.10.10.254, with 10.10.10.0 as the network address
and 10.10.10.255 as the broadcast address.

Subnet masks are not limited to entire octets. One can also specify subnet
masks like 255.254.0.0 (or /15 CIDR). This is a large block, containing 131,072
addresses, from 10.0.0.0 to 10.1.255.255. It could be further subdivided, for
example into 512 subnets of 256 addresses each. The first one would be
10.0.0.0-10.0.0.255, then 10.0.1.0-10.0.1.255, and so on up to
10.1.255.0-10.1.255.255. Alternatively, it could be subdivided into 2 blocks of
65,536 addresses, or 8192 blocks of 16 addresses, or in many other ways. It
could even be subdivided into a mixture of different block sizes, as long as
none of them overlap, and each is a valid subnet whose size is a power of two.

While many netmasks are possible, common netmasks include:


CIDR Decimal # of Hosts

/30 255.255.255.252 4

/29 255.255.255.248 8

/28 255.255.255.240 16

/27 255.255.255.224 32

/26 255.255.255.192 64

/25 255.255.255.128 128

/24 255.255.255.0 256

/16 255.255.0.0 65 536

/8 255.0.0.0 16 777 216

With each reduction in the CIDR value the IP space is doubled. Remember
that two IP addresses within each network are always reserved for the net-
work and broadcast addresses.

There are three common netmasks that have special names. A /8 network
(with a netmask of 255.0.0.0) deﬁnes a Class A network. A /16 (255.255.0.0)
is a Class B, and a /24 (255.255.255.0) is called a Class C. These names
were around long before CIDR notation, but are still often used for historical
reasons.

Global IP Addresses
Have you ever wondered who controls the allocation of IP space? Globally
routable IP addresses are assigned and distributed by Regional Internet
Registrars (RIRs) to ISPs. The ISP then allocates smaller IP blocks to their
clients as required. Virtually all Internet users obtain their IP addresses
from an ISP.

The 4 billion available IP addresses are administered by the Internet As-
signed Numbers Authority (IANA, http://www.iana.org/). IANA has divided
this space into large subnets, usually /8 subnets with 16 million addresses
each. These subnets are delegated to one of the ﬁve regional Internet regis-
tries (RIRs), which are given authority over large geographic areas.


RIPE

ARIN

LACNIC

AfriNIC APNIC

Figure 3.4: Authority for Internet IP address assignments is delegated to the five Re-
gional Internet Registrars.
The five RIRs are:

• African Network Information Centre (AfriNIC, http://www.afrinic.net/)
• Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC, http://www.apnic.net/)
• American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN, http://www.arin.net/)
• Regional Latin-American and Caribbean IP Address Registry (LACNIC,
http://www.lacnic.net/)
• Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE NCC, http://www.ripe.net/)

Your ISP will assign globally routable IP address space to you from the pool
allocated to it by your RIR. The registry system assures that IP addresses
are not reused in any part of the network anywhere in the world.

Once IP address assignments have been agreed upon, it is possible to pass
packets between networks and participate in the global Internet. The process
of moving packets between networks is called routing.

Static IP Addresses
A static IP address is an address assignment that never changes. Static IP
addresses are important because servers using these addresses may have
DNS mappings pointed towards them, and typically serve information to
other machines (such as email services, web servers, etc.).


Blocks of static IP addresses may be assigned by your ISP, either by request
or automatically depending on your means of connection to the Internet.

Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by an ISP for non-permanent nodes
connecting to the Internet, such as a home computer which is on a dial-up
connection.

Dynamic IP addresses can be assigned automatically using the Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), or the Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP), depending on the type of Internet connection. A node using DHCP
first requests an IP address assignment from the network, and automatically
configures its network interface. IP addresses can be assigned randomly
from a pool by your ISP, or might be assigned according to a policy. IP ad-
dresses assigned by DHCP are valid for a specified time (called the lease
time). The node must renew the DHCP lease before the lease time expires.
Upon renewal, the node may receive the same IP address or a different one
from the pool of available addresses.

Dynamic addresses are popular with Internet service providers, because it
enables them to use fewer IP addresses than their total number of custom-
ers. They only need an address for each customer who is active at any one
time. Globally routable IP addresses cost money, and some authorities that
specialize in the assignment of addresses (such as RIPE, the European RIR)
are very strict on IP address usage for ISP's. Assigning addresses dynami-
cally allows ISPs to save money, and they will often charge extra to provide a
static IP address to their customers.

Private IP addresses
Most private networks do not require the allocation of globally routable, public
IP addresses for every computer in the organization. In particular, computers
which are not public servers do not need to be addressable from the public
Internet. Organizations typically use IP addresses from the private address
space for machines on the internal network.

There are currently three blocks of private address space reserved by IANA:
10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. These are defined in
RFC1918. These addresses are not intended to be routed on the Internet,
and are typically unique only within an organization or group of organizations
which choose to follow the same numbering scheme.


To LAN To LAN

10.2.99.0/16 192.168.1.0/24
Router Router

Internet

Router Router

172.16.1.0/24 10.15.6.0/24

To LAN To LAN

Figure 3.5: RFC1918 private addresses may be used within an organization, and are
not routed on the global Internet.
If you ever intend to link together private networks that use RFC1918 ad-
dress space, be sure to use unique addresses throughout all of the networks.
For example, you might break the 10.0.0.0/8 address space into multiple
Class B networks (10.1.0.0/16, 10.2.0.0/16, etc.). One block could be as-
signed to each network according to its physical location (the campus main
branch, field office one, field office two, dormitories, and so forth). The net-
work administrators at each location can then break the network down further
into multiple Class C networks (10.1.1.0/24, 10.1.2.0/24, etc.) or into blocks
of any other logical size. In the future, should the networks ever be linked
(either by a physical connection, wireless link, or VPN), then all of the ma-
chines will be reachable from any point in the network without having to re-
number network devices.

Some Internet providers may allocate private addresses like these instead of
public addresses to their customers, although this has serious disadvan-
tages. Since these addresses cannot be routed over the Internet, computers
which use them are not really "part" of the Internet, and are not directly
reachable from it. In order to allow them to communicate with the Internet,
their private addresses must be translated to public addresses. This transla-
tion process is known as Network Address Translation (NAT), and is nor-
mally performed at the gateway between the private network and the Inter-
net. We will look at NAT in more detail on Page 43.

Routing
Imagine a network with three hosts: A, B, and C. They use the corresponding
IP addresses 192.168.1.1, 192.168.1.2 and 192.168.1.3. These hosts are
part of a /24 network (their network mask is 255.255.255.0).


For two hosts to communicate on a local network, they must determine each
others' MAC addresses. It is possible to manually conﬁgure each host with a
mapping table from IP address to MAC address, but normally the Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to determine this automatically.

Computer B
who is 192.168.1.3?
192.168.1.2
Computer A
192.168.1.1

Computer C
192.168.1.3 is 00:11:22:aa:bb:cc 192.168.1.3

Computer B
192.168.1.2
Computer A
192.168.1.1

Computer C
00:11:22:aa:bb:cc - DATA... 192.168.1.3

Figure 3.6: Computer A needs to send data to 192.168.1.3. But it must ﬁrst ask the
whole network for the MAC address that responds to 192.168.1.3.

When using ARP, host A broadcasts to all hosts the question, "Who has the
MAC address for the IP 192.168.1.3?" When host C sees an ARP request for
its own IP address, it replies with its MAC address.

Computer B:
192.168.1.2

Computer A: Computer C:
Hub
192.168.1.1 192.168.1.3

Computer D: Computer F:
Hub
192.168.2.1 192.168.2.3

Computer E:
192.168.2.2

Figure 3.7: Two separate IP networks.
Consider now another network with 3 hosts, D, E, and F, with the correspond-
ing IP addresses 192.168.2.1, 192.168.2.2, and 192.168.2.3. This is another
/24 network, but it is not in the same range as the network above. All three


hosts can reach each other directly (first using ARP to resolve the IP address
into a MAC address, and then sending packets to that MAC address).

Now we will add host G. This host has two network cards, with one plugged
into each network. The first network card uses the IP address 192.168.1.4,
and the other uses 192.168.2.4. Host G is now link-local to both networks,
and can route packets between them.

But what if hosts A, B, and C want to reach hosts D, E, and F? They will need
to add a route to the other network via host G. For example, hosts A-C would
add a route via 192.168.1.4. In Linux, this can be accomplished with the fol-
lowing command:

# ip route add 192.168.2.0/24 via 192.168.1.4

...and hosts D-F would add the following:

# ip route add 192.168.1.0/24 via 192.168.2.4

The result is shown in Figure 3.8. Notice that the route is added via the IP
address on host G that is link-local to the respective network. Host A could
not add a route via 192.168.2.4, even though it is the same physical machine
as 192.168.1.4 (host G), since that IP is not link-local.

Computer B:
192.168.1.2

Computer A: Computer C:
Hub
192.168.1.1 192.168.1.3

192.168.1.4
Computer G
192.168.2.4

Computer D: Computer F:
Hub
192.168.2.1 192.168.2.3

Computer E:
192.168.2.2

Figure 3.8: Host G acts as a router between the two networks.
A route tells the OS that the desired network doesn't lie on the immediate
link-local network, and it must forward the traffic through the specified router.
If host A wants to send a packet to host F, it would first send it to host G. Host
G would then look up host F in its routing table, and see that it has a direct


connection to host F's network. Finally, host G would resolve the hardware
(MAC) address of host F and forward the packet to it.

This is a very simple routing example, where the destination is only a single
hop away from the source. As networks get more complex, many hops may
need to be traversed to reach the ultimate destination. Since it isn't practical
for every machine on the Internet to know the route to every other, we make
use of a routing entry known as the default route (also known as the de-
fault gateway). When a router receives a packet destined for a network for
which it has no explicit route, the packet is forwarded to its default gateway.

The default gateway is typically the best route out of your network, usually in
the direction of your ISP. An example of a router that uses a default gateway
is shown in Figure 3.9.

10.15.5.4 10.15.6.3

10.15.5.3 10.15.6.2 Internet

Internal
10.15.5.2 Router 10.15.6.1
eth1 eth0

Routing table for internal router:

Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Iface
10.15.5.0 * 255.255.255.0 U 0 eth1
10.15.6.0 * 255.255.255.0 U 0 eth0
default 10.15.6.1 0.0.0.0 UG 0 eth0

Figure 3.9: When no explicit route exists to a particular destination, a host uses the
default gateway entry in its routing table.

Routes can be updated manually, or can dynamically react to network out-
ages and other events. Some examples of popular dynamic routing protocols
are RIP, OSPF, BGP, and OLSR. Conﬁguring dynamic routing is beyond the
scope of this book, but for further reading on the subject, see the resources
in Appendix A.

Network Address Translation (NAT)
In order to reach hosts on the Internet, RFC1918 addresses must be con-
verted to global, publicly routable IP addresses. This is achieved using a
technique known as Network Address Translation, or NAT. A NAT device is
a router that manipulates the addresses of packets instead of simply forward-
ing them. On a NAT router, the Internet connection uses one (or more) glob-


ally routed IP addresses, while the private network uses an IP address from
the RFC1918 private address range. The NAT router allows the global ad-
dress(es) to be shared with all of the inside users, who all use private ad-
dresses. It converts the packets from one form of addressing to the other as
the packets pass through it. As far as the network users can tell, they are
directly connected to the Internet and require no special software or drivers.
They simply use the NAT router as their default gateway, and address pack-
ets as they normally would. The NAT router translates outbound packets to
use the global IP address as they leave the network, and translates them
back again as they are received from the Internet.

The major consequence of using NAT is that machines from the Internet can-
not easily reach servers within the organization without setting up explicit for-
warding rules on the router. Connections initiated from within the private ad-
dress space generally have no trouble, although some applications (such as
Voice over IP and some VPN software) can have difficulty dealing with NAT.

To 10.1.1.3
? Internet

69.90.235.226

192.0.2.1
NAT router
10.1.1.1

10.1.1.2 10.1.1.3 10.1.1.4

Figure 3.10: Network Address Translation allows you to share a single IP address with
many internal hosts, but can make it difficult for some services to work properly.

Depending on your point of view, this can be considered a bug (since it makes
it harder to set up two-way communication) or a feature (since it effectively
provides a "free" firewall for your entire organization). RFC1918 addresses
should be filtered on the edge of your network to prevent accidental or mali-
cious RFC1918 traffic entering or leaving your network. While NAT performs
some firewall-like functions, it is not a replacement for a real firewall.


Internet Protocol Suite
Machines on the Internet use the Internet Protocol (IP) to reach each other,
even when separated by many intermediary machines. There are a number of
protocols that are run in conjunction with IP that provide features as critical to
normal operations as IP itself. Every packet specifies a protocol number which
identifies the packet as one of these protocols. The most commonly used pro-
tocols are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP, number 6), User Data-
gram Protocol (UDP, number 17), and the Internet Control Message Pro-
tocol (ICMP, number 1). Taken as a group, these protocols (and others) are
known as the Internet Protocol Suite, or simply TCP/IP for short.

The TCP and UDP protocols introduce the concept of port numbers. Port
numbers allow multiple services to be run on the same IP address, and still
be distinguished from each other. Every packet has a source and destination
port number. Some port numbers are well defined standards, used to reach
well known services such as email and web servers. For example, web serv-
ers normally listen on TCP port 80, and SMTP email servers listen on TCP
port 25. When we say that a service "listens" on a port (such as port 80), we
mean that it will accept packets that use its IP as the destination IP address,
and 80 as the destination port. Servers usually do not care about the source
IP or source port, although sometimes they will use them to establish the
identity of the other side. When sending a response to such packets, the
server will use its own IP as the source IP, and 80 as the source port.

When a client connects to a service, it may use any source port number on
its side which is not already in use, but it must connect to the proper port on
the server (e.g. 80 for web, 25 for email). TCP is a session oriented protocol
with guaranteed delivery and transmission control features (such as detec-
tion and mitigation of network congestion, retries, packet reordering and re-
assembly, etc.). UDP is designed for connectionless streams of information,
and does not guarantee delivery at all, or in any particular order.

The ICMP protocol is designed for debugging and maintenance on the Internet.
Rather than port numbers, it has message types, which are also numbers. Dif-
ferent message types are used to request a simple response from another com-
puter (echo request), notify the sender of another packet of a possible routing
loop (time exceeded), or inform the sender that a packet that could not be
delivered due to firewall rules or other problems (destination unreachable).

By now you should have a solid understanding of how computers on the
network are addressed, and how information flows on the network between
them. Now let's take a brief look at the physical hardware that implements
these network protocols.


Ethernet
Ethernet is the name of the most popular standard for connecting together
computers on a Local Area Network (LAN). It is sometimes used to connect
individual computers to the Internet, via a router, ADSL modem, or wireless
device. However, if you connect a single computer to the Internet, you may
not use Ethernet at all. The name comes from the physical concept of the
ether, the medium which was once supposed to carry light waves through
free space. The official standard is called IEEE 802.3.

The most common Ethernet standard is called 100baseT. This defines a data
rate of 100 megabits per second, running over twisted pair wires, with modu-
lar RJ-45 connectors on the end. The network topology is a star, with
switches or hubs at the center of each star, and end nodes (devices and ad-
ditional switches) at the edges.

MAC addresses
Every device connected to an Ethernet network has a unique MAC address,
assigned by the manufacturer of the network card. Its function is like that of
an IP address, since it serves as a unique identifier that enables devices to
talk to each other. However, the scope of a MAC address is limited to a
broadcast domain, which is defined as all the computers connected together
by wires, hubs, switches, and bridges, but not crossing routers or Internet
gateways. MAC addresses are never used directly on the Internet, and are
not transmitted across routers.

Hubs
Ethernet hubs connect multiple twisted-pair Ethernet devices together. They
work at the physical layer (the lowest or first layer). They repeat the signals
received by each port out to all of the other ports. Hubs can therefore be
considered to be simple repeaters. Due to this design, only one port can suc-
cessfully transmit at a time. If two devices transmit at the same time, they
corrupt each other's transmissions, and both must back off and retransmit
their packets later. This is known as a collision, and each host remains re-
sponsible for detecting collisions during transmission, and retransmitting its
own packets when needed.

When problems such as excessive collisions are detected on a port, some hubs
can disconnect (partition) that port for a while to limit its impact on the rest of the
network. While a port is partitioned, devices attached to it cannot communicate
with the rest of the network. Hub-based networks are generally more robust than
coaxial Ethernet (also known as 10base2 or ThinNet), where misbehaving de-
vices can disable the entire segment. But hubs are limited in their usefulness,
since they can easily become points of congestion on busy networks.


Switches
A switch is a device which operates much like a hub, but provides a dedi-
cated (or switched) connection between ports. Rather than repeating all
traffic on every port, the switch determines which ports are communicating
directly and temporarily connects them together. Switches generally provide
much better performance than hubs, especially on busy networks with many
computers. They are not much more expensive than hubs, and are replacing
them in many situations.

Switches work at the data link layer (the second layer), since they interpret
and act upon the MAC address in the packets they receive. When a packet
arrives at a port on a switch, it makes a note of the source MAC address,
which it associates with that port. It stores this information in an internal MAC
table. The switch then looks up the destination MAC address in its MAC ta-
ble, and transmits the packet on the matching port. If the destination MAC
address is not found in the MAC table, the packet is then sent to all of the
connected interfaces. If the destination port matches the incoming port, the
packet is filtered and is not forwarded.

Hubs vs. Switches
Hubs are considered to be fairly unsophisticated devices, since they ineffi-
ciently rebroadcast all traffic on every port. This simplicity introduces both a
performance penalty and a security issue. Overall performance is slower,
since the available bandwidth must be shared between all ports. Since all
traffic is seen by all ports, any host on the network can easily monitor all of
the network traffic.

Switches create virtual connections between receiving and transmitting ports.
This yields better performance because many virtual connections can be
made simultaneously. More expensive switches can switch traffic by inspect-
ing packets at higher levels (at the transport or application layer), allow the
creation of VLANs, and implement other advanced features.

A hub can be used when repetition of traffic on all ports is desirable; for ex-
ample, when you want to explicitly allow a monitoring machine to see all of
the traffic on the network. Most switches provide monitor port functionality
that enables repeating on an assigned port specifically for this purpose.

Hubs were once cheaper than switches. However, the price of switches have
reduced dramatically over the years. Therefore, old network hubs should be
replaced whenever possible with new switches.


to: 10.1.1.4
Hub

10.1.1.2 10.1.1.3 10.1.1.4

to: 10.1.1.4
Switch

10.1.1.2 10.1.1.3 10.1.1.4

Figure 3.11: A hub simply repeats all traffic on every port, while a switch makes a
temporary, dedicated connection between the ports that need to communicate.

Both hubs and switches may offer managed services. Some of these serv-
ices include the ability to set the link speed (10baseT, 100baseT, 1000baseT,
full or half duplex) per port, enable triggers to watch for network events (such
as changes in MAC address or malformed packets), and usually include port
counters for easy bandwidth accounting. A managed switch that provides
upload and download byte counts for every physical port can greatly simplify
network monitoring. These services are typically available via SNMP, or they
may be accessed via telnet, ssh, a web interface, or a custom configuration
tool.

Routers and firewalls
While hubs and switches provide connectivity on a local network segment, a
router's job is to forward packets between different network segments. A
router typically has two or more physical network interfaces. It may include
support for different types of network media, such as Ethernet, ATM, DSL, or
dial-up. Routers can be dedicated hardware devices (such as Cisco or Juni-
per routers) or they can be made from a standard PC with multiple network
cards and appropriate software.

Routers sit at the edge of two or more networks. By definition, they have one
connection to each network, and as border machines they may take on other
responsibilities as well as routing. Many routers have firewall capabilities
that provide a mechanism to filter or redirect packets that do not fit security or


access policy requirements. They may also provide Network Address Trans-
lation (NAT) services.

Routers vary widely in cost and capabilities. The lowest cost and least flexi-
ble are simple, dedicated hardware devices, often with NAT functionality,
used to share an Internet connection between a few computers. The next
step up is a software router, which consists of an operating system running
on a standard PC with multiple network interfaces. Standard operating sys-
tems such as Microsoft Windows, Linux, and BSD are all capable of routing,
and are much more flexible than the low-cost hardware devices. However,
they suffer from the same problems as conventional PCs, with high power
consumption, a large number of complex and potentially unreliable parts, and
more involved configuration.

The most expensive devices are high-end dedicated hardware routers, made by
companies like Cisco and Juniper. They tend to have much better performance,
more features, and higher reliability than software routers on PCs. It is also pos-
sible to purchase technical support and maintenance contracts for them.

Most modern routers offer mechanisms to monitor and record performance
remotely, usually via the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), al-
though the least expensive devices often omit this feature.

Other equipment

Ethernet
DSL Modem
Switch

Cable Ethernet
Modem Switch

Ethernet
CSU/DSU
Switch

VSAT Ethernet
Terminal Switch

Figure 3.12: Many DSL modems, cable modems, CSU/DSUs, wireless access points,
and VSAT terminals terminate at an Ethernet jack.

Each physical network has an associated piece of terminal equipment. For
example, VSAT connections consist of a satellite dish connected to a termi-


nal that either plugs into a card inside a PC, or ends at a standard Ethernet
connection. DSL lines use a DSL modem that bridges the telephone line to a
local device, either an Ethernet network or a single computer via USB. Cable
modems bridge the television cable to Ethernet, or to an internal PC card
bus. Some kinds of telecom circuit (such as a T1 or T3) use a CSU/DSU to
bridge the circuit to a serial port or Ethernet. Standard dialup lines use mo-
dems to connect a computer to the telephone, usually via a plug-in card or
serial port. And there are many different kinds of wireless networking equip-
ment that connect to a variety of radios and antennas, but nearly always end
at an Ethernet jack.

The functionality of these devices can vary signiﬁcantly between manufactur-
ers. Some provide mechanisms for monitoring performance, while others
may not. Since your Internet connection ultimately comes from your ISP, you
should follow their recommendations when choosing equipment that bridges
their network to your Ethernet network.

Putting it all together

Internet

Router

172.16.41.33 23.17.8.154 2.8.91.205 216.231.38.54
10.15.6.1 172.16.41.1 216.231.38.1 192.168.17.1
Router Router

Hello, Hello,
Bob! Alice!

Aliceʼs computer: Bobʼs computer:
10.15.6.3 192.168.17.5

Figure 3.13: Internet networking. Each network segment has a router with two IP ad-
dresses, making it “link local” to two different networks. Packets are forwarded be-
tween routers until they reach their ultimate destination.

Once all network nodes have an IP address, they can send data packets to
the IP address of any other node. Through the use of routing and forwarding,
these packets can reach nodes on networks that are not physically con-
nected to the originating node. This process describes much of what “hap-
pens” on the Internet.

In this example, you can see the path that the packets take as Alice chats
with Bob using an instant messaging service. Each dotted line represents an


Ethernet cable, a wireless link, or any other kind of physical network. The
cloud symbol is commonly used to stand in for “The Internet”, and represents
any number of intervening IP networks. Neither Alice nor Bob need to be
concerned with how those networks operate, as long as the routers forward
IP traffic towards the ultimate destination. If it weren t for Internet protocols
and the cooperation of everyone on the net, this kind of communication
would be impossible.

Designing the physical network
It may seem odd to talk about the “physical” network when building wireless
networks. After all, where is the physical part of the network? In wireless
networks, the physical medium we use for communication is obviously elec-
tromagnetic energy. But in the context of this chapter, the physical network
refers to the mundane topic of where to put things. How do you arrange the
equipment so that you can reach your wireless clients? Whether they fill an
office building or stretch across many miles, wireless networks are naturally
arranged in these three logical configurations: point-to-point links, point-
to-multipoint links, and multipoint-to-multipoint clouds. While different
parts of your network can take advantage of all three of these configurations,
any individual link will fall into one of these topologies.

Point-to-point
Point-to-point links typically provide an Internet connection where such ac-
cess isn t otherwise available. One side of a point-to-point link will have an
Internet connection, while the other uses the link to reach the Internet. For
example, a university may have a fast frame relay or VSAT connection in the
middle of campus, but cannot afford such a connection for an important
building just off campus. If the main building has an unobstructed view of the
remote site, a point-to-point connection can be used to link the two together.
This can augment or even replace existing dial-up links. With proper anten-
nas and clear line of sight, reliable point-to-point links in excess of thirty kilo-
meters are possible.

Poin
t to
poin
t lin
k

VSAT

Figure 3.14: A point-to-point link allows a remote site to share a central
Internet connection.


Of course, once a single point-to-point connection has been made, more can
be used to extend the network even further. If the remote building in our ex-
ample is at the top of a tall hill, it may be able to see other important locations
that can t be seen directly from the central campus. By installing another
point-to-point link at the remote site, another node can join the network and
make use of the central Internet connection.

Point-to-point links don t necessarily have to involve Internet access. Suppose
you have to physically drive to a remote weather monitoring station, high in the
hills, in order to collect the data which it records over time. You could connect
the site with a point-to-point link, allowing data collection and monitoring to
happen in realtime, without the need to actually travel to the site. Wireless
networks can provide enough bandwidth to carry large amounts of data (in-
cluding audio and video) between any two points that have a connection to
each other, even if there is no direct connection to the Internet.

Point-to-multipoint
The next most commonly encountered network layout is point-to-
multipoint. Whenever several nodes2 are talking to a central point of access,
this is a point-to-multipoint application. The typical example of a point-to-
multipoint layout is the use of a wireless access point that provides a con-
nection to several laptops. The laptops do not communicate with each other
directly, but must be in range of the access point in order to use the network.

Omnidirectional
antenna

VSAT

Figure 3.15: The central VSAT is now shared by multiple remote sites. All three sites
can also communicate directly at speeds much faster than VSAT.

Point-to-multipoint networking can also apply to our earlier example at the
university. Suppose the remote building on top of the hill is connected to the
central campus with a point-to-point link. Rather than setting up several
point-to-point links to distribute the Internet connection, a single antenna
could be used that is visible from several remote buildings. This is a classic

2. A node is any device capable of sending and receiving data on a network. Access points,
routers, computers, and laptops are all examples of nodes.


example of a wide area point (remote site on the hill) to multipoint (many
buildings in the valley below) connection.

Note that there are a number of performance issues with using point-to-
multipoint over very long distance, which will be addressed later in this chap-
ter. Such links are possible and useful in many circumstances, but don t
make the classic mistake of installing a single high powered radio tower in
the middle of town and expecting to be able to serve thousands of clients, as
you would with an FM radio station. As we will see, two-way data networks
behave very differently than broadcast radio.

Multipoint-to-multipoint
The third type of network layout is multipoint-to-multipoint, which is also
referred to as an ad-hoc or mesh network. In a multipoint-to-multipoint net-
work, there is no central authority. Every node on the network carries the
traffic of every other as needed, and all nodes communicate with each other
directly.

VSAT

Figure 3.16: A multipoint-to-multipoint mesh. Every point can reach each other at
very high speed, or use the central VSAT connection to reach the Internet.

The benefit of this network layout is that even if none of the nodes are in
range of a central access point, they can still communicate with each other.
Good mesh network implementations are self-healing, which means that they
automatically detect routing problems and fix them as needed. Extending a
mesh network is as simple as adding more nodes. If one of the nodes in the
"cloud" happens to be an Internet gateway, then that connection can be
shared among all of the clients.

Two big disadvantages to this topology are increased complexity and lower
performance. Security in such a network is also a concern, since every par-
ticipant potentially carries the traffic of every other. Multipoint-to-multipoint
networks tend to be difficult to troubleshoot, due to the large number of
changing variables as nodes join and leave the network. Multipoint-to-
multipoint clouds typically have reduce capacity compared to point-to-point or
point-to-multipoint networks, due to the additional overhead of managing the
network routing and increased contention in the radio spectrum.


Nevertheless, mesh networks are useful in many circumstances. We will see
an example of how to build a multipoint-to-multipoint mesh network using a
routing protocol called OLSR later in this chapter.

Use the technology that fits
All of these network designs can be used to complement each other in a
large network, and can obviously make use of traditional wired networking
techniques whenever possible. It is a common practice, for example, to use a
long distance wireless link to provide Internet access to a remote location,
and then set up an access point on the remote side to provide local wireless
access. One of the clients of this access point may also act as a mesh node,
allowing the network to spread organically between laptop users who all ulti-
mately use the original point-to-point link to access the Internet.

Now that we have a clear idea of how wireless networks are typically ar-
ranged, we can begin to understand how communication is possible over
such networks.

802.11 wireless networks
Before packets can be forwarded and routed to the Internet, layers one (the
physical) and two (the data link) need to be connected. Without link local
connectivity, network nodes cannot talk to each other and route packets.

To provide physical connectivity, wireless network devices must operate in
the same part of the radio spectrum. As we saw in Chapter 2, this means
that 802.11a radios will talk to 802.11a radios at around 5 GHz, and
802.11b/g radios will talk to other 802.11b/g radios at around 2.4 GHz. But
an 802.11a device cannot interoperate with an 802.11b/g device, since they
use completely different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

More specifically, wireless cards must agree on a common channel. If one
802.11b radio card is set to channel 2 while another is set to channel 11, then
the radios cannot communicate with each other.

When two wireless cards are configured to use the same protocol on the
same radio channel, then they are ready to negotiate data link layer connec-
tivity. Each 802.11a/b/g device can operate in one of four possible modes:

1. Master mode (also called AP or infrastructure mode) is used to create
a service that looks like a traditional access point. The wireless card
creates a network with a specified name (called the SSID) and channel,
and offers network services on it. While in master mode, wireless cards
manage all communications related to the network (authenticating wire-


less clients, handling channel contention, repeating packets, etc.) Wire-
less cards in master mode can only communicate with cards that are
associated with it in managed mode.
2. Managed mode is sometimes also referred to as client mode. Wireless
cards in managed mode will join a network created by a master, and will
automatically change their channel to match it. They then present any
necessary credentials to the master, and if those credentials are ac-
cepted, they are said to be associated with the master. Managed mode
cards do not communicate with each other directly, and will only commu-
nicate with an associated master.
3. Ad-hoc mode creates a multipoint-to-multipoint network where there is
no single master node or AP. In ad-hoc mode, each wireless card com-
municates directly with its neighbors. Nodes must be in range of each
other to communicate, and must agree on a network name and channel.
4. Monitor mode is used by some tools (such as Kismet, see Chapter 6)
to passively listen to all radio trafﬁc on a given channel. When in monitor
mode, wireless cards transmit no data. This is useful for analyzing prob-
lems on a wireless link or observing spectrum usage in the local area.
Monitor mode is not used for normal communications.
Ad-Hoc node cannot talk to
a Client node
Ad-Hoc Client

X Client
(Managed)

(Managed)
AP cannot talk to
another AP Ad-Hoc

Access Access X
Point
(Master)
X Point
(Master)
Client node cannot talk to Ad-Hoc node cannot talk to
another Client node an Access Point

Client Client Client
(Managed) X (Managed) Ad-Hoc (Managed)

Ad-Hoc

Ad-Hoc

Ad-Hoc
Ad-Hoc

Ad-Hoc Ad-Hoc
Ad-Hoc nodes can only talk to other
Ad-Hoc nodes that are in range

Figure 3.17: APs, Clients, and Ad-Hoc nodes.

When implementing a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint link, one radio will
typically operate in master mode, while the other(s) operate in managed
mode. In a multipoint-to-multipoint mesh, the radios all operate in ad-hoc
mode so that they can communicate with each other directly.


It is important to keep these modes in mind when designing your network
layout. Remember that managed mode clients cannot communicate with
each other directly, so it is likely that you will want to run a high repeater site
in master or ad-hoc mode. As we will see later in this chapter, ad-hoc is
more flexible but has a number of performance issues as compared to using
the master / managed modes.

Mesh networking with OLSR
Most WiFi networks operate in infrastructure mode - they consist of an access
point somewhere (with a radio operating in master mode), attached to a DSL
line or other large scale wired network. In such a hotspot the access point
usually acts as a master station that is distributing Internet access to its clients,
which operate in managed mode. This topology is similar to a mobile phone
(GSM) service. Mobile phones connect to a base station - without the pres-
ence of such a base station mobiles can't communicate with each other. If you
make a joke call to a friend that is sitting on the other side of the table, your
phone sends data to the base station of your provider that may be a mile away
- the base station then sends data back to the phone of your friend.

WiFi cards in managed mode can't communicate directly, either. Clients - for
example, two laptops on the same table - have to use the access point as a
relay. Any traffic between clients connected to an access point has to be sent
twice. If client A and C communicate, client A sends data to the access point
B, and then the access point will retransmit the data to client C. A single
transmission may have a speed of 600 kByte/sec (thats about the maximum
speed you could achieve with 802.11b) in our example - thus, because the
data has to be repeated by the access point before it reaches its target, the
effective speed between both clients will be only 300 kByte/sec.

In ad-hoc mode there is no hierarchical master-client relationship. Nodes can
communicate directly as long as they are within the range of their wireless
interfaces. Thus, in our example both computers could achieve full speed
when operating ad-hoc, under ideal circumstances.

The disadvantage to ad-hoc mode is that clients do not repeat traffic destined
for other clients. In the access point example, if two clients A and C can't
directly “see” each other with their wireless interfaces, they still can commu-
nicate as long as the AP is in the wireless range of both clients.

Ad-hoc nodes do not repeat by default, but they can effectively do the same
if routing is applied. Mesh networks are based on the strategy that every
mesh-enabled node acts as a relay to extend coverage of the wireless net-
work. The more nodes, the better the radio coverage and range of the mesh
cloud.


Clients A and C are in range of Access Point B but not each other.
Access Point B will relay traffic between the two nodes.

Access
Client Client
Point
(A) (C)
(B)

In the same setting, Ad-Hoc nodes A and C can communicate
with node B, but not with each other.

Ad-Hoc Ad-Hoc Ad-Hoc
(A) (B) (C)

X
Figure 3.18: Access point B will relay traffic between clients A and C. In Ad-Hoc
mode, node B will not relay traffic between A and C by default.

There is one big tradeoff that must be mentioned at this point. If the device
only uses one radio interface, the available bandwidth is significantly reduced
every time traffic is repeated by intermediate nodes on the way from A to B.
Also, there will be interference in transmission due to nodes sharing the
same channel. Thus, cheap ad-hoc mesh networks can provide good radio
coverage on the last mile(s) of a community wireless network at the cost of
speed-- especially if the density of nodes and transmit power is high.

If an ad-hoc network consists of only a few nodes that are up and running at
all time, don't move and always have stable radio links - a long list of ifs - it is
possible to write individual routing tables for all nodes by hand.

Unfortunately, those conditions are rarely met in the real world. Nodes can
fail, WiFi enabled devices roam around, and interference can make radio
links unusable at any time. And no one wants to update several routing ta-
bles by hand if one node is added to the network. By using routing protocols
that automatically maintain individual routing tables in all nodes involved, we
can avoid these issues. Popular routing protocols from the wired world (such
as OSPF) do not work well in such an environment because they are not de-
signed to deal with lossy links or rapidly changing topology.

Mesh routing with olsrd
The Optimized Link State Routing Daemon - olsrd - from olsr.org is a routing
application developed for routing in wireless networks. We will concentrate
on this routing software for several reasons. It is a open-source project that
supports Mac OS X, Windows 98, 2000, XP, Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD and


NetBSD. Olsrd is available for access points that run Linux like the Linksys
WRT54G, Asus Wl500g, AccessCube or Pocket PCs running Familiar Linux,
and ships standard on Metrix kits running Pyramid. Olsrd can handle multiple
interfaces and is extensible with plug-ins. It supports IPv6 and it is actively
developed and used by community networks all over the world.

Note that there are several implementations of Optimized Link State Routing,
which began as an IETF-draft written at INRIA France. The implementation
from olsr.org started as a master thesis of Andreas Toennesen at UniK Uni-
versity. Based on practical experience of the free networking community, the
routing daemon was modified. Olsrd now differs significantly from the original
draft because it includes a mechanism called Link Quality Extension that
measures the packet loss between nodes and calculates routes according to
this information. This extension breaks compatibility to routing daemons that
follow the INRIA draft. The olsrd available from olsr.org can be configured to
behave according to the IETF draft that lacks this feature - but there is no
reason to disable Link Quality Extension unless compliance with other im-
plementations is required.

Theory
After olsrd is running for a while, a node knows about the existence of
every other node in the mesh cloud and which nodes may be used to route
traffic to them. Each node maintains a routing table covering the whole
mesh cloud. This approach to mesh routing is called proactive routing. In
contrast, reactive routing algorithms seek routes only when it is necessary
to send data to a specific node.

There are pros and cons to proactive routing, and there are many other ideas
about how to do mesh routing that may be worth mentioning. The biggest ad-
vantage of proactive routing is that you know who is out there and you don't
have to wait until a route is found. Higher protocol traffic overhead and more
CPU load are among the disadvantages. In Berlin, the Freifunk community is
operating a mesh cloud where olsrd has to manage more than 100 interfaces.
The average CPU load caused by olsrd on a Linksys WRT54G running at 200
MHz is about 30% in the Berlin mesh. There is clearly a limit to what extent a
proactive protocol can scale - depending on how many interfaces are involved
and how often the routing tables are updated. Maintaining routes in a mesh
cloud with static nodes takes less effort than a mesh with nodes that are con-
stantly in motion, since the routing table has to be updated less often.

Mechanism
A node running olsrd is constantly broadcasting 'Hello' messages at a given
interval so neighbors can detect it's presence. Every node computes a statis-
tic how many 'Hellos' have been lost or received from each neighbor -


thereby gaining information about the topology and link quality of nodes in
the neighborhood. The gained topology information is broadcasted as topol-
ogy control messages (TC messages) and forwarded by neighbors that olsrd
has chosen to be multipoint relays.

The concept of multipoint relays is a new idea in proactive routing that came
up with the OLSR draft. If every node rebroadcasts topology information that it
has received, unnecessary overhead can be generated. Such transmissions
are redundant if a node has many neighbors. Thus, an olsrd node decides
which neighbors are favorable multipoint relays that should forward its topology
control messages. Note that multipoint relays are only chosen for the purpose
of forwarding TC messages. Payload is routed considering all available nodes.

Two other message types exist in OLSR that announce information: whether
a node offers a gateway to other networks (HNA messages) or has multiple
interfaces (MID messages). There is not much to say about what this mes-
sages do apart from the fact that they exist. HNA messages make olsrd very
convenient when connecting to the Internet with a mobile device. When a
mesh node roams around it will detect gateways into other networks and al-
ways choose the gateway that it has the best route to. However, olsrd is by
no means bullet proof. If a node announces that it is an Internet gateway -
which it isn't because it never was or it is just ofﬂine at the moment - the
other nodes will nevertheless trust this information. The pseudo-gateway is a
black hole. To overcome this problem, a dynamic gateway plugin was written.
The plugin will automatically detect at the gateway if it is actually connected
and whether the link is still up. If not, olsrd ceases to send false HNA mes-
sages. It is highly recommended to build and use this plugin instead of stati-
cally enabling HNA messages.

Practice
Olsrd implements IP-based routing in a userland application - installation is
pretty easy. Installation packages are available for OpenWRT, AccessCube,
Mac OS X, Debian GNU/Linux and Windows. OLSR is a standard part of
Metrix Pyramid. If you have to compile from source, please read the docu-
mentation that is shipped with the source package. If everything is conﬁgured
properly all you have to do is start the olsr program.

First of all, it must be ensured that every node has a unique statically as-
signed IP-Address for each interface used for the mesh. It is not recom-
mended (nor practicable) to use DHCP in an IP-based mesh network. A
DHCP request will not be answered by a DHCP server if the node requesting
DHCP needs a multihop link to connect to it, and applying dhcp relay
throughout a mesh is likely impractical. This problem could be solved by us-
ing IPv6, since there is plenty of space available to generate a unique IP
from the MAC address of each card involved (as suggested in "IPv6 State-


less Address Autoconfiguration in large mobile ad hoc networks" by K. Weni-
ger and M. Zitterbart, 2002).

A wiki-page where every interested person can choose an individual IPv4 ad-
dress for each interface the olsr daemon is running on may serve the purpose
quite well. There is just not an easy way to automate the process if IPv4 is used.

The broadcast address should be 255.255.255.255 on mesh interfaces in
general as a convention. There is no reason to enter the broadcast address
explicitly, since olsrd can be configured to override the broadcast addresses
with this default. It just has to be ensured that settings are the same every-
where. Olsrd can do this on its own. When a default olsrd configuration file is
issued, this feature should be enabled to avoid confusion of the kind "why
can't the other nodes see my machine?!?"

Now configure the wireless interface. Here is an example command how to
configure a WiFi card with the name wlan0 using Linux:

iwconfig wlan0 essid olsr.org mode ad-hoc channel 10 rts 250 frag 256

Verify that the wireless part of the WiFi card has been configured so it has an
ad-hoc connection to other mesh nodes within direct (single hop) range. Make
sure the interface joins the same wireless channel, uses the same wireless
network name ESSID (Extended Service Set IDentifier) and has the same
Cell-ID as all other WiFi-Cards that build the mesh. Many WiFi cards or their
respective drivers do not comply with the 802.11 standard for ad-hoc network-
ing and may fail miserably to connect to a cell. They may be unable to connect
to other devices on the same table, even if they are set up with the correct
channel and wireless network name. They may even confuse other cards that
behave according to the standard by creating their own Cell-ID on the same
channel with the same wireless network name. WiFi cards made by Intel that
are shipped with Centrino Notebooks are notorious for doing this.

You can check this out with the command iwconfig when using GNU-
Linux. Here is the output on my machine:

wlan0 IEEE 802.11b ESSID:"olsr.org"
Mode:Ad-Hoc Frequency:2.457 GHz Cell: 02:00:81:1E:48:10
Bit Rate:2 Mb/s Sensitivity=1/3
Retry min limit:8 RTS thr=250 B Fragment thr=256 B
Encryption key:off
Power Management:off
Link Quality=1/70 Signal level=-92 dBm Noise level=-100 dBm
Rx invalid nwid:0 Rx invalid crypt:28 Rx invalid frag:0
Tx excessive retries:98024 Invalid misc:117503 Missed beacon:0

It is important to set the 'Request To Send' threshold value RTS for a mesh.
There will be collisions on the radio channel between the transmissions of


nodes on the same wireless channel, and RTS will mitigate this. RTS/CTS
adds a handshake before each packet transmission to make sure that the
channel is clear. This adds overhead, but increases performance in case of
hidden nodes - and hidden nodes are the default in a mesh! This parameter
sets the size of the smallest packet (in bytes) for which the node sends RTS.
The RTS threshold value must be smaller than the IP-Packet size and the
'Fragmentation threshold' value - here set to 256 - otherwise it will be dis-
abled. TCP is very sensitive to collisions, so it is important to switch RTS on.

Fragmentation allows to split an IP packet in a burst of smaller fragments trans-
mitted on the medium. This adds overhead, but in a noisy environment this re-
duces the error penalty and allows packets to get through interference bursts.
Mesh networks are very noisy because nodes use the same channel and there-
fore transmissions are likely to interfere with each other. This parameter sets the
maximum size before a data packet is split and sent in a burst - a value equal to
the maximum IP packet size disables the mechanism, so it must be smaller than
the IP packet size. Setting fragmentation threshold is recommended.

Once a valid IP-address and netmask is assigned and the wireless interface
is up, the configuration file of olsrd must be altered in order that olsrd finds
and uses the interfaces it is meant to work on.

For Mac OS-X and Windows there are nice GUI's for configuration and monitoring
of the daemon available. Unfortunately this tempts users that lack background
knowledge to do stupid things - like announcing black holes. On BSD and Linux
the configuration file /etc/olsrd.conf has to be edited with a text editor.

A simple olsrd.conf
It is not practical to provide a complete configuration file here. These are
some essential settings that should be checked.

UseHysteresis no
TcRedundancy 2
MprCoverage 3
LinkQualityLevel 2
LinkQualityWinSize 20

LoadPlugin "olsrd_dyn_gw.so.0.3"
{
PlParam "Interval" "60"
PlParam "Ping" "151.1.1.1"
PlParam "Ping" "194.25.2.129"
}

Interface "ath0" "wlan0" {
Ip4Broadcast 255.255.255.255
}


There are many more options available in the olsrd.conf, but these basic
options should get you started. After these steps have been done, olsrd can
be started with a simple command in a terminal:

olsrd -d 2

I recommend to run it with the debugging option -d 2 when used on a work-
station, especially for the ﬁrst time. You can see what olsrd does and monitor
how well the links to your neighbors are. On embedded devices the debug
level should be 0 (off), because debugging creates a lot of CPU load.

The output should look something like this:

--- 19:27:45.51 --------------------------------------------- DIJKSTRA

192.168.120.1:1.00 (one-hop)
192.168.120.3:1.00 (one-hop)

--- 19:27:45.51 ------------------------------------------------ LINKS

IP address hyst LQ lost total NLQ ETX
192.168.120.1 0.000 1.000 0 20 1.000 1.00
192.168.120.3 0.000 1.000 0 20 1.000 1.00

--- 19:27:45.51 -------------------------------------------- NEIGHBORS

IP address LQ NLQ SYM MPR MPRS will
192.168.120.1 1.000 1.000 YES NO YES 3
192.168.120.3 1.000 1.000 YES NO YES 6

--- 19:27:45.51 --------------------------------------------- TOPOLOGY

Source IP addr Dest IP addr LQ ILQ ETX
192.168.120.1 192.168.120.17 1.000 1.000 1.00
192.168.120.3 192.168.120.17 1.000 1.000 1.00

Using OLSR on Ethernet and multiple interfaces
It is not necessary to have a wireless interface to test or use olsrd - although
that is what olsrd is designed for. It may as well be used on any NIC. WiFi-
interfaces don't have to operate always in ad-hoc mode to form a mesh when
mesh nodes have more than one interface. For dedicated links it may be a
very good option to have them running in infrastructure mode. Many WiFi
cards and drivers are buggy in ad-hoc mode, but infrastructure mode works
ﬁne - because everybody expects at least this feature to work. Ad-hoc mode
has not had many users so far, so the implementation of the ad-hoc mode
was done sloppily by many manufacturers. With the rising popularity of mesh
networks, the driver situation is improving now.


Many people use olsrd on wired and wireless interfaces - they don't think
about network architecture. They just connect antennas to their WiFi cards,
connect cables to their Ethernet cards, enable olsrd to run on all computers
and all interfaces and fire it up. That is quite an abuse of a protocol that was
designed to do wireless networking on lossy links - but - why not?

They expect olsrd to solve every networking problem. Clearly it is not neces-
sary to send 'Hello' messages on a wired interface every two seconds - but it
works. This should not be taken as a recommendation - it is just amazing
what people do with such a protocol and that they have such success with it.
In fact the idea of having a protocol that does everything for newbies that
want to have a small to medium sized routed LAN is very appealing.

Plugins
A number of plugins are available for olsrd. Check out the olsr.org website for
a complete list. Here a little HOWTO for the network topology visualization
plugin olsrd_dot_draw.

169.254.4.4

1.18
1.00 1.00
1.00
1.11 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.11 169.254.23.42
1.00 HNA
1.06 1.25
1.06
169.254.37.161
1.06 1.39 1.89 10.15.3.1
1.13 1.11
1.11 1.00
1.11 1.00
1.11 169.254.3.3 1.00 10.15.2.3
1.00 1.13
1.13 1.00 HNA
169.254.23.45 1.00
3.36 1.00
10.15.2.2 10.13.25.2
HNA
1.11

HNA 1.00 1.00
169.254.243.118

0.0.0.0/0.0.0.0 10.15.26.1 10.13.25.1

Figure 3.19: An automatically generated OLSR network topology.

Often it is very good for the understanding of a mesh network to have the
ability to show the network topology graphically. olsrd_dot_draw outputs
the topology in the dot file format on TCP port 2004. The graphviz tools can
then be used to draw the graphs.

Installing the dot_draw Plugin
Compile the olsr plugins separately and install them. To load the plugin add
the following lines to /etc/olsrd.conf. The parameter "accept" specifies
which host is accepted to view the Topology Information (currently only one)
and is "localhost" by default. The parameter "port" specifies the TCP port.


LoadPlugin "olsrd_dot_draw.so.0.3"
{
PlParam "accept" "192.168.0.5"
PlParam "port" "2004"
}

Then restart olsr and check if you get output on TCP Port 2004

telnet localhost 2004

After a while you should get some text output.

Now you can save the output graph descriptions and run the tools dot or
neato form the graphviz package to get images.

Bruno Randolf has written a small perl script which continuously gets the to-
pology information from olsrd and displays it using the graphviz and Image-
Magick tools.

First install the following packages on your workstation:

• graphviz, http://www.graphviz.org/
• ImageMagick, http://www.imagemagick.org/

Download the script at: http://meshcube.org/nylon/utils/olsr-topology-view.pl

Now you can start the script with ./olsr-topology-view.pl and view
the topology updates in near-realtime.

Troubleshooting
As long as the WiFi-cards can 'see' each other directly with their radios, doing
a ping will work whether olsrd is running or not. This works because the large
netmasks effectively make every node link-local, so routing issues are side-
stepped at the first hop. This should be checked first if things do not seem to
work as expected. Most headaches people face with WiFi in Ad-Hoc mode are
caused by the fact that the ad-hoc mode in drivers and cards are implemented
sloppily. If it is not possible to ping nodes directly when they are in range it is
most likely a card/driver issue, or your network settings are wrong.

If the machines can ping each other, but olsrd doesn't ﬁnd routes, then the
IP-addresses, netmask and broadcast address should be checked.

Finally, are you running a ﬁrewall? Make sure it doesn't block UDP port 698.


Estimating capacity
Wireless links can provide significantly greater throughput to users than tradi-
tional Internet connections, such as VSAT, dialup, or DSL. Throughput is also
referred to as channel capacity, or simply bandwidth (although this term is
unrelated to radio bandwidth). It is important to understand that a wireless de-
vice s listed speed (the data rate) refers to the rate at which the radios can
exchange symbols, not the usable throughput you will observe. As mentioned
earlier, a single 802.11g link may use 54 Mbps radios, but it will only provide up
to 22 Mbps of actual throughput. The rest is overhead that the radios need in
order to coordinate their signals using the 802.11g protocol.

Note that throughput is a measurement of bits over time. 22 Mbps means
that in any given second, up to 22 megabits can be sent from one end of the
link to the other. If users attempt to push more than 22 megabits through the
link, it will take longer than one second. Since the data can t be sent imme-
diately, it is put in a queue, and transmitted as quickly as possible. This
backlog of data increases the time needed for the most recently queued bits
to the traverse the link. The time that it takes for data to traverse a link is
called latency, and high latency is commonly referred to as lag. Your link
will eventually send all of the queued traffic, but your users will likely com-
plain as the lag increases.

How much throughput will your users really need? It depends on how many
users you have, and how they use the wireless link. Various Internet applica-
tions require different amounts of throughput.

Application BW / User Notes

Text messaging / IM < 1 kbps As traffic is infrequent and asynchronous,
IM will tolerate high latency.

Email 1 to 100 As with IM, email is asynchronous and in-
kbps termittent, so it will tolerate latency. Large
attachments, viruses, and spam signifi-
cantly add to bandwidth usage. Note that
web email services (such as Yahoo or Hot-
mail) should be considered as web brows-
ing, not as email.

Web browsing 50 - 100+ Web browsers only use the network when
kbps data is requested. Communication is asyn-
chronous, so a fair amount of lag can be
tolerated. As web browsers request more
data (large images, long downloads, etc.)
bandwidth usage will go up significantly.


Application BW / User Notes

Streaming audio 96 - 160 Each user of a streaming audio service will
kbps use a constant amount of relatively large
bandwidth for as long as it plays. It can
tolerate some transient latency by using
large buffers on the client. But extended
periods of lag will cause audio “skips” or
outright session failures.

Voice over IP 24 - 100+ As with streaming audio, VoIP commits a
(VoIP) kbps constant amount of bandwidth to each user
for the duration of the call. But with VoIP,
the bandwidth is used roughly equally in
both directions. Latency on a VoIP connec-
tion is immediate and annoying to users.
Lag greater than a few milliseconds is un-
acceptable for VoIP.

Streaming video 64 - 200+ As with streaming audio, some intermittent
kbps latency is avoided by using buffers on the
client. Streaming video requires high
throughput and low latency to work properly.

Peer-to-peer ﬁle- 0 - inﬁnite While peer to peer applications will tolerate
sharing applications Mbps any amount of latency, they tend to use up
(BitTorrent, KaZaA, all available throughput by transmitting data
Gnutella, eDonkey, to as many clients as possible, as quickly
etc.) as possible. Use of these applications will
cause latency and throughput problems for
all other network users unless you use
careful bandwidth shaping.

To estimate the necessary throughput you will need for your network, multi-
ply the expected number of users by the sort of application they will proba-
bly use. For example, 50 users who are chiefly browsing the web will likely
consume 2.5 to 5 Mbps or more of throughput at peak times, and will toler-
ate some latency. On the other hand, 50 simultaneous VoIP users would
require 5 Mbps or more of throughput in both directions with absolutely no
latency. Since 802.11g wireless equipment is half duplex (that is, it only
transmits or receives, never both at once) you should accordingly double
the required throughput, for a total of 10 Mbps. Your wireless links must
provide that capacity every second, or conversations will lag.

Since all of your users are unlikely to use the connection at precisely the
same moment, it is common practice to oversubscribe available throughput
by some factor (that is, allow more users than the maximum available band-


width can support). Oversubscribing by a factor of 2 to 5 is quite common.
In all likelihood, you will oversubscribe by some amount when building your
network infrastructure. By carefully monitoring throughput throughout your
network, you will be able to plan when to upgrade various parts of the net-
work, and how much additional resources will be needed.

Expect that no matter how much capacity you supply, your users will eventu-
ally find applications that will use it all. As we ll see at the end of this chapter,
using bandwidth shaping techniques can help mitigate some latency prob-
lems. By using bandwidth shaping, web caching, and other techniques, you
can significantly reduce latency and increase overall network throughput.

To get a feeling for the lag felt on very slow connections, the ICTP has put
together a bandwidth simulator. It will simultaneously download a web page
at full speed and at a reduced rate that you choose. This demonstration
gives you an immediate understanding of how low throughput and high la-
tency reduce the usefulness of the Internet as a communications tool. It is
available at http://wireless.ictp.trieste.it/simulator/

Link planning
A basic communication system consists of two radios, each with its associ-
ated antenna, the two being separated by the path to be covered. In order to
have a communication between the two, the radios require a certain mini-
mum signal to be collected by the antennas and presented to their input
socket. Determining if the link is feasible is a process called link budget cal-
culation. Whether or not signals can be passed between the radios depends
on the quality of the equipment being used and on the diminishment of the
signal due to distance, called path loss.

Calculating the link budget
The power available in an 802.11 system can be characterized by the follow-
ing factors:

• Transmit Power. It is expressed in milliwatts or in dBm. Transmit Power
ranges from 30mW to 200mW or more. TX power is often dependent on
the transmission rate. The TX power of a given device should be specified
in the literature provided by the manufacturer, but can sometimes be diffi-
cult to find. Online databases such as the one provided by SeattleWireless
(http://www.seattlewireless.net/HardwareComparison) may help.
• Antenna Gain. Antennas are passive devices that create the effect of am-
plification by virtue of their physical shape. Antennas have the same char-
acteristics when receiving and transmitting. So a 12 dBi antenna is simply


a 12 dBi antenna, without specifying if it is in transmission or reception
mode. Parabolic antennas have a gain of 19-24 dBi, omnidirectional an-
tennas have 5-12 dBi, sectorial antennas have roughly a 12-15 dBi gain.
• Minimum Received Signal Level, or simply, the sensitivity of the receiver.
The minimum RSL is always expressed as a negative dBm (- dBm) and is
the lowest power of signal the radio can distinguish. The minimum RSL is
dependent upon rate, and as a general rule the lowest rate (1 Mbps) has
the greatest sensitivity. The minimum will be typically in the range of -75 to
-95 dBm. Like TX power, the RSL specifications should be provided by the
manufacturer of the equipment.
• Cable Losses. Some of the signal s energy is lost in the cables, the con-
nectors and other devices, going from the radios to the antennas. The loss
depends on the type of cable used and on its length. Signal loss for short
coaxial cables including connectors is quite low, in the range of 2-3 dB. It is
better to have cables as short as possible.

When calculating the path loss, several effects must be considered. One has
to take into account the free space loss, attenuation and scattering. Sig-
nal power is diminished by geometric spreading of the wavefront, commonly
known as free space loss. Ignoring everything else, the further away the two
radios, the smaller the received signal is due to free space loss. This is inde-
pendent from the environment, depending only on the distance. This loss
happens because the radiated signal energy expands as a function of the
distance from the transmitter.

Using decibels to express the loss and using 2.45 GHz as the signal fre-
quency, the equation for the free space loss is

Lfsl = 40 + 20*log(r)

where Lfsl is expressed in dB and r is the distance between the transmitter
and receiver, in meters.

The second contribution to the path loss is given by attenuation. This takes
place as some of the signal power is absorbed when the wave passes
through solid objects such as trees, walls, windows and floors of buildings.
Attenuation can vary greatly depending upon the structure of the object the
signal is passing through, and it is very difficult to quantify. The most conven-
ient way to express its contribution to the total loss is by adding an “allowed
loss” to the free space. For example, experience shows that trees add 10 to
20 dB of loss per tree in the direct path, while walls contribute 10 to 15 dB
depending upon the construction.

Along the link path, the RF energy leaves the transmitting antenna and energy
spreads out. Some of the RF energy reaches the receiving antenna directly,


while some bounces off the ground. Part of the RF energy which bounces off
the ground reaches the receiving antenna. Since the reflected signal has a
longer way to travel, it arrives at the receiving antenna later than the direct sig-
nal. This effect is called multipath, or signal dispersion. In some cases re-
flected signals add together and cause no problem. When they add together
out of phase, the received signal is almost worthless. In some cases, the signal
at the receiving antenna can be zeroed by the reflected signals. This is known
as extreme fading, or nulling. There is a simple technique that is used to deal
with multipath, called antenna diversity. It consists of adding a second an-
tenna to the radio. Multipath is in fact a very location-specific phenomenon. If
two signals add out of phase at one location, they will not add destructively at a
second, nearby location. If there are two antennas, at least one of them should
be able to receive a usable signal, even if the other is receiving a distorted
one. In commercial devices, antenna switching diversity is used: there are mul-
tiple antennas on multiple inputs, with a single receiver. The signal is thus re-
ceived through only one antenna at a time. When transmitting, the radio uses
the antenna last used for reception. The distortion given by multipath degrades
the ability of the receiver to recover the signal in a manner much like signal
loss. A simple way of applying the effects of scattering in the calculation of the
path loss is to change the exponent of the distance factor of the free space
loss formula. The exponent tends to increase with the range in an environment
with a lot of scattering. An exponent of 3 can be used in an outdoor environ-
ment with trees, while one of 4 can be used for an indoor environment.

When free space loss, attenuation, and scattering are combined, the path loss is:

L(dB) = 40 + 10*n*log(r) + L(allowed)

For a rough estimate of the link feasibility, one can evaluate just the free
space loss. The environment can bring further signal loss, and should be
considered for an exact evaluation of the link. The environment is in fact a
very important factor, and should never be neglected.

To evaluate if a link is feasible, one must know the characteristics of the
equipment being used and evaluate the path loss. Note that when performing
this calculation, you should only add the TX power of one side of the link. If
you are using different radios on either side of the link, you should calculate the
path loss twice, once for each direction (using the appropriate TX power for
each calculation). Adding up all the gains and subtracting all the losses gives

TX Power Radio 1
+ Antenna Gain Radio 1
- Cable Losses Radio 1
+ Antenna Gain Radio 2
- Cable Losses Radio 2

= Total Gain


Subtracting the Path Loss from the Total Gain:

Total Gain
- Path Loss

= Signal Level at one side of the link

If the resulting signal level is greater than the minimum received signal level,
then the link is feasible! The received signal is powerful enough for the radios
to use it. Remember that the minimum RSL is always expressed as a nega-
tive dBm, so -56 dBm is greater than -70 dBm. On a given path, the variation
in path loss over a period of time can be large, so a certain margin (differ-
ence between the signal level and the minimum received signal level) should
be considered. This margin is the amount of signal above the sensitivity of
radio that should be received in order to ensure a stable, high quality radio
link during bad weather and other atmospheric disturbances. A margin of 10
to 15 dB is ﬁne. To give some space for attenuation and multipath in the re-
ceived radio signal, a margin of 20dB should be safe enough.

Once you have calculated the link budget in one direction, repeat the calcu-
lation for the other direction. Substitute the transmit power for that of the
second radio, and compare the result against the minimum received signal
level of the first radio.

Example link budget calculation
As an example, we want to estimate the feasibility of a 5 km link, with one
access point and one client radio. The access point is connected to an omni-
directional antenna with 10 dBi gain, while the client is connected to a secto-
rial antenna with 14 dBi gain. The transmitting power of the AP is 100mW (or
20 dBm) and its sensitivity is -89 dBm. The transmitting power of the client is
30mW (or 15 dBm) and its sensitivity is -82 dBm. The cables are short, with
a loss of 2dB at each side.

Adding up all the gains and subtracting all the losses for the AP to client link gives:

20 dBm (TX Power Radio 1)
+ 10 dBi (Antenna Gain Radio 1)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses Radio 1)

40 dB = Total Gain

The path loss for a 5 km link, considering only the free space loss is:


Path Loss = 40 + 20log(5000) = 113 dB

Subtracting the path loss from the total gain

40 dB - 113 dB = -73 dB

Since -73 dB is greater than the minimum receive sensitivity of the client ra-
dio (-82 dBm), the signal level is just enough for the client radio to be able to
hear the access point. There is only 9 dB of margin (82 dB - 73 dB) which will
likely work fine in fair weather, but may not be enough to protect against ex-
treme weather conditions.

Next we calculate the link from the client back to the access point:

15 dBm (TX Power Radio 2)

35 dB = Total Gain

Obviously, the path loss is the same on the return trip. So our received sig-
nal level on the access point side is:

35 dB - 113 dB = -78 dB

Since the receive sensitivity of the AP is -89dBm, this leaves us 11dB of fade
margin (89dB - 78dB). Overall, this link will probably work but could use a bit
more gain. By using a 24dBi dish on the client side rather than a 14dBi sec-
torial antenna, you will get an additional 10dBi of gain on both directions of
the link (remember, antenna gain is reciprocal). A more expensive option
would be to use higher power radios on both ends of the link, but note that
adding an amplifier or higher powered card to one end generally does not
help the overall quality of the link.

Online tools can be used to calculate the link budget. For example, the
Green Bay Professional Packet Radio s Wireless Network Link Analysis
(http://my.athenet.net/~multiplx/cgi-bin/wireless.main.cgi) is an excellent
tool. The Super Edition generates a PDF file containing the Fresnel zone and
radio path graphs. The calculation scripts can even be downloaded from the
website and installed locally.

The Terabeam website also has excellent calculators available online
(http://www.terabeam.com/support/calculations/index.php).


Tables for calculating link budget
To calculate the link budget, simply approximate your link distance, then ﬁll in
the following tables:

Free Space Path Loss at 2.4 GHz

Distance
100 500 1,000 3,000 5,000 10,000
(m)

Loss
80 94 100 110 113 120
(dB)

For more path loss distances, see Appendix C.

Antenna Gain:

Radio 1 Antenna + Radio 2 Antenna = Total Antenna Gain

Losses:

Radio 1 + Radio 2 + Free Space = Total Loss
Cable Loss (dB) Cable Loss (dB) Path Loss (dB) (dB)

Link Budget for Radio 1 Radio 2:

Radio 1 TX + Antenna > Radio 2
- Total Loss = Signal
Power Gain Sensitivity


Link Budget for Radio 2 Radio 1:

Radio 2 TX + Antenna > Radio 1
- Total Loss = Signal
Power Gain Sensitivity

If the received signal is greater than the minimum received signal strength in
both directions of the link, as well as any noise received along the path, then
the link is possible.

Link planning software
While calculating a link budget by hand is straightforward, there are a num-
ber of tools available that will help automate the process. In addition to cal-
culating free space loss, these tools will take many other relevant factors into
account as well (such as tree absorption, terrain effects, climate, and even
estimating path loss in urban areas). In this section, we will discuss two free
tools that are useful for planning wireless links: Green Bay Professional
Packet Radio s online interactive network design utilities, and RadioMobile.

Interactive design CGIs
The Green Bay Professional Packet Radio group (GBPRR) has made a vari-
ety of very useful link planning tools available for free online. You can
browse these tools online at http://www.qsl.net/n9zia/wireless/page09.html .
Since the tools are available online, they will work with any device that has a
web browser and Internet access.

We will look at the first tool, Wireless Network Link Analysis, in detail. You
can find it online at http://my.athenet.net/~multiplx/cgi-bin/wireless.main.cgi.

To begin, enter the channel to be used on the link. This can be specified in MHz
or GHz. If you don t know the frequency, consult the table in Appendix B. Note
that the table lists the channel s center frequency, while the tool asks for the
highest transmitted frequency. The difference in the ultimate result is mini-
mal, so feel free to use the center frequency instead. To find the highest
transmitted frequency for a channel, just add 11MHz to the center frequency.

Next, enter the details for the transmitter side of the link, including the trans-
mission line type, antenna gain, and other details. Try to fill in as much data
as you know or can estimate. You can also enter the antenna height and
elevation for this site. This data will be used for calculating the antenna tilt


angle. For calculating Fresnel zone clearance, you will need to use
GBPRR s Fresnel Zone Calculator.

The next section is very similar, but includes information about the other end
of the link. Enter all available data in the appropriate fields.

Finally, the last section describes the climate, terrain, and distance of the link.
Enter as much data as you know or can estimate. Link distance can be calcu-
lated by specifying the latitude and longitude of both sites, or entered by hand.

Now, click the Submit button for a detailed report about the proposed link.
This includes all of the data entered, as well as the projected path loss, error
rates, and uptime. These numbers are all completely theoretical, but will give
you a rough idea of the feasibility of the link. By adjusting values on the
form, you can play “what-if?” to see how changing various parameters will
affect the connection.

In addition to the basic link analysis tool, GBPRR provides a “super edition”
that will produce a PDF report, as well as a number of other very useful tools
(including the Fresnel Zone Calculator, Distance & Bearing Calculator, and
Decibel Conversion Calculator to name just a few). Source code to most of
the tools is provided as well.

RadioMobile
Radio Mobile is a tool for the design and simulation of wireless systems. It
predicts the performance of a radio link by using information about the
equipment and a digital map of the area. It is public domain software that
runs on Windows, or using Linux and the Wine emulator.

Radio Mobile uses a digital terrain elevation model for the calculation of
coverage, indicating received signal strength at various points along the path.
It automatically builds a profile between two points in the digital map showing
the coverage area and first Fresnel zone. During the simulation, it checks for
line of sight and calculates the Path Loss, including losses due to obstacles.
It is possible to create networks of different topologies, including net master/
slave, point-to-point, and point-to-multipoint. The software calculates the cov-
erage area from the base station in a point-to-multipoint system. It works for
systems having frequencies from 100 kHz to 200 GHz. Digital elevation
maps (DEM) are available for free from several sources, and are available for
most of the world. DEMs do not show coastlines or other readily identifiable
landmarks, but they can easily be combined with other kinds of data (such as
aerial photos or topographical charts) in several layers to obtain a more useful
and readily recognizable representation. You can digitize your own maps and
combine them with DEMs. The digital elevation maps can be merged with


scanned maps, satellite photos and Internet map services (such as Google
Maps) to produce accurate prediction plots.

Figure 3.20: Link feasibility, including Fresnel zone and line of sight estimate, using
RadioMobile.

The main Radio Mobile webpage, with examples and tutorials, is available at:
http://www.cplus.org/rmw/english1.html

RadioMobile under Linux
Radio Mobile will also work using Wine under Ubuntu Linux. While the appli-
cation runs, some button labels may run beyond the frame of the button and
can be hard to read.

We were able to make Radio Mobile work with Linux using the following envi-
ronment:

• IBM Thinkpad x31
• Ubuntu Breezy (v5.10), http://www.ubuntu.com/
• Wine version 20050725, from the Ubuntu Universe repository

There are detailed instructions for installing RadioMobile on Windows at
http://www.cplus.org/rmw/english1.html. You should follow all of the steps
except for step 1 (since it is difficult to extract a DLL from the
VBRUN60SP6.EXE file under Linux). You will either need to copy the
MSVBVM60.DLL file from a Windows machine that already has the Visual
Basic 6 run-time environment installed, or simply Google for
MSVBVM60.DLL, and download the file.

Now continue with step 2 at from the above URL, making sure to unzip the
downloaded files in the same directory into which you have placed the down-
loaded DLL file. Note that you don't have to worry about the stuff after step
4; these are extra steps only needed for Windows users.


Finally, you can start Wine from a terminal with the command:

# wine RMWDLX.exe

You should see RadioMobile running happily in your XWindows session.

Avoiding noise
The unlicensed ISM and U-NII bands represent a very tiny piece of the
known electromagnetic spectrum. Since this region can be utilized without
paying license fees, many consumer devices use it for a wide range of appli-
cations. Cordless phones, analog video senders, Bluetooth, baby monitors,
and even microwave ovens compete with wireless data networks for use of
the very limited 2.4 GHz band. These signals, as well as other local wireless
networks, can cause signiﬁcant problems for long range wireless links. Here
are some steps you can use to reduce reception of unwanted signals.

• Increase antenna gain on both sides of a point-to-point link. Antennas
not only add gain to a link, but their increased directionality tends to reject
noise from areas around the link. Two high gain dishes that are pointed at
each other will reject noise from directions that are outside the path of the
link. Using omnidirectional antennas will receive noise from all directions.
1
.1

.1
ch

ch

ch. 6
ch. 6
ch

ch
.1

.1
1

An omnidirectional antenna receives Multiple sectorial antennas help to mitigate noise
noise from all directions and add additional bandwidth

Figure 3.21: A single omnidirectional antenna vs. multiple sectorials.

• Use sectorials instead of using an omnidirectional. By making use of
several sectorial antennas, you can reduce the overall noise received at a
distribution point. By staggering the channels used on each sectorial, you
can also increase the available bandwidth to your clients.


• Don t use an amplifier. As we will see in Chapter 4, amplifiers can make
interference issues worse by indiscriminately amplifying all received sig-
nals, including sources of interference. Amplifiers also cause interference
problems for other nearby users of the band.
• Use the best available channel. Remember that 802.11b/g channels are
22 MHz wide, but are only separated by 5MHz. Perform a site survey, and
select a channel that is as far as possible from existing sources of interfer-
ence. Remember that the wireless landscape can change at any time as
people add new devices (cordless phones, other networks, etc.) If your
link suddenly has trouble sending packets, you may need to perform an-
other site survey and pick a different channel.
• Use smaller hops and repeaters, rather than a single long distance
shot. Keep your point-to-point links as short as possible. While it may be
possible to create a 12 km link that cuts across the middle of a city, you will
likely have all kinds of interference problems. If you can break that link into
two or three shorter hops, the link will likely be more stable. Obviously this
isn t possible on long distance rural links where power and mounting struc-
tures are unavailable, but noise problems are also unlikely in those settings.
• If possible, use 5.8 GHz, 900MHz, or another unlicensed band. While
this is only a short term solution, there is currently far more consumer
equipment installed in the field that uses 2.4 GHz. Using 802.11a or a
2.4 GHz to 5.8 GHz step-up device will let you avoid this congestion alto-
gether. If you can find it, some old 802.11 equipment uses unlicensed
spectrum at 900MHz (unfortunately at much lower bit rates). Other tech-
nologies, such as Ronja (http://ronja.twibright.com/) use optical technol-
ogy for short distance, noise-free links.
• If all else fails, use licensed spectrum. There are places where all
available unlicensed spectrum is effectively used. In these cases, it may
make sense to spend the additional money for proprietary equipment that
uses a less congested band. For long distance point-to-point links that
require very high throughput and maximum uptime, this is certainly an op-
tion. Of course, these features come at a much higher price tag compared
to unlicensed equipment.

To identify sources of noise, you need tools that will show you what is happening
in the air at 2.4 GHz. We will see some examples of these tools in Chapter 6.

Repeaters
The most critical component to building long distance network links is line of
sight (often abbreviated as LOS). Terrestrial microwave systems simply
cannot tolerate large hills, trees, or other obstacles in the path of a long dis-
tance link. You must have a clear idea of the lay of the land between two
points before you can determine if a link is even possible.


But even if there is a mountain between two points, remember that obstacles
can sometimes be turned into assets. Mountains may block your signal, but
assuming power can be provided they also make very good repeater sites.

Repeaters are nodes that are configured to rebroadcast traffic that is not des-
tined for the node itself. In a mesh network, every node is a repeater. In a
traditional infrastructure network, nodes must be configured to pass along
traffic to other nodes.

A repeater can use one or more wireless devices. When using a single radio
(called a one-arm repeater), overall efficiency is slightly less than half of the
available bandwidth, since the radio can either send or receive data, but
never both at once. These devices are cheaper, simpler, and have lower
power requirements. A repeater with two (or more) radio cards can operate
all radios at full capacity, as long as they are each configured to use non-
overlapping channels. Of course, repeaters can also supply an Ethernet
connection to provide local connectivity.

Repeaters can be purchased as a complete hardware solution, or easily assem-
bled by connecting two or more wireless nodes together with Ethernet cable.
When planning to use a repeater built with 802.11 technology, remember that
nodes must be configured for master, managed, or ad-hoc mode. Typically, both
radios in a repeater are configured for master mode, to allow multiple clients to
connect to either side of the repeater. But depending on your network layout,
one or more devices may need to use ad-hoc or even client mode.

Repeater

Figure 3.22: The repeater forwards packets over the air between nodes that have no
direct line of sight.
Typically, repeaters are used to overcome obstacles in the path of a long dis-
tance link. For example, there may be buildings in your path, but those build-
ings contain people. Arrangements can often be worked out with building
owners to provide bandwidth in exchange for roof rights and electricity. If the
building owner isn t interested, tenants on high floors may be able to be per-
suaded to install equipment in a window.

If you can t go over or through an obstacle, you can often go around it. Rather
than using a direct link, try a multi-hop approach to avoid the obstacle.


Repeater Repeater

Figure 3.23: No power was available at the top of the hill, but it was circumvented by
using multiple repeater sites around the base.
Finally, you may need to consider going backwards in order to go forwards.
If there is a high site available in a different direction, and that site can see
beyond the obstacle, a stable link can be made via an indirect route.

Repeater

C

A B D
Figure 3.24: Site D could not make a clean link to site A or B, since site C is in the
way and is not hosting a node. By installing a high repeater, nodes A, B, and D can
communicate with each other. Note that traffic from node D actually travels further
away from the rest of the network before the repeater forwards it along.

Repeaters in networks remind me of the “six degrees of separation” principle.
This idea says that no matter who you are looking for, you need only contact
five intermediaries before finding the person. Repeaters in high places can
“see” a great deal of intermediaries, and as long as your node is in range of
the repeater, you can communicate with any node the repeater can reach.

Traffic optimization
Bandwidth is measured as the amount of bits transmitted over a time interval.
This means that over time, bandwidth available on any link approaches infin-
ity. Unfortunately, for any given period of time, the bandwidth provided by
any given network connection is not infinite. You can always download (or
upload) as much traffic as you like; you need only wait long enough. Of
course, human users are not as patient as computers, and are not willing to


wait an infinite amount of time for their information to traverse the network.
For this reason, bandwidth must be managed and prioritized much like any
other limited resource.

You will significantly improve response time and maximize available through-
put by eliminating unwanted and redundant traffic from your network. This
section describes a few common techniques for making sure that your net-
work carries only the traffic that must traverse it. For a more thorough dis-
cussion of the complex subject of bandwidth optimization, see the free book
How to Accelerate Your Internet (http://bwmo.net/).

Web caching
A web proxy server is a server on the local network that keeps copies of re-
cently retrieved or often used web pages, or parts of pages. When the next
person retrieves these pages, they are served from the local proxy server
instead of from the Internet. This results in significantly faster web access in
most cases, while reducing overall Internet bandwidth usage. When a proxy
server is implemented, the administrator should also be aware that some
pages are not cacheable-- for example, pages that are the output of server-
side scripts, or other dynamically generated content.

The apparent loading of web pages is also affected. With a slow Internet
link, a typical page begins to load slowly, first showing some text and then
displaying the graphics one by one. In a network with a proxy server,
there could be a delay when nothing seems to happen, and then the page
will load almost at once. This happens because the information is sent to
the computer so quickly that it spends a perceptible amount of time ren-
dering the page. The overall time it takes to load the whole page might
take only ten seconds (whereas without a proxy server, it may take 30
seconds to load the page gradually). But unless this is explained to some
impatient users, they may say the proxy server has made things slower. It
is usually the task of the network administrator to deal with user percep-
tion issues like these.

Proxy server products
There are a number of web proxy servers available. These are the most
commonly used software packages:

• Squid. Open source Squid is the de facto standard at universities. It is
free, reliable, easy to use and can be enhanced (for example, adding con-
tent filtering and advertisement blocking). Squid produces logs that can be
analyzed using software such as Awstats, or Webalizer, both of which are
open source and produce good graphical reports. In most cases, it is eas-
ier to install as part of the distribution than to download it from


http://www.squid-cache.org/ (most Linux distributions such as Debian, as
well as other versions of Unix such as NetBSD and FreeBSD come with
Squid). A good Squid configuration guide can be found on the Squid Users
Guide Wiki at http://www.deckle.co.za/squid-users-guide/.
• Microsoft Proxy server 2.0. Not available for new installations because it
has been superseded by Microsoft ISA server and is no longer supported.
It is nonetheless used by some institutions, although it should perhaps not
be considered for new installations.
• Microsoft ISA server. ISA server is a very good proxy server program,
that is arguably too expensive for what it does. However, with academic
discounts it may be affordable to some institutions. It produces its own
graphical reports, but its log files can also be analyzed with popular
analyzer software such as Sawmill (http://www.sawmill.net/). Adminis-
trators at a site with MS ISA Server should spend sufficient time getting
the configuration right; otherwise MS ISA Server can itself be a consid-
erable bandwidth user. For example, a default installation can easily
consume more bandwidth than the site has used before, because popu-
lar pages with short expiry dates (such as news sites) are continually
being refreshed. Therefore it is important to get the pre-fetching settings
right, and to configure pre-fetching to take place mainly overnight. ISA
Server can also be tied to content filtering products such as WebSense.
For more information, see: http://www.microsoft.com/isaserver/ and
http://www.isaserver.org/ .

Preventing users from bypassing the proxy server
While circumventing Internet censorship and restrictive information access
policy may be a laudable political effort, proxies and firewalls are necessary
tools in areas with extremely limited bandwidth. Without them, the stability
and usability of the network are threatened by legitimate users themselves.
Te c h n i q u e s f o r b y p a s s i n g a p r o x y s e r v e r c a n b e f o u n d a t
http://www.antiproxy.com/ . This site is useful for administrators to see how
their network measures up against these techniques.

To enforce use of the caching proxy, you might consider simply setting up a
network access policy and trusting your users. In the layout below, the ad-
ministrator has to trust that his users will not bypass the proxy server.

In this case the administrator typically uses one of the following techniques:

• Not giving out the default gateway address through DCHP. This may
work for a while, but some network-savvy users who want to bypass the
proxy might find or guess the default gateway address. Once that hap-
pens, word tends to spread about how to bypass the proxy.


• Using domain or group policies. This is very useful for configuring the
correct proxy server settings for Internet Explorer on all computers in the
domain, but is not very useful for preventing the proxy from being by-
passed, because it depends on a user logging on to the NT domain. A user
with a Windows 95/98/ME computer can cancel his log-on and then bypass
the proxy, and someone who knows a local user password on his Windows
NT/2000/XP computer can log on locally and do the same.
• Begging and fighting with users. This approach, while common, is
never an optimal situation for a network administrator.

Internet

Router

PC PC PC Proxy Server

Figure 3.25: This network relies on trusted users to properly configure their PCs to
use the proxy server.

The only way to ensure that proxies cannot be bypassed is by using the cor-
rect network layout, by using one of the three techniques described below.

Firewall
A more reliable way to ensure that PCs don t bypass the proxy can be im-
plemented using the firewall. The firewall can be configured to allow only the
proxy server to make HTTP requests to the Internet. All other PCs are
blocked, as shown in Figure 3.26.

Relying on a firewall may or may not be sufficient, depending on how the
firewall is configured. If it only blocks access from the campus LAN to port 80
on web servers, there will be ways for clever users to find ways around it.
Additionally, they will be able to use other bandwidth hungry protocols such
as BitTorrent or Kazaa.


Internet
Proxy Server

Proxy server is
Direct access is granted full access
forbidden Firewall
by the firewall
x

PC PC PC

Figure 3.26: The ﬁrewall prevents PCs from accessing the Internet directly, but allows
access via the proxy server.

Two network cards
Perhaps the most reliable method is to install two network cards in the proxy
server and connect the campus network to the Internet as shown below. In
this way, the network layout makes it physically impossible to reach the
Internet without going through the proxy server.

Internet

Proxy server

Figure 3.27: The only route to the Internet is through the proxy.


The proxy server in this diagram should not have IP forwarding enabled, un-
less the administrators knows exactly what they want to let through.

One big advantage to this design is that a technique known as transparent
proxying can be used. Using a transparent proxy means that users web
requests are automatically forwarded to the proxy server, without any need to
manually configure web browsers to use it. This effectively forces all web
traffic to be cached, eliminates many chances for user error, and will even
work with devices that do not support use of a manual proxy. For more de-
tails about configuring a transparent proxy with Squid, see:

• http://www.squid-cache.org/Doc/FAQ/FAQ-17.html
• http://tldp.org/HOWTO/TransparentProxy.html

Policy-based routing
One way to prevent bypassing of the proxy using Cisco equipment is with
policy routing. The Cisco router transparently directs web requests to the
proxy server. This technique is used at Makerere University. The advantage
of this method is that, if the proxy server is down, the policy routes can be
temporarily removed, allowing clients to connect directly to the Internet.

Mirroring a website
With permission of the owner or web master of a site, the whole site can be
mirrored to a local server overnight, if it is not too large. This is something
that might be considered for important websites that are of particular interest
to the organization or that are very popular with web users. This may have
some use, but it has some potential pitfalls. For example, if the site that is
mirrored contains CGI scripts or other dynamic content that require interac-
tive input from the user, this would cause problems. An example is a website
that requires people to register online for a conference. If someone registers
online on a mirrored server (and the mirrored script works), the organizers of
the site will not have the information that the person registered.

Because mirroring a site may infringe copyright, this technique should only
be used with permission of the site concerned. If the site runs rsync, the site
could be mirrored using rsync. This is likely the fastest and most efficient
way to keep site contents synchronized. If the remote web server is not run-
ning rsync, the recommended software to use is a program called wget. It is
part of most versions of Unix/Linux. A Windows version can be found at
http://xoomer.virgilio.it/hherold/, or in the free Cygwin Unix tools package
(http://www.cygwin.com/).


A script can be set up to run every night on a local web server and do the
following:

• Change directory to the web server document root: for example, /var/
www/ on Unix, or C:Inetpubwwwroot on Windows.
• Mirror the website using the command:
wget --cache=off -m http://www.python.org

The mirrored website will be in a directory www.python.org. The web
server should now be configured to serve the contents of that directory as a
name-based virtual host. Set up the local DNS server to fake an entry for this
site. For this to work, client PCs should be configured to use the local DNS
server(s) as the primary DNS. (This is advisable in any case, because a local
caching DNS server speeds up web response times).

Pre-populate the cache using wget
Instead of setting up a mirrored website as described in the previous sec-
tion, a better approach is to populate the proxy cache using an automated
process. This method has been described by J. J. Eksteen and J. P. L. Clo-
ete of the CSIR in Pretoria, South Africa, in a paper entitled Enhancing
International World Wide Web Access in Mozambique Through the
Use of Mirroring and Caching Proxies. In this paper (available at
http://www.isoc.org/inet97/ans97/cloet.htm) they describe how the proc-
ess works:

"An automatic process retrieves the site's home page and a specified
number of extra pages (by recursively following HTML links on the re-
trieved pages) through the use of a proxy. Instead of writing the retrieved
pages onto the local disk, the mirror process discards the retrieved
pages. This is done in order to conserve system resources as well as to
avoid possible copyright conflicts. By using the proxy as intermediary,
the retrieved pages are guaranteed to be in the cache of the proxy as if a
client accessed that page. When a client accesses the retrieved page, it
is served from the cache and not over the congested international link.
This process can be run in off-peak times in order to maximize band-
width utilization and not to compete with other access activities."

The following command (scheduled to run at night once every day or week)
is all that is needed (repeated for every site that needs pre-populating).

wget --proxy-on --cache=off --delete after -m http://www.python.org

These options enable the following:


• -m: Mirrors the entire site. wget starts at www.python.org and follows all
hyperlinks, so it downloads all subpages.
• --proxy-on: Ensures that wget makes use of the proxy server. This might
not be needed in set-ups where a transparent proxy is employed.
• --cache=off: Ensures that fresh content is retrieved from the Internet, and
not from the local proxy server.
• --delete after: Deletes the mirrored copy. The mirrored content remains in
the proxy cache if there is sufficient disk space, and the proxy server cach-
ing parameters are set up correctly.

In addition, wget has many other options; for example, to supply a password
for websites that require them. When using this tool, Squid should be con-
figured with sufficient disk space to contain all the pre-populated sites and
more (for normal Squid usage involving pages other than the pre-populated
ones). Fortunately, disk space is becoming ever cheaper and disk sizes are
far larger than ever before. However, this technique can only be used with a
few selected sites. These sites should not be too big for the process to finish
before the working day starts, and an eye should be kept on disk space.

Cache hierarchies
When an organization has more than one proxy server, the proxies can share
cached information among them. For example, if a web page exists in server
A's cache, but not in the cache of server B, a user connected via server B
might get the cached object from server A via server B. Inter-Cache Proto-
col (ICP) and Cache Array Routing Protocol (CARP) can share cache in-
formation. CARP is considered the better protocol. Squid supports both pro-
tocols, and MS ISA Server supports CARP. For more information, see
http://squid-docs.sourceforge.net/latest/html/c2075.html. This sharing of
cached information reduces bandwidth usage in organizations where more
than one proxy is used.

Proxy specifications
On a university campus network, there should be more than one proxy
server, both for performance and also for redundancy reasons. With today's
cheaper and larger disks, powerful proxy servers can be built, with 50 GB or
more disk space allocated to the cache. Disk performance is important,
therefore the fastest SCSI disks would perform best (although an IDE based
cache is better than none at all). RAID or mirroring is not recommended.

It is also recommended that a separate disk be dedicated to the cache. For
example, one disk could be for the cache, and a second for the operating
system and cache logging. Squid is designed to use as much RAM as it can
get, because when data is retrieved from RAM it is much faster than when it


comes from the hard disk. For a campus network, RAM memory should be
1GB or more:

• Apart from the memory required for the operating system and other appli-
cations, Squid requires 10 MB of RAM for every 1 GB of disk cache. There-
fore, if there is 50 GB of disk space allocated to caching, Squid will require
500 MB extra memory.
• The machine would also require 128 MB for Linux and 128 MB for Xwindows.
• Another 256 MB should be added for other applications and in order that
everything can run easily. Nothing increases a machine's performance as
much as installing a large amount of memory, because this reduces the
need to use the hard disk. Memory is thousands of times faster than a hard
disk. Modern operating systems keep frequently accessed data in memory
if there is enough RAM available. But they use the page file as an extra
memory area when they don't have enough RAM.

DNS caching and optimization
Caching-only DNS servers are not authoritative for any domains, but rather
just cache results from queries asked of them by clients. Just like a proxy
server that caches popular web pages for a certain time, DNS addresses are
cached until their time to live (TTL) expires. This will reduce the amount of
DNS traffic on your Internet connection, as the DNS cache may be able to
satisfy many of the queries locally. Of course, client computers must be con-
figured to use the caching-only name server as their DNS server. When all
clients use this server as their primary DNS server, it will quickly populate a
cache of IP addresses to names, so that previously requested names can
quickly be resolved. DNS servers that are authoritative for a domain also act
as cache name-address mappings of hosts resolved by them.

Bind (named)
Bind is the de facto standard program used for name service on the Internet.
When Bind is installed and running, it will act as a caching server (no further
configuration is necessary). Bind can be installed from a package such as a
Debian package or an RPM. Installing from a package is usually the easiest
method. In Debian, type

apt-get install bind9

In addition to running a cache, Bind can also host authoritative zones, act as
a slave to authoritative zones, implement split horizon, and just about every-
thing else that is possible with DNS.


dnsmasq
One alternative caching DNS server is dnsmasq. It is available for BSD and
most Linux distributions, or from http://www.thekelleys.org.uk/dnsmasq/.
The big advantage of dnsmasq is flexibility: it easily acts as both a caching
DNS proxy and an authoritative source for hosts and domains, without com-
plicated zone file configuration. Updates can be made to zone data without
even restarting the service. It can also serve as a DHCP server, and will in-
tegrate DNS service with DHCP host requests. It is very lightweight, stable,
and extremely flexible. Bind is likely a better choice for very large networks
(more than a couple of hundred nodes), but the simplicity and flexibility of
dnsmasq makes it attractive for small to medium sized networks.

Windows NT
To install the DNS service on Windows NT4: select Control Panel Network
Services Add Microsoft DNS server. Insert the Windows NT4 CD
when prompted. Configuring a caching-only server in NT is described in
Knowledge Base article 167234. From the article:

"Simply install DNS and run the Domain Name System Manager. Click
on DNS in the menu, select New Server, and type in the IP address of
your computer where you have installed DNS. You now have a caching-
only DNS server."

Windows 2000
Install DNS service: Start Settings Control Panel Add/Remove Soft-
ware. In Add/Remove Windows Components, select Components Net-
working Services Details Domain Name System (DNS). Then start the
DNS MMC (Start Programs Administrative Tools DNS) From the Ac-
tion menu select "Connect To Computer..." In the Select Target Computer
window, enable "The following computer:" and enter the name of a DNS
server you want to cache. If there is a . [dot] in the DNS manager (this ap-
pears by default), this means that the DNS server thinks it is the root DNS
server of the Internet. It is certainly not. Delete the . [dot] for anything to work.

Split DNS and a mirrored server
The aim of split DNS (also known as split horizon) is to present a different
view of your domain to the inside and outside worlds. There is more than one
way to do split DNS; but for security reasons, it's recommended that you
have two separate internal and external content DNS servers (each with dif-
ferent databases).

Split DNS can enable clients from a campus network to resolve IP addresses
for the campus domain to local RFC1918 IP addresses, while the rest of the


Internet resolves the same names to different IP addresses. This is achieved
by having two zones on two different DNS servers for the same domain.

One of the zones is used by internal network clients and the other by users
on the Internet. For example, in the network below the user on the Makerere
campus gets http://www.makerere.ac.ug/ resolved to 172.16.16.21, whereas
a user elsewhere on the Internet gets it resolved to 195.171.16.13.

The DNS server on the campus in the above diagram has a zone file for
makerere.ac.ug and is configured as if it is authoritative for that domain. In
addition, it serves as the DNS caching server for the Makerere campus, and
all computers on the campus are configured to use it as their DNS server.

The DNS records for the campus DNS server would look like this:

makerere.ac.ug
www CNAME webserver.makerere.ac.ug
ftp CNAME ftpserver.makerere.ac.ug
mail CNAME exchange.makerere.ac.ug
mailserver A 172.16.16.21
webserver A 172.16.16.21
ftpserver A 172.16.16.21

But there is another DNS server on the Internet that is actually authoritative
for the makerere.ac.ug domain. The DNS records for this external zone
would look like this:

makerere.ac.ug
www A 195.171.16.13
ftp A 195.171.16.13
mail A 16.132.33.21
MX mail.makerere.ac.ug

Split DNS is not dependent on using RFC 1918 addresses. An African ISP
might, for example, host websites on behalf of a university but also mirror
those same websites in Europe. Whenever clients of that ISP access the
website, it gets the IP address at the African ISP, and so the traffic stays in
the same country. When visitors from other countries access that website,
they get the IP address of the mirrored web server in Europe. In this way,
international visitors do not congest the ISP's VSAT connection when visiting
the university's website. This is becoming an attractive solution, as web host-
ing close to the Internet backbone has become very cheap.

Internet link optimization
As mentioned earlier, network throughput of up to 22 Mbps can be achieved
by using standard, unlicensed 802.11g wireless gear. This amount of band-
width will likely be at least an order of magnitude higher than that provided by


your Internet link, and should be able to comfortably support many simulta-
neous Internet users.

But if your primary Internet connection is through a VSAT link, you will en-
counter some performance issues if you rely on default TCP/IP parameters.
By optimizing your VSAT link, you can signiﬁcantly improve response times
when accessing Internet hosts.

TCP/IP factors over a satellite connection
A VSAT is often referred to as a long fat pipe network. This term refers to
factors that affect TCP/IP performance on any network that has relatively
large bandwidth, but high latency. Most Internet connections in Africa and
other parts of the developing world are via VSAT. Therefore, even if a uni-
versity gets its connection via an ISP, this section might apply if the ISP's
connection is via VSAT. The high latency in satellite networks is due to the
long distance to the satellite and the constant speed of light. This distance
adds about 520 ms to a packet s round-trip time (RTT), compared to a typical
RTT between Europe and the USA of about 140 ms.
s

35
t er

,00
me

0K
ilo
0K

ilo
me
,00

t er
35

s

Thousands of Kilometers

Figure 3.28: Due to the speed of light and long distances involved, a single ping
packet can take more than 520 ms to be acknowledged over a VSAT link.

The factors that most signiﬁcantly impact TCP/IP performance are long RTT,
large bandwidth delay product, and transmission errors.

Generally speaking, operating systems that support modern TCP/IP imple-
mentations should be used in a satellite network. These implementations
support the RFC 1323 extensions:


• The window scale option for supporting large TCP window sizes (larger
than 64KB).
• Selective acknowledgment (SACK) to enable faster recovery from
transmission errors.
• Timestamps for calculating appropriate RTT and retransmission timeout
values for the link in use.

Long round-trip time (RTT)
Satellite links have an average RTT of around 520ms to the first hop. TCP
uses the slow-start mechanism at the start of a connection to find the appro-
priate TCP/IP parameters for that connection. Time spent in the slow-start
stage is proportional to the RTT, and for a satellite link it means that TCP
stays in slow-start mode for a longer time than would otherwise be the case.
This drastically decreases the throughput of short-duration TCP connections.
This is can be seen in the way that a small website might take surprisingly
long to load, but when a large file is transferred acceptable data rates are
achieved after a while.

Furthermore, when packets are lost, TCP enters the congestion-control phase,
and owing to the higher RTT, remains in this phase for a longer time, thus re-
ducing the throughput of both short- and long-duration TCP connections.

Large bandwidth-delay product
The amount of data in transit on a link at any point of time is the product of
bandwidth and the RTT. Because of the high latency of the satellite link, the
bandwidth-delay product is large. TCP/IP allows the remote host to send a cer-
tain amount of data in advance without acknowledgment. An acknowledgment is
usually required for all incoming data on a TCP/IP connection. However, the re-
mote host is always allowed to send a certain amount of data without acknowl-
edgment, which is important to achieve a good transfer rate on large bandwidth-
delay product connections. This amount of data is called the TCP window size.
The window size is usually 64KB in modern TCP/IP implementations.

On satellite networks, the value of the bandwidth-delay product is important. To
utilize the link fully, the window size of the connection should be equal to the
bandwidth-delay product. If the largest window size allowed is 64KB, the maxi-
mum theoretical throughput achievable via satellite is (window size) / RTT, or
64KB / 520 ms. This gives a maximum data rate of 123 KB/s, which is 984 kbps,
regardless of the fact that the capacity of the link may be much greater.

Each TCP segment header contains a field called advertised window,
which specifies how many additional bytes of data the receiver is prepared to
accept. The advertised window is the receiver's current available buffer size.


The sender is not allowed to send more bytes than the advertised window. To
maximize performance, the sender should set its send buffer size and the
receiver should set its receive buffer size to no less than the bandwidth-delay
product. This buffer size has a maximum value of 64KB in most modern
TCP/IP implementations.

To overcome the problem of TCP/IP stacks from operating systems that don't
increase the window size beyond 64KB, a technique known as TCP acknowl-
edgment spoofing can be used (see Performance Enhancing Proxy, below).

Transmission errors
In older TCP/IP implementations, packet loss is always considered to have
been caused by congestion (as opposed to link errors). When this happens,
TCP performs congestion avoidance, requiring three duplicate ACKs or slow
start in the case of a timeout. Because of the long RTT value, once this
congestion-control phase is started, TCP/IP on satellite links will take a
longer time to return to the previous throughput level. Therefore errors on a
satellite link have a more serious effect on the performance of TCP than over
low latency links. To overcome this limitation, mechanisms such as Selective
Acknowledgment (SACK) have been developed. SACK specifies exactly
those packets that have been received, allowing the sender to retransmit
only those segments that are missing because of link errors.

The Microsoft Windows 2000 TCP/IP Implementation Details White Paper states

"Windows 2000 introduces support for an important performance fea-
ture known as Selective Acknowledgment (SACK). SACK is especially
important for connections using large TCP window sizes."

SACK has been a standard feature in Linux and BSD kernels for quite some time.
Be sure that your Internet router and your ISP s remote side both support SACK.

Implications for universities
If a site has a 512 kbps connection to the Internet, the default TCP/IP set-
tings are likely sufficient, because a 64 KB window size can fill up to
984 kbps. But if the university has more than 984 kbps, it might in some
cases not get the full bandwidth of the available link due to the "long fat pipe
network" factors discussed above. What these factors really imply is that they
prevent a single machine from filling the entire bandwidth. This is not a bad
thing during the day, because many people are using the bandwidth. But if,
for example, there are large scheduled downloads at night, the administrator
might want those downloads to make use of the full bandwidth, and the "long
fat pipe network" factors might be an obstacle. This may also become critical


if a significant amount of your network traffic routes through a single tunnel or
VPN connection to the other end of the VSAT link.

Administrators might consider taking steps to ensure that the full bandwidth
can be achieved by tuning their TCP/IP settings. If a university has imple-
mented a network where all traffic has to go through the proxy (enforced by
network layout), then the only machines that make connections to the Inter-
net will be the proxy and mail servers.

For more information, see http://www.psc.edu/networking/perf_tune.html .

Performance-enhancing proxy (PEP)
The idea of a Performance-enhancing proxy is described in RFC 3135 (see
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3135), and would be a proxy server with a large
disk cache that has RFC 1323 extensions, among other features. A laptop
has a TCP session with the PEP at the ISP. That PEP, and the one at the
satellite provider, communicate using a different TCP session or even their
own proprietary protocol. The PEP at the satellite provider gets the files from
the web server. In this way, the TCP session is split, and thus the link charac-
teristics that affect protocol performance (long fat pipe factors) are overcome
(by TCP acknowledgment spoofing, for example). Additionally, the PEP
makes use of proxying and pre-fetching to accelerate web access further.

Such a system can be built from scratch using Squid, for example, or pur-
chased "off the shelf" from a number of vendors.

More information
While bandwidth optimization is a complex and often difficult subject, the
techniques in this chapter should help reduce obvious sources of wasted
bandwidth. To make the best possible use of available bandwidth, you will
need to define a good access policy, set up comprehensive monitoring and
analysis tools, and implement a network architecture that enforces desired
usage limits.

For more information about bandwidth optimization, see the free book How
to Accelerate Your Internet (http://bwmo.net/).

4
Antennas & Transmission
Lines

The transmitter that generates the RF1 power to drive the antenna is usually
located at some distance from the antenna terminals. The connecting link
between the two is the RF transmission line. Its purpose is to carry RF
power from one place to another, and to do this as efﬁciently as possible.
From the receiver side, the antenna is responsible for picking up any radio
signals in the air and passing them to the receiver with the minimum amount
of distortion, so that the radio has its best chance to decode the signal. For
these reasons, the RF cable has a very important role in radio systems: it
must maintain the integrity of the signals in both directions.

There are two main categories of transmission lines: cables and waveguides.
Both types work well for efﬁciently carrying RF power at 2.4 GHz.

Cables
RF cables are, for frequencies higher than HF, almost exclusively coaxial
cables (or coax for short, derived from the words “of common axis”). Coax
cables have a core conductor wire surrounded by a non-conductive material
called dielectric, or simply insulation. The dielectric is then surrounded by
an encompassing shielding which is often made of braided wires. The di-
electric prevents an electrical connection between the core and the shielding.
Finally, the coax is protected by an outer casing which is generally made

1. Radio Frequency. See chapter two for discussion of electromagnetic waves.

95

96 Chapter 4: Antennas & Transmission Lines

from a PVC material. The inner conductor carries the RF signal, and the
outer shield prevents the RF signal from radiating to the atmosphere, and
also prevents outside signals from interfering with the signal carried by the
core. Another interesting fact is that high frequency electrical signal always
travels along the outer layer of a conductor: the larger the central conductor,
the better signal will flow. This is called the “skin effect”.

Outer Jacket

Shield

Dielectric

Conductor

Figure 4.1: Coaxial cable with jacket, shield, dielectric, and core conductor.

Even though the coaxial construction is good at containing the signal on the
core wire, there is some resistance to the electrical flow: as the signal travels
down the core, it will fade away. This fading is known as attenuation, and for
transmission lines it is measured in decibels per meter (dB/m). The rate of
attenuation is a function of the signal frequency and the physical construction
of the cable itself. As the signal frequency increases, so does its attenuation.
Obviously, we need to minimize the cable attenuation as much as possible
by keeping the cable very short and using high quality cables.

Here are some points to consider when choosing a cable for use with micro-
wave devices:

1. “The shorter the better!” The first rule when you install a piece of cable is
to try to keep it as short as possible. The power loss is not linear, so
doubling the cable length means that you are going to lose much more
than twice the power. In the same way, reducing the cable length by half
gives you more than twice the power at the antenna. The best solution is
to place the transmitter as close as possible to the antenna, even when
this means placing it on a tower.
2. “The cheaper the worse!” The second golden rule is that any money you
invest in buying a good quality cable is a bargain. Cheap cables are
intended to be used at low frequencies, such as VHF. Microwaves re-
quire the highest quality cables available. All other options are nothing
but a dummy load 2.

2. A dummy load is a device that dissipates RF energy without radiating it. Think of it as a heat
sink that works at radio frequencies.

Chapter 4: Antennas & Transmission Lines 97

3. Always avoid RG-58. It is intended for thin Ethernet networking, CB or
VHF radio, not for microwave.
4. Always avoid RG-213. It is intended for CB and HF radio. In this case the
cable diameter does not imply a high quality, or low attenuation.
5. Whenever possible, use Heliax (also called “Foam”) cables for connect-
ing the transmitter to the antenna. When Heliax is unavailable, use the
best rated LMR cable you can find. Heliax cables have a solid or tubular
center conductor with a corrugated solid outer conductor to enable them
to flex. Heliax can be built in two ways, using either air or foam as a di-
electric. Air dielectric Heliax is the most expensive and guarantees the
minimum loss, but it is very difficult to handle. Foam dielectric Heliax is
slightly more lossy, but is less expensive and easier to install. A special
procedure is required when soldering connectors in order to keep the
foam dielectric dry and uncorrupted. LMR is a brand of coax cable avail-
able in various diameters that works well at microwave frequencies.
LMR-400 and LMR-600 are a commonly used alternative to Heliax.
6. Whenever possible, use cables that are pre-crimped and tested in a
proper lab. Installing connectors to cable is a tricky business, and is dif-
ficult to do properly even with the proper tools. Unless you have access
to equipment that can verify a cable you make yourself (such as a spec-
trum analyzer and signal generator, or time domain reflectometer), trou-
bleshooting a network that uses homemade cable can be difficult.
7. Don t abuse your transmission line. Never step over a cable, bend it too
much, or try to unplug a connector by pulling directly the cable. All of
those behaviors may change the mechanical characteristic of the cable
and therefore its impedance, short the inner conductor to the shield, or
even break the line. Those problems are difficult to track and recognize
and can lead to unpredictable behavior on the radio link.

Waveguides
Above 2 GHz, the wavelength is short enough to allow practical, efficient en-
ergy transfer by different means. A waveguide is a conducting tube through
which energy is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. The tube
acts as a boundary that confines the waves in the enclosed space. The
Faraday cage effect prevents electromagnetic effects from being evident out-
side the guide. The electromagnetic fields are propagated through the
waveguide by means of reflections against its inner walls, which are consid-
ered perfect conductors. The intensity of the fields is greatest at the center
along the X dimension, and must diminish to zero at the end walls because
the existence of any field parallel to the walls at the surface would cause an
infinite current to flow in a perfect conductor. Waveguides, of course, cannot
carry RF in this fashion.


The X, Y and Z dimensions of a rectangular waveguide can be seen in the
following figure:

Y

Z
X

Figure 4.2: The X, Y, and Z dimensions of a rectangular waveguide.

There are an infinite number of ways in which the electric and magnetic fields
can arrange themselves in a waveguide for frequencies above the low cutoff
frequency. Each of these field configurations is called a mode. The modes
may be separated into two general groups. One group, designated TM
(Transverse Magnetic), has the magnetic field entirely transverse to the di-
rection of propagation, but has a component of the electric field in the direc-
tion of propagation. The other type, designated TE (Transverse Electric) has
the electric field entirely transverse, but has a component of magnetic field in
the direction of propagation.

The mode of propagation is identified by the group letters followed by two
subscript numerals. For example, TE 10, TM 11, etc. The number of possi-
ble modes increases with the frequency for a given size of guide, and there
is only one possible mode, called the dominant mode, for the lowest fre-
quency that can be transmitted. In a rectangular guide, the critical dimen-
sion is X. This dimension must be more than 0.5 at the lowest frequency
to be transmitted. In practice, the Y dimension usually is made about equal
to 0.5 X to avoid the possibility of operation in other than the dominant
mode. Cross-sectional shapes other than the rectangle can be used, the
most important being the circular pipe. Much the same considerations apply
as in the rectangular case. Wavelength dimensions for rectangular and cir-
cular guides are given in the following table, where X is the width of a rec-
tangular guide and r is the radius of a circular guide. All figures apply to the
dominant mode.


Type of guide Rectangular Circular

Cutoff wavelength 2X 3.41r

Longest wavelength
transmitted with little 1.6X 3.2r
attenuation

Shortest wavelength
before next mode 1.1X 2.8r
becomes possible

Energy may be introduced into or extracted from a waveguide by means of
either an electric or magnetic field. The energy transfer typically happens
through a coaxial line. Two possible methods for coupling to a coaxial line
are using the inner conductor of the coaxial line, or through a loop. A probe
which is simply a short extension of the inner conductor of the coaxial line
can be oriented so that it is parallel to the electric lines of force. A loop can
be arranged so that it encloses some of the magnetic lines of force. The point
at which maximum coupling is obtained depends upon the mode of propaga-
tion in the guide or cavity. Coupling is maximum when the coupling device is
in the most intense field.

If a waveguide is left open at one end, it will radiate energy (that is, it can be
used as an antenna rather than as a transmission line). This radiation can be
enhanced by flaring the waveguide to form a pyramidal horn antenna. We will
see an example of a practical waveguide antenna for WiFi later in this chap-
ter.

Cable Type Core Dielectric Shield Jacket

RG-58 0.9 mm 2.95 mm 3.8 mm 4.95 mm

RG-213 2.26 mm 7.24 mm 8.64 mm 10.29 mm

LMR-400 2.74 mm 7.24 mm 8.13 mm 10.29 mm

3/8” LDF 3.1 mm 8.12 mm 9.7 mm 11 mm

Here is a table contrasting the sizes of various common transmission lines.
Choose the best cable you can afford with the lowest possible attenuation at
the frequency you intend to use for your wireless link.


Connectors and adapters
Connectors allow a cable to be connected to another cable or to a compo-
nent of the RF chain. There are a wide variety of ﬁttings and connectors de-
signed to go with various sizes and types of coaxial lines. We will describe
some of the most popular ones.

BNC connectors were developed in the late 40s. BNC stands for Bayonet
Neill Concelman, named after the men who invented it: Paul Neill and Carl
Concelman. The BNC product line is a miniature quick connect / disconnect
connector. It features two bayonet lugs on the female connector, and mating
is achieved with only a quarter turn of the coupling nut. BNC's are ideally
suited for cable termination for miniature to subminiature coaxial cable (RG-
58 to RG-179, RG-316, etc.) They have acceptable performance up to few
GHz. They are most commonly found on test equipment and 10base2 coax-
ial Ethernet cables.

TNC connectors were also invented by Neill and Concelman, and are a
threaded variation of the BNC. Due to the better interconnect provided by
the threaded connector, TNC connectors work well through about 12 GHz.
TNC stands for Threaded Neill Concelman.

Type N (again for Neill, although sometimes attributed to “Navy”) connectors
were originally developed during the Second World War. They are usable up
to 18 Ghz, and very commonly used for microwave applications. They are
available for almost all types of cable. Both the plug / cable and plug / socket
joints are waterproof, providing an effective cable clamp.

SMA is an acronym for SubMiniature version A, and was developed in the
60s. SMA connectors are precision, subminiature units that provide excellent
electrical performance up to 18 GHz. These high-performance connectors
are compact in size and mechanically have outstanding durability.

The SMB name derives from SubMiniature B, and it is the second subminia-
ture design. The SMB is a smaller version of the SMA with snap-on coupling.
It provides broadband capability through 4 GHz with a snap-on connector
design.

MCX connectors were introduced in the 80s. While the MCX uses identical
inner contact and insulator dimensions as the SMB, the outer diameter of the
plug is 30% smaller than the SMB. This series provides designers with op-
tions where weight and physical space are limited. MCX provides broadband
capability though 6 GHz with a snap-on connector design.


In addition to these standard connectors, most WiFi devices use a variety of
proprietary connectors. Often, these are simply standard microwave con-
nectors with the center conductor parts reversed, or the thread cut in the op-
posite direction. These parts are often integrated into a microwave system
using a short jumper called a pigtail that converts the non-standard connec-
tor into something more robust and commonly available. Some of these
connectors include:

RP-TNC. This is a TNC connector with the genders reversed. These are
most commonly found on Linksys equipment, such as the WRT54G.

U.FL (also known as MHF). The U.FL is a patented connector made by Hi-
rose, while the MHF is a mechanically equivalent connector. This is possibly
the smallest microwave connector currently in wide use. The U.FL / MHF is
typically used to connect a mini-PCI radio card to an antenna or larger con-
nector (such as an N or TNC).

The MMCX series, which is also called a MicroMate, is one of the smallest
RF connector line and was developed in the 90s. MMCX is a micro-miniature
connector series with a lock-snap mechanism allowing for 360 degrees rota-
tion enabling ﬂexibility. MMCX connectors are commonly found on PCMCIA
radio cards, such as those manufactured by Senao and Cisco.

MC-Card connectors are even smaller and more fragile than MMCX. They
have a split outer connector that breaks easily after just a few interconnects.
These are commonly found on Lucent / Orinoco / Avaya equipment.

Adapters, which are also called coaxial adapters, are short, two-sided connec-
tors which are used to join two cables or components which cannot be con-
nected directly. Adapters can be used to interconnect devices or cables with
different types. For example, an adapter can be used to connect an SMA con-
nector to a BNC. Adapters may also be used to fit together connectors of the
same type, but which cannot be directly joined because of their gender.

Figure 4.3: An N female barrel adapter.
For example a very useful adapter is the one which enables to join two Type
N connectors, having socket (female) connectors on both sides.


Choosing the proper connector
1. “The gender question.” Virtually all connectors have a well defined gen-
der consisting of either a pin (the “male” end) or a socket (the “female”
end). Usually cables have male connectors on both ends, while RF de-
vices (i.e. transmitters and antennas) have female connectors. Devices
such as directional couplers and line-through measuring devices may
have both male and female connectors. Be sure that every male con-
nector in your system mates with a female connector.
2. “Less is best!” Try to minimize the number of connectors and adapters in
the RF chain. Each connector introduces some additional loss (up to a
few dB for each connection, depending on the connector!)
3. “Buy, don t build!” As mentioned earlier, buy cables that are already ter-
minated with the connectors you need whenever possible. Soldering
connectors is not an easy task, and to do this job properly is almost im-
possible for small connectors as U.FL and MMCX. Even terminating
“Foam” cables is not an easy task.
4. Don t use BNC for 2.4 GHz or higher. Use N type connectors (or SMA,
SMB, TNC, etc.)
5. Microwave connectors are precision-made parts, and can be easily
damaged by mistreatment. As a general rule, you should rotate the outer
sleeve to tighten the connector, leaving the rest of the connector (and
cable) stationary. If other parts of the connector are twisted while tighten-
ing or loosening, damage can easily occur.
6. Never step over connectors, or drop connectors on the floor when dis-
connecting cables (this happens more often than what you may imagine,
especially when working on a mast over a roof).
7. Never use tools like pliers to tighten connectors. Always use your hands.
When working outside, remember that metals expand at high tempera-
tures and reduce their size at low temperatures: a very tightened connec-
tor in the summer can bind or even break in winter.

Antennas & radiation patterns
Antennas are a very important component of communication systems. By
definition, an antenna is a device used to transform an RF signal traveling on
a conductor into an electromagnetic wave in free space. Antennas demon-
strate a property known as reciprocity, which means that an antenna will
maintain the same characteristics regardless if whether it is transmitting or
receiving. Most antennas are resonant devices, which operate efficiently
over a relatively narrow frequency band. An antenna must be tuned to the
same frequency band of the radio system to which it is connected, otherwise


the reception and the transmission will be impaired. When a signal is fed into
an antenna, the antenna will emit radiation distributed in space in a certain
way. A graphical representation of the relative distribution of the radiated
power in space is called a radiation pattern.

Antenna term glossary
Before we talk about specific antennas, there are a few common terms that
must be defined and explained:

Input Impedance
For an efficient transfer of energy, the impedance of the radio, antenna, and
transmission cable connecting them must be the same. Transceivers and
their transmission lines are typically designed for 50 impedance. If the an-
tenna has an impedance different than 50 , then there is a mismatch and an
impedance matching circuit is required. When any of these components are
mismatched, transmission efficiency suffers.

Return loss
Return loss is another way of expressing mismatch. It is a logarithmic ratio
measured in dB that compares the power reflected by the antenna to the
power that is fed into the antenna from the transmission line. The relation-
ship between SWR and return loss is the following:

SWR
Return Loss (in dB) = 20log10
SWR-1

While some energy will always be reflected back into the system, a high re-
turn loss will yield unacceptable antenna performance.

Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna refers to the range of frequencies over which
the antenna can operate correctly. The antenna's bandwidth is the number of
Hz for which the antenna will exhibit an SWR less than 2:1.

The bandwidth can also be described in terms of percentage of the center
frequency of the band.

F H - FL
Bandwidth = 100
FC


...where FH is the highest frequency in the band, FL is the lowest frequency in
the band, and FC is the center frequency in the band.

In this way, bandwidth is constant relative to frequency. If bandwidth was ex-
pressed in absolute units of frequency, it would be different depending upon the
center frequency. Different types of antennas have different bandwidth limitations.

Directivity and Gain
Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular direction
when transmitting, or to receive energy from a particular direction when re-
ceiving. If a wireless link uses fixed locations for both ends, it is possible to
use antenna directivity to concentrate the radiation beam in the wanted direc-
tion. In a mobile application where the transceiver is not fixed, it may be im-
possible to predict where the transceiver will be, and so the antenna should
ideally radiate as well as possible in all directions. An omnidirectional an-
tenna is used in these applications.

Gain is not a quantity which can be defined in terms of a physical quantity
such as the Watt or the Ohm, but it is a dimensionless ratio. Gain is given in
reference to a standard antenna. The two most common reference antennas
are the isotropic antenna and the resonant half-wave dipole antenna.
The isotropic antenna radiates equally well in all directions. Real isotropic
antennas do not exist, but they provide useful and simple theoretical antenna
patterns with which to compare real antennas. Any real antenna will radiate
more energy in some directions than in others. Since antennas cannot create
energy, the total power radiated is the same as an isotropic antenna. Any
additional energy radiated in the directions it favors is offset by equally less
energy radiated in all other directions.

The gain of an antenna in a given direction is the amount of energy radiated
in that direction compared to the energy an isotropic antenna would radiate in
the same direction when driven with the same input power. Usually we are
only interested in the maximum gain, which is the gain in the direction in
which the antenna is radiating most of the power. An antenna gain of 3 dB
compared to an isotropic antenna would be written as 3 dBi. The resonant
half-wave dipole can be a useful standard for comparing to other antennas at
one frequency or over a very narrow band of frequencies. To compare the
dipole to an antenna over a range of frequencies requires a number of di-
poles of different lengths. An antenna gain of 3 dB compared to a dipole an-
tenna would be written as 3 dBd.

The method of measuring gain by comparing the antenna under test against a
known standard antenna, which has a calibrated gain, is technically known as
a gain transfer technique. Another method for measuring gain is the 3 anten-


nas method, where the transmitted and received power at the antenna termi-
nals is measured between three arbitrary antennas at a known fixed distance.

Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern or antenna pattern describes the relative strength of
the radiated field in various directions from the antenna, at a constant dis-
tance. The radiation pattern is a reception pattern as well, since it also de-
scribes the receiving properties of the antenna. The radiation pattern is three-
dimensional, but usually the measured radiation patterns are a two-
dimensional slice of the three-dimensional pattern, in the horizontal or verti-
cal planes. These pattern measurements are presented in either a rectangu-
lar or a polar format. The following figure shows a rectangular plot presenta-
tion of a typical ten-element Yagi. The detail is good but it is difficult to visual-
ize the antenna behavior in different directions.

dB
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-180° -140° -100° -60° -20° 20° 60° 100° 140° 180°

Figure 4.4: A rectangular plot of a yagi radiation pattern.

Polar coordinate systems are used almost universally. In the polar-coordinate
graph, points are located by projection along a rotating axis (radius) to an
intersection with one of several concentric circles. The following is a polar
plot of the same 10 element Yagi antenna.

Polar coordinate systems may be divided generally in two classes: linear
and logarithmic. In the linear coordinate system, the concentric circles are
equally spaced, and are graduated. Such a grid may be used to prepare a
linear plot of the power contained in the signal. For ease of comparison, the
equally spaced concentric circles may be replaced with appropriately placed
circles representing the decibel response, referenced to 0 dB at the outer
edge of the plot. In this kind of plot the minor lobes are suppressed. Lobes
with peaks more than 15 dB or so below the main lobe disappear because of
their small size. This grid enhances plots in which the antenna has a high
directivity and small minor lobes. The voltage of the signal, rather than the
power, can also be plotted on a linear coordinate system. In this case, too,


the directivity is enhanced and the minor lobes suppressed, but not in the
same degree as in the linear power grid.

0°

270° 90°

180°

Figure 4.5: A linear polar plot of the same yagi.

In the logarithmic polar coordinate system the concentric grid lines are
spaced periodically according to the logarithm of the voltage in the signal.
Different values may be used for the logarithmic constant of periodicity, and
this choice will have an effect on the appearance of the plotted patterns.
Generally the 0 dB reference for the outer edge of the chart is used. With this
type of grid, lobes that are 30 or 40 dB below the main lobe are still distin-
guishable. The spacing between points at 0 dB and at -3 dB is greater than
the spacing between -20 dB and -23 dB, which is greater than the spacing
between -50 dB and -53 dB. The spacing thus correspond to the relative sig-
nificance of such changes in antenna performance.

A modified logarithmic scale emphasizes the shape of the major beam while
compressing very low-level (>30 dB) sidelobes towards the center of the pattern.
This is shown in Figure 4.6.

There are two kinds of radiation pattern: absolute and relative. Absolute
radiation patterns are presented in absolute units of field strength or power.
Relative radiation patterns are referenced in relative units of field strength or
power. Most radiation pattern measurements are relative to the isotropic an-
tenna, and the gain transfer method is then used to establish the absolute
gain of the antenna.


0°

270° 90°

180°

Figure 4.6: The logarithmic polar plot

The radiation pattern in the region close to the antenna is not the same as
the pattern at large distances. The term near-field refers to the field pattern
that exists close to the antenna, while the term far-field refers to the field pat-
tern at large distances. The far-field is also called the radiation field, and is
what is most commonly of interest. Ordinarily, it is the radiated power that is
of interest, and so antenna patterns are usually measured in the far-field re-
gion. For pattern measurement it is important to choose a distance suffi-
ciently large to be in the far-field, well out of the near-field. The minimum
permissible distance depends on the dimensions of the antenna in relation to
the wavelength. The accepted formula for this distance is:

2d2
rmin =

where rmin is the minimum distance from the antenna, d is the largest dimen-
sion of the antenna, and is the wavelength.

Beamwidth
An antenna's beamwidth is usually understood to mean the half-power
beamwidth. The peak radiation intensity is found, and then the points on ei-
ther side of the peak which represent half the power of the peak intensity are
located. The angular distance between the half power points is defined as
the beamwidth. Half the power expressed in decibels is -3dB, so the half
power beamwidth is sometimes referred to as the 3dB beamwidth. Both hori-
zontal and vertical beamwidth are usually considered.


Assuming that most of the radiated power is not divided into sidelobes, then
the directive gain is inversely proportional to the beamwidth: as the beam-
width decreases, the directive gain increases.

Sidelobes
No antenna is able to radiate all the energy in one preferred direction. Some
is inevitably radiated in other directions. These smaller peaks are referred to
as sidelobes, commonly specified in dB down from the main lobe.

Nulls
In an antenna radiation pattern, a null is a zone in which the effective radi-
ated power is at a minimum. A null often has a narrow directivity angle com-
pared to that of the main beam. Thus, the null is useful for several purposes,
such as suppression of interfering signals in a given direction.

Polarization
Polarization is defined as the orientation of the electric field of an electro-
magnetic wave. Polarization is in general described by an ellipse. Two spe-
cial cases of elliptical polarization are linear polarization and circular po-
larization. The initial polarization of a radio wave is determined by the an-
tenna.

direction of propagation

electric field

magnetic field

Figure 4.7: The electrical wave is perpendicular to magnetic wave, both of which are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
With linear polarization, the electric field vector stays in the same plane all
the time. The electric field may leave the antenna in a vertical orientation, a
horizontal orientation, or at some angle between the two. Vertically polar-
ized radiation is somewhat less affected by reflections over the transmis-
sion path. Omnidirectional antennas always have vertical polarization. With
horizontal polarization, such reflections cause variations in received sig-
nal strength. Horizontal antennas are less likely to pick up man-made inter-
ference, which ordinarily is vertically polarized.


In circular polarization the electric field vector appears to be rotating with
circular motion about the direction of propagation, making one full turn for
each RF cycle. This rotation may be right-hand or left-hand. Choice of polari-
zation is one of the design choices available to the RF system designer.

Polarization Mismatch
In order to transfer maximum power between a transmit and a receive an-
tenna, both antennas must have the same spatial orientation, the same po-
larization sense, and the same axial ratio.

When the antennas are not aligned or do not have the same polarization,
there will be a reduction in power transfer between the two antennas. This
reduction in power transfer will reduce the overall system efficiency and per-
formance.

When the transmit and receive antennas are both linearly polarized, physical
antenna misalignment will result in a polarization mismatch loss, which can
be determined using the following formula:

Loss (dB) = 20 log (cos )

...where is the difference in alignment angle between the two antennas. For
15° the loss is approximately 0.3dB, for 30° we lose 1.25dB, for 45° we lose
3dB and for 90° we have an infinite loss.

In short, the greater the mismatch in polarization between a transmitting and
receiving antenna, the greater the apparent loss. In the real world, a 90°
mismatch in polarization is quite large but not infinite. Some antennas, such
as yagis or can antennas, can be simply rotated 90° to match the polarization
of the other end of the link. You can use the polarization effect to your ad-
vantage on a point-to-point link. Use a monitoring tool to observe interfer-
ence from adjacent networks, and rotate one antenna until you see the low-
est received signal. Then bring your link online and orient the other end to
match polarization. This technique can sometimes be used to build stable
links, even in noisy radio environments.

Front-to-back ratio
It is often useful to compare the front-to-back ratio of directional antennas.
This is the ratio of the maximum directivity of an antenna to its directivity in
the opposite direction. For example, when the radiation pattern is plotted on
a relative dB scale, the front-to-back ratio is the difference in dB between the
level of the maximum radiation in the forward direction and the level of radia-
tion at 180 degrees.


This number is meaningless for an omnidirectional antenna, but it gives you
an idea of the amount of power directed forward on a very directional an-
tenna.

Types of Antennas
A classification of antennas can be based on:

• Frequency and size. Antennas used for HF are different from antennas
used for VHF, which in turn are different from antennas for microwave. The
wavelength is different at different frequencies, so the antennas must be
different in size to radiate signals at the correct wavelength. We are par-
ticularly interested in antennas working in the microwave range, especially
in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequencies. At 2.4 GHz the wavelength is 12.5
cm, while at 5 GHz it is 6 cm.
• Directivity. Antennas can be omnidirectional, sectorial or directive. Omni-
directional antennas radiate roughly the same pattern all around the an-
tenna in a complete 360° pattern. The most popular types of omnidirec-
tional antennas are the dipole and the ground plane. Sectorial antennas
radiate primarily in a specific area. The beam can be as wide as 180 de-
grees, or as narrow as 60 degrees. Directional or directive antennas are
antennas in which the beamwidth is much narrower than in sectorial an-
tennas. They have the highest gain and are therefore used for long dis-
tance links. Types of directive antennas are the Yagi, the biquad, the horn,
the helicoidal, the patch antenna, the parabolic dish, and many others.
• Physical construction. Antennas can be constructed in many different
ways, ranging from simple wires, to parabolic dishes, to coffee cans.

When considering antennas suitable for 2.4 GHz WLAN use, another classi-
fication can be used:

• Application. Access points tend to make point-to-multipoint networks,
while remote links are point-to-point. Each of these suggest different types
of antennas for their purpose. Nodes that are used for multipoint access
will likely use omni antennas which radiate equally in all directions, or sec-
torial antennas which focus into a small area. In the point-to-point case,
antennas are used to connect two single locations together. Directive an-
tennas are the primary choice for this application.

A brief list of common type of antennas for the 2.4 GHz frequency is pre-
sented now, with a short description and basic information about their char-
acteristics.


1/4 wavelength ground plane
The 1⁄4 wavelength ground plane antenna is very simple in its construction
and is useful for communications when size, cost and ease of construction
are important. This antenna is designed to transmit a vertically polarized sig-
nal. It consists of a 1⁄4 wave element as half-dipole and three or four 1⁄4
wavelength ground elements bent 30 to 45 degrees down. This set of ele-
ments, called radials, is known as a ground plane.

Figure 4.8: Quarter wavelength ground plane antenna.

This is a simple and effective antenna that can capture a signal equally from
all directions. To increase the gain, the signal can be flattened out to take
away focus from directly above and below, and providing more focus on the
horizon. The vertical beamwidth represents the degree of flatness in the fo-
cus. This is useful in a Point-to-Multipoint situation, if all the other antennas
are also at the same height. The gain of this antenna is in the order of 2 - 4
dBi.

Yagi antenna
A basic Yagi consists of a certain number of straight elements, each measur-
ing approximately half wavelength. The driven or active element of a Yagi is
the equivalent of a center-fed, half-wave dipole antenna. Parallel to the
driven element, and approximately 0.2 to 0.5 wavelength on either side of it,
are straight rods or wires called reflectors and directors, or simply passive
elements. A reflector is placed behind the driven element and is slightly
longer than half wavelength; a director is placed in front of the driven element
and is slightly shorter than half wavelength. A typical Yagi has one reflector
and one or more directors. The antenna propagates electromagnetic field
energy in the direction running from the driven element toward the directors,
and is most sensitive to incoming electromagnetic field energy in this same
direction. The more directors a Yagi has, the greater the gain. As more direc-


tors are added to a Yagi, it therefore becomes longer. Following is the photo
of a Yagi antenna with 6 directors and one reflector.

Figure 4.9: A Yagi antenna.

Yagi antennas are used primarily for Point-to-Point links, have a gain from 10
to 20 dBi and a horizontal beamwidth of 10 to 20 degrees.

Horn
The horn antenna derives its name from the characteristic flared appear-
ance. The flared portion can be square, rectangular, cylindrical or conical.
The direction of maximum radiation corresponds with the axis of the horn. It
is easily fed with a waveguide, but can be fed with a coaxial cable and a
proper transition.

Figure 4.10: Feed horn made from a food can.

Horn antennas are commonly used as the active element in a dish antenna.
The horn is pointed toward the center of the dish reflector. The use of a horn,
rather than a dipole antenna or any other type of antenna, at the focal point
of the dish minimizes loss of energy around the edges of the dish reflector. At
2.4 GHz, a simple horn antenna made with a tin can has a gain in the order
of 10 - 15 dBi.


Parabolic Dish
Antennas based on parabolic reflectors are the most common type of directive
antennas when a high gain is required. The main advantage is that they can be
made to have gain and directivity as large as required. The main disadvantage
is that big dishes are difficult to mount and are likely to have a large windage.

Figure 4.11: A solid dish antenna.

Dishes up to one meter are usually made from solid material. Aluminum is
frequently used for its weight advantage, its durability and good electrical
characteristics. Windage increases rapidly with dish size and soon becomes
a severe problem. Dishes which have a reﬂecting surface that uses an open
mesh are frequently used. These have a poorer front-to-back ratio, but are
safer to use and easier to build. Copper, aluminum, brass, galvanized steel
and iron are suitable mesh materials.

BiQuad
The BiQuad antenna is simple to build and offers good directivity and gain for
Point-to-Point communications. It consists of a two squares of the same size of
1⁄4 wavelength as a radiating element and of a metallic plate or grid as reflec-
tor. This antenna has a beamwidth of about 70 degrees and a gain in the order
of 10-12 dBi. It can be used as stand-alone antenna or as feeder for a Para-
bolic Dish. The polarization is such that looking at the antenna from the front, if
the squares are placed side by side the polarization is vertical.


Figure 4.12: The BiQuad.

Other Antennas
Many other types of antennas exist and new ones are created following the
advances in technology.

• Sector or Sectorial antennas: they are widely used in cellular telephony
infrastructure and are usually built adding a reflective plate to one or more
phased dipoles. Their horizontal beamwidth can be as wide as 180 de-
grees, or as narrow as 60 degrees, while the vertical is usually much nar-
rower. Composite antennas can be built with many Sectors to cover a
wider horizontal range (multisectorial antenna).
• Panel or Patch antennas: they are solid flat panels used for indoor cover-
age, with a gain up to 20 dB.

Reflector theory
The basic property of a perfect parabolic reflector is that it converts a spheri-
cal wave irradiating from a point source placed at the focus into a plane
wave. Conversely, all the energy received by the dish from a distant source is
reflected to a single point at the focus of the dish. The position of the focus,
or focal length, is given by:

D2
f =
16 c

...where D is the dish diameter and c is the depth of the parabola at its center.


The size of the dish is the most important factor since it determines the
maximum gain that can be achieved at the given frequency and the resulting
beamwidth. The gain and beamwidth obtained are given by:

( D)2
Gain = n
2

70
Beamwidth =
D

...where D is the dish diameter and n is the efficiency. The efficiency is de-
termined mainly by the effectiveness of illumination of the dish by the feed,
but also by other factors. Each time the diameter of a dish is doubled, the
gain is four times, or 6 dB, greater. If both stations double the size of their
dishes, signal strength can be increased of 12 dB, a very substantial gain. An
efficiency of 50% can be assumed when hand-building the antenna.

The ratio f / D (focal length/diameter of the dish) is the fundamental factor
governing the design of the feed for a dish. The ratio is directly related to the
beamwidth of the feed necessary to illuminate the dish effectively. Two
dishes of the same diameter but different focal lengths require different de-
sign of feed if both are to be illuminated efficiently. The value of 0.25 corre-
sponds to the common focal-plane dish in which the focus is in the same
plane as the rim of the dish.

Amplifiers
As mentioned earlier, antennas do not actually create power. They simply
direct all available power into a particular pattern. By using a power ampli-
fier, you can use DC power to augment your available signal. An amplifier
connects between the radio transmitter and the antenna, and has an addi-
tional lead that connects to a power source. Amplifiers are available that
work at 2.4 GHz, and can add several Watts of power to your transmission.
These devices sense when an attached radio is transmitting, and quickly
power up and amplify the signal. They then switch off again when transmis-
sion ends. When receiving, they also add amplification to the signal before
sending it to the radio.

Unfortunately, simply adding amplifiers will not magically solve all of your
networking problems. We do not discuss power amplifiers at length in this
book because there are a number of significant drawbacks to using them:

• They are expensive. Amplifiers must work at relatively wide bandwidths at
2.4 GHz, and must switch quickly enough to work for Wi-Fi applications.


These amplifiers do exist, but they tend to cost several hundred dollars per
unit.
• You will need at least two. Whereas antennas provide reciprocal gain
that benefits both sides of a connection, amplifiers work best at amplifying
a transmitted signal. If you only add an amplifier to one end of a link with
insufficient antenna gain, it will likely be able to be heard but will not be
able to hear the other end.
• They provide no additional directionality. Adding antenna gain provides
both gain and directionality benefits to both ends of the link. They not only
improve the available amount of signal, but tend to reject noise from other
directions. Amplifiers blindly amplify both desired and interfering signals,
and can make interference problems worse.
• Amplifiers generate noise for other users of the band. By increasing
your output power, you are creating a louder source of noise for other us-
ers of the unlicensed band. This may not be much of an issue today in
rural areas, but it can cause big problems in populated areas. Conversely,
adding antenna gain will improve your link and can actually decrease the
noise level for your neighbors.
• Using amplifiers probably isn t legal. Every country imposes power lim-
its on use of unlicensed spectrum. Adding an antenna to a highly amplified
signal will likely cause the link to exceed legal limits.

Using amplifiers is often compared to the inconsiderate neighbor who wants
to listen to the radio outside their home, and so turns it up to full volume.
They might even “improve” reception by pointing their speakers out the win-
dow. While they may now be able to hear the radio, so must everyone else
on the block. This approach may scale to exactly one user, but what hap-
pens when the neighbors decide to do the same thing with their radios? Us-
ing amplifiers for a wireless link causes roughly the same effect at 2.4 GHz.
Your link may “work better” for the moment, but you will have problems when
other users of the band decide to use amplifiers of their own.

By using higher gain antennas rather than amplifiers, you avoid all of these
problems. Antennas cost far less than amps, and can improve a link simply
by changing the antenna on one end. Using more sensitive radios and good
quality cable also helps significantly on long distance shots. These tech-
niques are unlikely to cause problems for other users of the band, and so we
recommend pursuing them before adding amplifiers.

Practical antenna designs
The cost of 2.4 GHz antennas has fallen dramatically since the introduction of
802.11b. Innovative designs use simpler parts and fewer materials to achieve


impressive gain with relatively little machining. Unfortunately, availability of
good antennas is still limited in many areas of the world, and importing them
can be prohibitively expensive. While actually designing an antenna can be a
complex and error-prone process, constructing antennas from locally available
components is very straightforward, and can be a lot of fun. We present four
practical antenna designs that can be built for very little money.

USB dongle as dish feed
Possibly the simplest antenna design is the use of a parabola to direct the
output of a USB wireless device (known in networking circles as a USB
dongle). By placing the internal dipole antenna present in USB wireless
dongles at the focus of a parabolic dish, you can provide significant gain
without the need to solder or even open the wireless device itself. Many
kinds of parabolic dishes will work, including satellite dishes, television an-
tennas, and even metal cookware (such as a wok, round lid, or strainer). As
a bonus, inexpensive and lossless USB cable is then used to feed the an-
tenna, eliminating the need for expensive coaxial cable or Heliax.

To build a USB dongle parabolic, you will need to find the orientation and loca-
tion of the dipole inside the dongle. Most devices orient the dipole to be paral-
lel with the short edge of the dongle, but some will mount the dipole perpen-
dicular to the short edge. You can either open the dongle and look for yourself,
or simply try the dongle in both positions to see which provides more gain.

To test the antenna, point it at an access point several meters away, and con-
nect the USB dongle to a laptop. Using the laptop s client driver or a tool such
as Netstumbler (see Chapter 6), observe the received signal strength of the
access point. Now, slowly move the dongle in relation to the parabolic while
watching the signal strength meter. You should see a significant improvement
in gain (20 dB or more) when you find the proper position. The proper position
will vary depending on the shape of the parabola and the construction of the
USB dongle. Try various positions while watching your signal strength meter
until you find the optimum location.

Once the best location is found, securely fix the dongle in place. You will
need to waterproof the dongle and cable if the antenna is used outdoors.
Use a silicone compound or a piece of PVC tubing to seal the electronics
against the weather. Many USB-fed parabolic designs and ideas are docu-
mented online at http://www.usbwifi.orcon.net.nz/ .

Collinear omni
This antenna is very simple to build, requiring just a piece of wire, an N
socket and a square metallic plate. It can be used for indoor or outdoor point-
to-multipoint short distance coverage. The plate has a hole drilled in the mid-


dle to accommodate an N type chassis socket that is screwed into place. The
wire is soldered to the center pin of the N socket and has coils to separate
the active phased elements. Two versions of the antenna are possible: one
with two phased elements and two coils and another with four phased ele-
ments and four coils. For the short antenna the gain will be around 5 dBi,
while the long one with four elements will have 7 to 9 dBi of gain. We are go-
ing to describe how to build the long antenna only.

Parts list and tools required
• One screw-on N-type female connector
• 50 cm of copper or brass wire of 2 mm of diameter
• 10x10 cm or greater square metallic plate

Figure 4.13: 10 cm x 10 cm aluminum plate.

• Ruler
• Pliers
• File
• Soldering iron and solder
• Drill with a set of bits for metal (including a 1.5 cm diameter bit)
• A piece of pipe or a drill bit with a diameter of 1 cm
• Vice or clamp
• Hammer
• Spanner or monkey wrench
Construction
1. Straighten the wire using the vice.


Figure 4.14: Make the wire as straight as you can.

2. With a marker, draw a line at 2.5 cm starting from one end of the wire.
On this line, bend the wire at 90 degrees with the help of the vice and of
the hammer.

Figure 4.15: Gently tap the wire to make a sharp bend.

3. Draw another line at a distance of 3.6 cm from the bend. Using the vice
and the hammer, bend once again the wire over this second line at 90
degrees, in the opposite direction to the ﬁrst bend but in the same plane.
The wire should look like a Z .


Figure 4.16: Bend the wire into a “Z” shape.
4. We will now twist the Z portion of the wire to make a coil with a diameter
of 1 cm. To do this, we will use the pipe or the drill bit and curve the wire
around it, with the help of the vice and of the pliers.

Figure 4.17: Bend the wire around the drill bit to make a coil.

The coil will look like this:

Figure 4.18: The completed coil.
5. You should make a second coil at a distance of 7.8 cm from the ﬁrst one.
Both coils should have the same turning direction and should be placed
on the same side of the wire. Make a third and a fourth coil following the


same procedure, at the same distance of 7.8 cm one from each other.
Trim the last phased element at a distance of 8.0 cm from the fourth coil.

Figure 4.19: Try to keep it as straight possible.
If the coils have been made correctly, it should now be possible to insert a
pipe through all the coils as shown.

Figure 4.20: Inserting a pipe can help to straighten the wire.
6. With a marker and a ruler, draw the diagonals on the metallic plate, ﬁnd-
ing its center. With a small diameter drill bit, make a pilot hole at the cen-
ter of the plate. Increase the diameter of the hole using bits with an in-
creasing diameter.


Figure 4.21: Drilling the hole in the metal plate.
The hole should fit the N connector exactly. Use a file if needed.

Figure 4.22: The N connector should fit snugly in the hole.

7. To have an antenna impedance of 50 Ohms, it is important that the visi-
ble surface of the internal insulator of the connector (the white area
around the central pin) is at the same level as the surface of the plate.
For this reason, cut 0.5 cm of copper pipe with an external diameter of 2
cm, and place it between the connector and the plate.

Figure 4.23: Adding a copper pipe spacer helps to match the impedance of the an-
tenna to 50 Ohms.


8. Screw the nut to the connector to fix it firmly on the plate using the spanner.

Figure 4.24: Secure the N connector tightly to the plate.

9. Smooth with the file the side of the wire which is 2.5 cm long, from the
first coil. Tin the wire for around 0.5 cm at the smoothed end helping
yourself with the vice.

Figure 4.25: Add a little solder to the end of the wire to “tin” it prior to soldering.

10. With the soldering iron, tin the central pin of the connector. Keeping the
wire vertical with the pliers, solder its tinned side in the hole of the central
pin. The first coil should be at 3.0 cm from the plate.


Figure 4.26: The ﬁrst coil should start 3.0 cm from the surface of the plate.

11. We are now going to stretch the coils extending the total vertical length of
the wire. Using the use the vice and the pliers, you should pull the cable
so that the ﬁnal length of the coil is of 2.0 cm.

Figure 4.27: Stretching the coils. Be very gentle and try not to scrape the surface of
the wire with the pliers.

12. Repeat the same procedure for the other three coils, stretching their
length to 2.0 cm.


Figure 4.28: Repeat the stretching procedure for all of the remaining coils.
13. At the end the antenna should measure 42.5 cm from the plate to the top.

Figure 4.29: The ﬁnished antenna should be 42.5 cm from the plate to the end of the
wire.

14. If you have a spectrum analyzer with a tracking generator and a direc-
tional coupler, you can check the curve of the reﬂected power of the an-
tenna. The picture below shows the display of the spectrum analyzer.


Figure 4.30: A spectrum plot of the reﬂected power of the collinear omni.

If you intend to use this antenna outside, you will need to weatherproof it.
The simplest method is to enclose the whole thing in a large piece of PVC
pipe closed with caps. Cut a hole at the bottom for the transmission line, and
seal the antenna shut with silicone or PVC glue.

Cantenna
The waveguide antenna, sometimes called a Cantenna, uses a tin can as a
waveguide and a short wire soldered on an N connector as a probe for
coaxial-cable-to-waveguide transition. It can be easily built at just the price of
the connector, recycling a food, juice, or other tin can. It is a directional an-
tenna, useful for short to medium distance point-to-point links. It may be also
used as a feeder for a parabolic dish or grid.

Not all cans are good for building an antenna because there are dimensional
constraints.

1. The acceptable values for the diameter D of the feed are between 0.60
and 0.75 wavelength in air at the design frequency. At 2.44 GHz the
wavelength is 12.2 cm, so the can diameter should be in the range of
7.3 - 9.2 cm.
2. The length L of the can preferably should be at least 0.75 G
, where G
is the guide wavelength and is given by:


G
=
sqrt(1 - ( / 1.706D)2)

For D = 7.3 cm, we need a can of at least 56.4 cm, while for D = 9.2 cm we
need a can of at least 14.8 cm. Generally the smaller the diameter, the longer
the can should be. For our example, we will use oil cans that have a diameter
of 8.3 cm and a height of about 21 cm.

3. The probe for coaxial cable to waveguide transition should be positioned
at a distance S from the bottom of the can, given by:
S = 0.25 G

Its length should be 0.25 , which at 2.44 GHz corresponds to 3.05 cm.

L

S

D

Figure 4.31: Dimensional constraints on the cantenna
The gain for this antenna will be in the order of 10 to 14 dBi, with a beam-
width of around 60 degrees.


Figure 4.32: The ﬁnished cantenna.

Parts list
• one screw-on N-type female connector
• 4 cm of copper or brass wire of 2 mm of diameter
• an oil can of 8.3 cm of diameter and 21 cm of height

Figure 4.33: Parts needed for the can antenna.


Tools required
• Can opener
• Ruler
• Pliers
• File
• Soldering iron
• Solder
• Drill with a set of bits for metal (with a 1.5 cm diameter bit)
• Vice or clamp
• Spanner or monkey wrench
• Hammer
• Punch

Construction
1. With the can opener, carefully remove the upper part of the can.

Figure 4.34: Be careful of sharp edges when opening the can.

The circular disk has a very sharp edge. Be careful when handling it! Empty
the can and wash it with soap. If the can contained pineapple, cookies, or
some other tasty treat, have a friend serve the food.

2. With the ruler, measure 6.2 cm from the bottom of the can and draw a
point. Be careful to measure from the inner side of the bottom. Use a
punch (or a small drill bit or a Phillips screwdriver) and a hammer to mark
the point. This makes it easier to precisely drill the hole. Be careful not to


change the shape of the can doing this by inserting a small block of
wood or other object in the can before tapping it.

Figure 4.35: Mark the hole before drilling.

3. With a small diameter drill bit, make a hole at the center of the plate. In-
crease the diameter of the hole using bits with an increasing diameter.
The hole should fit exactly the N connector. Use the file to smooth the
border of the hole and to remove the painting around it in order to ensure
a better electrical contact with the connector.

Figure 4.36: Carefully drill a pilot hole, then use a larger bit to finish the job.

4. Smooth with the file one end of the wire. Tin the wire for around 0.5 cm
at the same end helping yourself with the vice.


Figure 4.37: Tin the end of the wire before soldering.

5. With the soldering iron, tin the central pin of the connector. Keeping the
wire vertical with the pliers, solder its tinned side in the hole of the cen-
tral pin.

Figure 4.38: Solder the wire to the gold cup on the N connector.
6. Insert a washer and gently screw the nut onto the connector. Trim the
wire at 3.05 cm measured from the bottom part of the nut.


Figure 4.39: The length of the wire is critical.

7. Unscrew the nut from the connector, leaving the washer in place. Insert
the connector into the hole of the can. Screw the nut on the connector
from inside the can.

Figure 4.40: Assemble the antenna.
8. Use the pliers or the monkey wrench to screw ﬁrmly the nut on the con-
nector. You are done!


Figure 4.41: Your finished cantenna.

As with the other antenna designs, you should make a weatherproof enclo-
sure for the antenna if you wish to use it outdoors. PVC works well for the
can antenna. Insert the entire can in a large PVC tube, and seal the ends
with caps and glue. You will need to drill a hole in the side of the tube to ac-
commodate the N connector on the side of the can.

Cantenna as dish feed
As with the USB dongle parabolic, you can use the cantenna design as a
feeder for significantly higher gain. Mount the can on the parabolic with the
opening of the can pointed at the center of the dish. Use the technique de-
scribed in the USB dongle antenna example (watching signal strength
changes over time) to find the optimum location of the can for the dish you
are using.

By using a well-built cantenna with a properly tuned parabolic, you can
achieve an overall antenna gain of 30dBi or more. As the size of the para-
bolic increases, so does the potential gain and directivity of the antenna.
With very large parabolas, you can achieve significantly higher gain.

For example, in 2005, a team of college students successfully established a
link from Nevada to Utah in the USA. The link crossed a distance of over
200 kilometers! The wireless enthusiasts used a 3.5 meter satellite dish to
establish an 802.11b link that ran at 11 Mbps, without using an amplifier. De-
tails about this achievement can be found at http://www.wifi-shootout.com/


NEC2
NEC2 stands for Numerical Electromagnetics Code (version 2) and is a
free antenna modeling package. NEC2 lets you build an antenna model in
3D, and then analyzes the antenna s electromagnetic response. It was de-
veloped more than ten years ago and has been compiled to run on many
different computer systems. NEC2 is particularly effective for analyzing wire-
grid models, but also has some surface patch modeling capability.

The antenna design is described in a text file, and then the model is built us-
ing this text description. An antenna described in NEC2 is given in two parts:
its structure and a sequence of controls. The structure is simply a numeri-
cal description of where the different parts of the antenna are located, and
how the wires are connected up. The controls tell NEC where the RF source
is connected. Once these are defined, the transmitting antenna is then mod-
eled. Because of the reciprocity theorem the transmitting gain pattern is the
same as the receiving one, so modeling the transmission characteristics is
sufficient to understand the antenna's behavior completely.

A frequency or range of frequencies of the RF signal must be specified. The
next important element is the character of the ground. The conductivity of the
earth varies from place to place, but in many cases it plays a vital role in de-
termining the antenna gain pattern.

To run NEC2 on Linux, install the NEC2 package from the URL below. To
launch it, type nec2 and enter the input and output filenames. It is also worth
installing the xnecview package for structure verification and radiation pat-
tern plotting. If all went well you should have a file containing the output. This
can be broken up into various sections, but for a quick idea of what it repre-
sents a gain pattern can be plotted using xnecview. You should see the ex-
pected pattern, horizontally omnidirectional, with a peak at the optimum an-
gle of takeoff. Windows and Mac versions are also available.

The advantage of NEC2 is that we can get an idea of how the antenna works
before building it, and how we can modify the design in order to get the
maximum gain. It is a complex tool and requires some research to learn how
to use it effectively, but it is an invaluable tool for antenna designers.

NEC2 is available from http://www.nec2.org/

Online documentation can be obtained from the "Unofficial NEC Home Page"
at http://www.nittany-scientific.com/nec/ .

5
Networking Hardware

In the last couple of years, an unprecedented surge in interest in wireless
networking hardware has brought a huge variety of inexpensive equipment to
the market. So much variety, in fact, that it would be impossible to catalog
every available component. In this chapter, we ll look at the sort of features
and attributes that are desirable in a wireless component, and see several
examples of commercial and DIY gear that has worked well in the past.

Wired wireless
With a name like “wireless”, you may be surprised at how many wires are
involved in making a simple point-to-point link. A wireless node consists of
many components, which must all be connected to each other with appropri-
ate cabling. You obviously need at least one computer connected to an Eth-
ernet network, and a wireless router or bridge attached to the same network.
Radio components need to be connected to antennas, but along the way
they may need to interface with an ampliﬁer, lightning arrestor, or other de-
vice. Many components require power, either via an AC mains line or using a
DC transformer. All of these components use various sorts of connectors,
not to mention a wide variety of cable types and thicknesses.

Now multiply those cables and connectors by the number of nodes you will
bring online, and you may well be wondering why this stuff is referred to as
“wireless”. The diagram on the next page will give you some idea of the ca-
bling required for a typical point-to-point link. Note that this diagram is not to
scale, nor is it necessarily the best choice of network design. But it will intro-
duce you to many common interconnects and components that you will likely
encounter in the real world.

135

DC
Transformer
N
Connectors
Wireless LMR-400
to feed line
Ethernet
bridge
Chapter 5: Networking Hardware

Figure 5.1: Component interconnects.
8 dBi
24 dBi Omni
CAT5 carrying Parabolic
data and DC power dish
to Ampliﬁer
AC
Power
Lightning
RP-TNC arrestor
Connectors
POE
Injector Access
Point
Pigtail
UPS

adapter cable
DC
Transformer UPS
Hello Hello to
Joe! Joe! AC
[ 10+ Kilometers ] Power
Ethernet switch Ethernet switch
136

Chapter 5: Networking Hardware 137

While the actual components used will vary from node to node, every instal-
lation will incorporate these parts:

1. An existing computer or network connected to an Ethernet switch.
2. A device that connects that network to a wireless device (a wireless
router, bridge, or repeater).
3. An antenna that is connected via feed line, or is integrated into the wire-
less device itself.
4. Electrical components consisting of power supplies, conditioners, and
lightning arrestors.

The actual selection of hardware should be determined by establishing the
requirements for the project, determining the available budget, and verifying
that the project is feasible using the available resources (including providing
for spares and ongoing maintenance costs). As discussed in Chapter 1, es-
tablishing the scope of your project is critical before any purchasing decisions
are made.

Choosing wireless components
Unfortunately, in a world of competitive hardware manufacturers and limited
budgets, the price tag is the single factor that usually receives the most at-
tention. The old saying that “you get what you pay for” often holds true when
buying high tech equipment, but should not be considered an absolute truth.
While the price tag is an important part of any purchasing decision, it is vital
to understand precisely what you get for your money so you can make a
choice that ﬁts your needs.

When comparing wireless equipment for use in your network, be sure to con-
sider these variables:

• Interoperability. Will the equipment you are considering work with equip-
ment from other manufacturers? If not, is this an important factor for this
segment of your network? If the gear in question supports an open proto-
col (such as 802.11b/g), then it will likely interoperate with equipment from
other sources.
• Range. As we saw in Chapter 4, range is not something inherent in a par-
ticular piece of equipment. A device s range depends on the antenna con-
nected to it, the surrounding terrain, the characteristics of the device at the
other end of the link, and other factors. Rather than relying on a semi-
ﬁctional “range” rating supplied by the manufacturer, it is more useful to
know the transmission power of the radio as well as the antenna gain (if

138 Chapter 5: Networking Hardware

an antenna is included). With this information, you can calculate the theo-
retical range as described in Chapter 3.
• Radio sensitivity. How sensitive is the radio device at a given bit rate?
The manufacturer should supply this information, at least at the fastest and
slowest speeds. This can be used as a measure of the quality of the
hardware, as well as allow you to complete a link budget calculation. As
we saw in Chapter 3, a lower number is better for radio sensitivity.
• Throughput. Manufacturers consistently list the highest possible bit rate
as the “speed” of their equipment. Keep in mind that the radio symbol rate
(eg. 54 Mbps) is never the actual throughput rating of the device (eg. about
22 Mbps for 802.11g). If throughput rate information is not available for the
device you are evaluating, a good rule of thumb is to divide the device
“speed” by two, and subtract 20% or so. When in doubt, perform through-
put testing on an evaluation unit before committing to purchasing a large
amount of equipment that has no official throughput rating.
• Required accessories. To keep the initial price tag low, vendors often
leave out accessories that are required for normal use. Does the price tag
include all power adapters? (DC supplies are typically included; power over
Ethernet injectors typically are not. Double-check input voltages as well,
as equipment is often provided with a US-centric power supply). What
about pigtails, adapters, cables, antennas, and radio cards? If you intend
to use it outdoors, does the device include a weatherproof case?
• Availability. Will you be able to easily replace failed components? Can
you order the part in large quantity, should your project require it? What is
the projected life span of this particular product, both in terms of useful
running time in-the-field and likely availability from the vendor?
• Other factors. Be sure that other needed features are provided for to
meet your particular needs. For example, does the device include an ex-
ternal antenna connector? If so, what type is it? Are there user or
throughput limits imposed by software, and if so, what is the cost to in-
crease these limits? What is the physical form factor of the device? How
much power does it consume? Does it support POE as a power source?
Does the device provide encryption, NAT, bandwidth monitoring tools, or
other features critical to the intended network design?

By answering these questions first, you will be able to make intelligent buying
decisions when it comes time to choose networking hardware. It is unlikely
that you will be able to answer every possible question before buying gear,
but if you prioritize the questions and press the vendor to answer them be-
fore committing to a purchase, you will make the best use of your budget and
build a network of components that are well suited to your needs.


Commercial vs. DIY solutions
Your network project will almost certainly consist of components purchased
from vendors as well as parts that are sourced or even fabricated locally.
This is a basic economic truth in most areas of the world. At this stage of
human technology, global distribution of information is quite trivial compared
to global distribution of goods. In many regions, importing every component
needed to build a network is prohibitively expensive for all but the largest
budgets. You can save considerable money in the short term by finding local
sources for parts and labor, and only importing components that must be
purchased.

Of course, there is a limit to how much work can be done by any individual or
group in a given amount of time. To put it another way, by importing technol-
ogy, you can exchange money for equipment that can solve a particular prob-
lem in a comparatively short amount of time. The art of building local tele-
communications infrastructure lies in finding the right balance of money to
effort needed to be expended to solve the problem at hand.

Some components, such as radio cards and antenna feed line, are likely far
too complex to consider having them fabricated locally. Other components,
such as antennas and towers, are relatively simple and can be made locally
for a fraction of the cost of importing. Between these extremes lie the com-
munication devices themselves.

By using off-the-shelf radio cards, motherboards, and other components, you
can build devices that provide features comparable (or even superior) to
most commercial implementations. Combining open hardware platforms with
open source software can yield significant “bang for the buck” by providing
custom, robust solutions for very low cost.

This is not to say that commercial equipment is inferior to a do-it-yourself
solution. By providing so-called “turn-key solutions”, manufacturers not only
save development time, but they can also allow relatively unskilled people to
install and maintain equipment. The chief strengths of commercial solutions
are that they provide support and a (usually limited) equipment warranty.
They also provide a consistent platform that tends to lead to very stable,
often interchangeable network installations.

If a piece of equipment simply doesn t work or is difficult to configure or trou-
bleshoot, a good manufacturer will assist you. Should the equipment fail in
normal use (barring extreme damage, such as a lightning strike) then the
manufacturer will typically replace it. Most will provide these services for a
limited time as part of the purchase price, and many offer support and war-
ranty for an extended period for a monthly fee. By providing a consistent


platform, it is simple to keep spares on hand and simply “swap out” equip-
ment that fails in the field, without the need for a technician to configure
equipment on-site. Of course, all of this comes at comparatively higher initial
cost for the equipment compared to off-the-shelf components.

From a network architect s point of view, the three greatest hidden risks when
choosing commercial solutions are vendor lock-in, discontinued product
lines, and ongoing licensing costs.

It can be costly to allow the lure of ill-defined new “features” drive the devel-
opment of your network. Manufacturers will frequently provide features that
are incompatible with their competition by design, and then issue marketing
materials to convince you that you simply cannot live without them (regard-
less of whether the feature contributes to the solution of your communica-
tions problem). As you begin to rely on these features, you will likely decide
to continue purchasing equipment from the same manufacturer in the future.
This is the essence of vendor lock-in. If a large institution uses a significant
amount of proprietary equipment, it is unlikely that they will simply abandon it
to use a different vendor. Sales teams know this (and indeed, some rely on
it) and use vendor lock-in as a strategy for price negotiations.

When combined with vendor lock-in, a manufacturer may eventually decide
to discontinue a product line, regardless of its popularity. This ensures that
customers, already reliant on the manufacturer s proprietary features, will
purchase the newest (and nearly always more expensive) model. The long
term effects of vendor lock-in and discontinued products are difficult to esti-
mate when planning a networking project, but should be kept in mind.

Finally, if a particular piece of equipment uses proprietary computer code,
you may need to license use of that code on an ongoing basis. The cost of
these licenses may vary depending on features provided, number of users,
connection speed, or other factors. If the license fee is unpaid, some equip-
ment is designed to simply stop working until a valid, paid-up license is pro-
vided! Be sure that you understand the terms of use for any equipment you
purchase, including ongoing licensing fees.

By using generic equipment that supports open standards and open source
software, you can avoid some of these pitfalls. For example, it is very diffi-
cult to become locked-in to a vendor that uses open protocols (such as
TCP/IP over 802.11a/b/g). If you encounter a problem with the equipment
or the vendor, you can always purchase equipment from a different vendor
that will interoperate with what you have already purchased. It is for these
reasons that we recommend using proprietary protocols and licensed spec-
trum only in cases where the open equivalent (such as 802.11a/b/g) is not
technically feasible.


Likewise, while individual products can always be discontinued at any time,
you can limit the impact this will have on your network by using generic
components. For example, a particular motherboard may become unavail-
able on the market, but you may have a number of PC motherboards on
hand that will perform effectively the same task. We will see some exam-
ples of how to use these generic components to build a complete wireless
node later in this chapter.

Obviously, there should be no ongoing licensing costs involved with open
source software (with the exception of a vendor providing extended sup-
port or some other service, without charging for the use of the software
itself). There have occasionally been vendors who capitalize on the gift
that open source programmers have given to the world by offering the
code for sale on an ongoing licensed basis, thereby violating the terms of
distribution set forth by the original authors. It would be wise to avoid
such vendors, and to be suspicious of claims of “free software” that come
with an ongoing license fee.

The disadvantage of using open source software and generic hardware is
clearly the question of support. As problems with the network arise, you will
need to solve those problems for yourself. This is often accomplished by
consulting free online resources and search engines, and applying code
patches directly. If you do not have team members who are competent and
dedicated to designing a solution to your communications problem, then it
can take a considerable amount of time to get a network project off the
ground. Of course, there is never a guarantee that simply “throwing money
at the problem” will solve it either. While we provide many examples of how
to do much of the work yourself, you may find this work very challenging.
You will need to find the balance of commercial solutions and the do-it-
yourself approach that works for project.

In short, always define the scope of your network first, identify the re-
sources you can bring to bear on the problem, and allow the selection of
equipment to naturally emerge from the results. Consider commercial so-
lutions as well as open components, while keeping in mind the long-term
costs of both.

When considering which equipment to use, always remember to compare the
expected useful distance, reliability, and throughput, in addition to the price.
Be sure to include any ongoing license fees when calculating the overall cost
of the equipment. And finally, make sure that the radios you purchase oper-
ate in an unlicensed band where you are installing them, or if you must use
licensed spectrum, that you have budget and permission to pay for the ap-
propriate licenses.


Professional lightning protection
Lightning is a natural predator of wireless equipment. There are two differ-
ent ways lightning can strike or damage equipment: direct hits or induction
hits. Direct hits happen when lightning actually hits the tower or antenna.
Induction hits are caused when lightning strikes near the tower. Imagine a
negatively charged lightning bolt. Since like charges repel each other, that
bolt will cause the electrons in the cables to move away from the strike,
creating current on the lines. This can be much more current than the sen-
sitive radio equipment can handle. Either type of strike will usually destroy
unprotected equipment.

Figure 5.2: A tower with a heavy copper grounding wire.

Protecting wireless networks from lightning is not an exact science, and there
is no guarantee that a lightning strike will not happen, even if every single
precaution is taken. Many of the methods used will help prevent both direct
and induction strikes. While it is not necessary to use every single lightning
protection method, using more methods will help further protect the equip-
ment. The amount of lightning historically observed within a service area will
be the biggest guide to how much needs to be done.

Start at the very bottom of the tower. Remember, the bottom of the tower is
below the ground. After the tower foundation is laid, but before the hole is
backﬁlled, a ring of heavy braided ground wire should have been installed
with the lead extending above ground surfacing near a tower leg. The wire
should be American Wire Gauge (AWG) #4 or thicker. In addition, a backup


ground or earthing rod should be driven into the ground, and a ground wire
run from the rod to the lead from the buried ring.

It is important to note that not all steel conducts electricity the same way.
Some types of steel act as better electrical conductors then others, and differ-
ent surface coatings can also affect how tower steel handles electrical current.
Stainless steel is one of the worst conductors, and rust proof coatings like gal-
vanizing or paint lessen the conductivity of the steel. For this reason, a braided
ground wire is run from the bottom of the tower all the way to the top. The bot-
tom needs to be properly attached to the leads from both the ring and the
backup ground rod. The top of the tower should have a lightning rod attached,
and the top of that needs to be pointed. The finer and sharper the point, the
more effective the rod will be. The braided ground wire from the bottom needs
to be terminated at this grounding rod. It is very important to be sure that the
ground wire is connected to the actual metal. Any sort of coating, such as
paint, must be removed before the wire is attached. Once the connection is
made, the exposed area can be repainted, covering the wire and connectors if
necessary to save the tower from rust and other corrosion.

The above solution details the installation of the basic grounding system. It
provides protection for the tower itself from direct hits, and installs the base
system to which everything else will connect.

The ideal protection for indirect induction lightning strikes are gas tube ar-
restors at both ends of the cable. These arrestors need to be grounded di-
rectly to the ground wire installed on the tower if it is at the high end. The
bottom end needs to be grounded to something electrically safe, like a
ground plate or a copper pipe that is consistently full of water. It is important
to make sure that the outdoor lightning arrestor is weatherproofed. Many
arresters for coax cables are weatherproofed, while many arresters for CAT5
cable are not.

In the event that gas arrestors are not being used, and the cabling is coax
based, then attaching one end of a wire to the shield of the cable and the
other to the ground wire installed on the towers will provide some protection.
This can provide a path for induction currents, and if the charge is weak
enough, it will not affect the conductor wire of the cable. While this method is
by no means as good of protection as using the gas arrestors, it is better
then doing nothing at all.

Building an access point from a PC
Unlike consumer operating systems (such as Microsoft Windows), the GNU/
Linux operating system gives a network administrator the potential for full
access to the networking stack. One can access and manipulate network


packets at any level from the data-link layer through the application layer.
Routing decisions can be made based on any information contained in a
network packet, from the routing addresses and ports to the contents of the
data segment. A Linux-based access point can act as a router, bridge, fire-
wall, VPN concentrator, application server, network monitor, or virtually any
other networking role you can think of. It is freely available software, and re-
quires no licensing fees. GNU/Linux is a very powerful tool that can fill a
broad variety of roles in a network infrastructure.

Adding a wireless card and Ethernet device to a PC running Linux will give
you a very flexible tool that can help you deliver bandwidth and manage your
network for very little cost. The hardware could be anything from a recycled
laptop or desktop machine to an embedded computer, such as a Linksys
WRT54G or Metrix networking kit.

In this section we will see how to configure Linux in the following configura-
tions:

• As a wireless access point with Masquerading/NAT and a wired connection
to the Internet (also referred to as a wireless gateway).
• As a wireless access point that acts as a transparent bridge. The bridge
can be used either as a simple access point, or as a repeater with 2 radios.

Consider these recipes as a starting point. By building on these simple ex-
amples, you can create a server that fits precisely into your network infra-
structure.

Prerequisites
Before proceeding, you should already be familiar with Linux from a users
perspective, and be capable of installing the Gnu/Linux distribution of your
choice. A basic understanding of the command line interface (terminal) in
Linux is also required.

You will need a computer with one or more wireless cards already installed,
as well as a standard Ethernet interface. These examples use a specific
card and driver, but there are a number of different cards that should work
equally well. Wireless cards based on the Atheros and Prism chipsets work
particularly well. These examples are based on Ubuntu Linux version 5.10
(Breezy Badger), with a wireless card that is supported by the HostAP or
MADWiFi drivers. For more information about these drivers, see
http://hostap.epitest.fi/ and http://madwifi.org/ .

The following software is required to complete these installations. It should
be provided in your Linux distribution:


• Wireless Tools (iwconfig, iwlist commands)
• iptables firewall
• dnsmasq (caching DNS server and DHCP server)

The CPU power required depends on how much work needs to be done be-
yond simple routing and NAT. For many applications, a 133MHz 486 is per-
fectly capable of routing packets at wireless speeds. If you intend to use a
lot of encryption (such as WEP or a VPN server), then you will need some-
thing faster. If you also want to run a caching server (such as Squid) then
you will need a computer with plenty of fast disk space and RAM. A typical
router that is only performing NAT will operate will with as little as 64MB of
RAM and storage.

When building a machine that is intended to be part of your network infra-
structure, keep in mind that hard drives have a limited lifespan compared to
most other components. You can often use solid state storage, such as a
flash disk, in place of a hard drive. This could be a USB flash drive (assum-
ing your PC will boot from USB), or a Compact Flash card using a CF to IDE
adapter. These adapters are quite inexpensive, and will make a CF card ap-
pear act like standard IDE hard drive. They can be used in any PC that sup-
ports IDE hard drives. Since they have no moving parts, they will operate for
many years through a much wider range of temperatures than a hard disk
will tolerate.

Scenario 1: Masquerading access point
This is the simplest of the scenarios, and is especially useful in situations
where you want a single access point for an office setting. This is easiest in
a situation where:

1. There is an existing dedicated firewall and gateway running Linux, and you
just want to add a wireless interface.

2. You have an old refurbished computer or laptop available, and prefer to
use that as an access point.

3. You require more power in terms of monitoring, logging and/or security
than most commercial access points provide, but don't want to splurge on an
enterprise access point.

4. You would like a single machine to act as 2 access points (and firewall) so
that you can offer both a secure network access to the intranet, as well as
open access to guests.


Initial setup
Start of with an already configured computer running GNU/Linux. This could
be an Ubuntu Server installation, or Fedora Core. The computer must have
at least 2 interfaces for this to work, and at least one of these interfaces
should be wireless. The rest of this description assumes that your cabled
Ethernet port (eth0) is connected to the Internet, and that there is a wireless
interface (wlan0) that will provide the access point functionality.

To find out if your chipset supports master mode, try the following command
as root:

# iwconfig wlan0 mode Master

...replacing wlan0 with the name of your interface.

If you get an error message, then your wireless card doesn t support access
point mode. You can still try the same setup in Ad-hoc mode, which is sup-
ported by all chipsets. This requires that you to set all the laptops that are
connecting to this “access point” into Ad-hoc mode as well, and may not work
quite the way you are expecting. It is usually better to find a wireless card
that will support AP mode. See the HostAP and MADWiFi websites men-
tioned earlier for a list of supported cards.

Before continuing, make sure dnsmasq is installed on your machine. You
can use the graphical package manager of your distribution to install it. In
Ubuntu you can simply run the following as root:

# apt-get install dnsmasq

Setting up the interfaces
Set up your server so that eth0 is connected to the Internet. Use the graphi-
cal configuration tool that came with your distribution.

If your Ethernet network uses DHCP, you could try the following command as root:

# dhclient eth0

You should receive an IP address and default gateway. Next, set your wire-
less interface to Master mode and give it a name of your choice:

# iwconfig wlan0 essid “my network” mode Master enc off

The enc off switch turns off WEP encryption. To enable WEP, add a hex-
key string of the correct length:


# iwconfig wlan0 essid “my network” mode Master enc 1A2B3C4D5E

Alternately, you can use a readable string by starting with “s:”

# iwconfig wlan0 essid “my network” mode Master enc “s:apple”

Now give your wireless interface an IP address in a private subnet, but make
sure it is not the same subnet as that of your Ethernet adapter:

# ifconfig wlan0 10.0.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 broadcast 10.0.0.255 up

Setting up masquerading in the kernel
In order for us to be able to translate addresses between the two interfaces
on the computer, we need to enable masquerading (NAT) in the linux kernel.
First we load the relevant kernel module:

# modprobe ipt_MASQUERADE

Now we will flush all existing firewall rules to ensure that the firewall is not
blocking us from forwarding packets between the two interfaces. If you have
an existing firewall running, make sure you know how to restore the existing
rules later before proceeding.

# iptables -F

Enable the NAT functionality between the two interfaces

# iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE

Finally we need to enable the kernel to forward packets between interfaces:

# echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

On Debian-based Linux distributions such as Ubuntu, this change can also
be made by editing the file /etc/network/options, and be sure that ip_for-
ward is set to yes:

ip_forward=yes

and then restarting the network interfaces with:

# /etc/init.d/network restart

or

# /etc/init.d/networking restart


Setting up the DHCP server
At this point we actually should have a working access point. It can be tested
by connecting to the wireless network “my network” with a separate machine
and giving that machine an address in the same address range as our wireless
interface on the server (10.0.0.0/24 if you followed the examples). If you have
enabled WEP, be sure to use the same key that you specified on the AP.

In order to make it easier for people to connect to the server without knowing
the IP address range, we will set up a DHCP server to automatically hand out
addresses to wireless clients.

We use the program dnsmasq for this purpose. As the name indicates, it pro-
vides a caching DNS server as well as a DHCP server. This program was
developed especially for use with firewalls performing NAT. Having a caching
DNS server is especially helpful if your Internet connection is a high-latency
and/or low-bandwidth connection, such as a VSAT or dial-up. It means that
many DNS queries can be resolved locally, saving a lot of traffic on the Inter-
net connection, and also making the connection feel noticeably faster for
those connecting.

Install dnsmasq with your distributions package manager. If dnsmasq is not
available as a package, download the source code and install it manually. It
is available from http://www.thekelleys.org.uk/dnsmasq/doc.html.

All that is required for us to run dnsmasq is to edit a few lines of the dnsmasq
configuration file, /etc/dnsmasq.conf.

The configuration file is well commented, and has many options for various
types of configuration. To get the basic DHCP server up and running we just
need to uncomment and/or edit two lines.

Find the lines that starts:

interface=

...and make sure it reads:

interface=wlan0

...changing wlan0 to match name of your wireless interface. Then find the
line that starts with:

#dhcp-range=

Uncomment the line and edit it to suit the match addresses being used, i.e.


dhcp-range=10.0.0.10,10.0.0.110,255.255.255.0,6h

Then save the file and start dnsmasq:

# /etc/init.d/dnsmasq start

That's it, you should now be able to connect to the server as an access point,
and get an IP address using DHCP. This should let you connect to the Inter-
net through the server.

Adding extra security: Setting up a Firewall
Once this is set up and tested, you can add extra firewall rules using what-
ever firewall tool is included in your distribution. Some typical front-ends for
setting up firewall rules include:

• firestarter - a graphical client for Gnome, which requires that your server
is running Gnome
• knetfilter – a graphical client for KDE, which requires that your server is
running KDE
• Shorewall – a set of scripts and configuration files that will make it easier
to setup an iptables firewall. There are also frontends for shorewall, such
as webmin-shorewall
• fwbuilder - a powerful, but slightly complex graphical tool that will let you
create iptables scripts on a machine separate from your server, and then
transfer them to the server later. This does not require you to be running a
graphical desktop on the server, and is a strong option for the security con-
scious.

Once everything is configured properly, make sure that all settings are re-
flected in the system startup scripts. This way, your changes will continue to
work should the machine need to be rebooted.

Scenario 2: Transparent Bridging access point
This scenario can either be used for a two-radio repeater, or for an access
point connected to an Ethernet. We use a bridge instead of routing when we
want both interfaces on the access point to share the same subnet. This can
be particularly useful in networks with multiple access points where we prefer
to have a single, central firewall and perhaps authentication server. Because
all clients share the same subnet they, can easily be managed with a single
DHCP server and firewall without the need for DHCP relay.

For example, you could setup a server as the first scenario, but use two
wired Ethernet interfaces instead of one wired and one wireless. One inter-


face would be your Internet connection, and the other would connect to a
switch. Then connect as many access points as you require to the same
switch, set them up as transparent bridges, and everyone will pass through
the same firewall and use the same DHCP server.

The simplicity of bridging comes at a cost of efficiency. Since all clients share
the same subnet, broadcast traffic will be repeated throughout the network.
This is usually fine for small networks, but as the number of clients increases,
more wireless bandwidth will be wasted on broadcast network traffic.

Initial setup
The initial setup for a bridging access point is similar to that of a masquerad-
ing access point, without the requirement of dnsmasq. Follow the initial
setup instructions from the previous example.

In addition, the bridge-utils package is required for bridging. This package
exists for Ubuntu and other Debian-based distributions, as well as for Fedora
Core. Make sure it is installed and that the command brctl is available be-
fore proceeding.

Setting up the Interfaces
On Ubuntu or Debian the network interfaces are configured by editing the file
/etc/network/interfaces.

Add a section like the following, but change the names of interfaces and the IP
addresses accordingly. The IP address and netmask must match that of your
existing network. This example assumes you are building a wireless repeater
with two wireless interfaces, wlan0 and wlan1. The wlan0 interface will be a
client to the “office” network, and wlan1 will create a network called “repeater”.

Add the following to /etc/network/interfaces:

auto br0
iface br0 inet static
address 192.168.1.2
network 192.168.1.0
netmask 255.255.255.0
broadcast 192.168.1.255
gateway 192.168.1.1
pre-up ifconfig wlan 0 0.0.0.0 up
pre-up ifconfig wlan1 0.0.0.0 up
pre-up iwconfig wlan0 essid “office” mode Managed
pre-up iwconfig wlan1 essid “repeater” mode Master
bridge_ports wlan0 wlan1
post-down ifconfig wlan1 down


Comment out any other sections in the ﬁle that refer to wlan0 or wlan1 to
make sure that they don't interfere with our setup.

This syntax for setting up bridges via the interfaces file is specific to
Debian-based distributions, and the details of actually setting up the bridge are
handled by a couple of scripts: /etc/network/if-pre-up.d/bridge and
/etc/network/if-post-down.d/bridge. The documentation for these
scripts is found in /usr/share/doc/bridge-utils/.

If those scripts don't exist on your distribution (such as Fedora Core), here is
an alternative setup for /etc/network/interfaces which will achieve the
same thing with only marginally more hassle:

iface br0 inet static
pre-up ifconfig wlan 0 0.0.0.0 up
pre-up ifconfig wlan1 0.0.0.0 up
pre-up iwconfig wlan0 essid “office” mode Managed
pre-up iwconfig wlan1 essid “repeater” mode Master
pre-up brctl addbr br0
pre-up brctl addif br0 wlan0
pre-up brctl addif br0 wlan1
post-down brctl delif br0 wlan0
post-down brctl delif br0 wlan1
post-down brctl delbr br0

Starting the bridge
Once the bridge is defined as an interface, starting the bridge is as simple as typing:

# ifup -v br0

The “-v” means verbose output and will give you information to what is going on.

On Fedora Core (i.e. non-debian distributions) you still need to give your bridge
interface an ip address and add a default route to the rest of the network:

#ifconfig br0 192.168.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.0 broadcast 192.168.1.255
#route add default gw 192.168.1.1

You should now be able to connect a wireless laptop to this new access point, and
connect to the Internet (or at least to the rest of your network) through this box.

Use the brctl command to see what your bridge is doing:

# brctl show br0


Scenario 1 & 2 the easy way
Instead of setting up your computer as an access point from scratch, you
may wish to use a dedicated Linux distribution that is specially tailored for
this purpose. These distributions can make the job as simple as booting
from a particular CD on a computer with a wireless interface. See the follow-
ing section, “Wireless-friendly operating systems” for more information.

As you can see, it is straightforward to provide access point services from a
standard Linux router. Using Linux gives you significantly more control over
how packets are routed through your network, and allows for features that
simply aren t possible on consumer grade access point hardware.

For example, you could start with either of the above two examples and im-
plement a private wireless network where users are authenticated using a
standard web browser. Using a captive portal such as Chillispot, wireless
users can be checked against credentials in an existing database (say, a
Windows domain server accessible via RADIUS). This arrangement could
allow for preferential access to users in the database, while providing a very
limited level of access for the general public.

Another popular application is the prepaid commercial model. In this model,
users must purchase a ticket before accessing the network. This ticket pro-
vides a password that is valid for a limited amount of time (typically one day).
When the ticket expires, the user must purchase another. This ticketing fea-
ture is only available on relatively expensive commercial networking equip-
ment, but can be implemented using free software such as Chillispot and
phpMyPrePaid. We will see more about captive portal technology and ticket-
ing systems in the Authentication section in Chapter 6.

Wireless-friendly operating systems
There are a number of open source operating system that provide useful
tools for working with wireless networks. These are intended to be used on
repurposed PCs or other networking hardware (rather than on a laptop or
server) and are fine-tuned for building wireless networks. Some of these
projects include:

• Freifunk. Based on the OpenWRT project (http://openwrt.org/), the Frei-
funk firmware brings easy OLSR support to MIPS-based consumer access
points, such as the Linksys WRT54G / WRT54GS / WAP54G, Siemens
SE505, and others. By simply flashing one of these APs with the Freifunk
firmware, you can rapidly build a self-forming OLSR mesh. Freifunk is not
currently available for x86 architecture machines. It is maintained by Sven
Ola of the Freifunk wireless group in Berlin. You can download the firm-
ware from http://www.freifunk.net/wiki/FreifunkFirmware .


• Pyramid Linux. Pyramid is a Linux distribution for use on embedded plat-
forms that evolved out of the venerable Pebble Linux platform. It supports
several different wireless cards, and has a simple web interface for config-
uring networking interfaces, port forwarding, WifiDog, and OLSR. Pyramid
is distributed and maintained by Metrix Communication LLC, and is avail-
able at http://pyramid.metrix.net/.
• m0n0wall. Based on FreeBSD, m0n0wall is a very tiny but complete fire-
wall package that provides AP services. It is configured from a web inter-
face and the entire system configuration is stored in a single XML file. Its
tiny size (less than 6MB) makes it attractive for use in very small embed-
ded systems. Its goal is to provide a secure firewall, and as such does not
include userspace tools (it is not even possible to log into the machine over
the network). Despite this limitation, it is a popular choice for wireless net-
workers, particularly those with a background in FreeBSD. You can down-
load m0n0wall from http://www.m0n0.ch/ .

All of these distributions are designed to fit in machines with limited storage.
If you are using a very large flash disk or hard drive, you can certainly install
a more complete OS (such as Ubuntu or Debian) and use the machine as a
router or access point. It will likely take a fair amount of development time to
be sure all needed tools are included, without installing unnecessary pack-
ages. By using one of these projects as a starting point for building a wire-
less node, you will save yourself considerable time and effort.

The Linksys WRT54G
One of the most popular consumer access points currently on the market is
the Linksys WRT54G. This access point features two external RP-TNC an-
tenna connectors, a four port Ethernet switch, and an 802.11b/g radio. It is
configured through a simple web interface. While it is not designed as an
outdoor solution, it can be installed in a large sprinkler box or plastic tub for
relatively little cost. As of this writing, the WRT54G sells for about $60.

Back in 2003, network hackers realized that the firmware that shipped with
the WRT54G was actually a version of Linux. This led to a tremendous in-
terest in building custom firmware that extended the capabilities of the router
significantly. Some of these new features include client radio mode support,
captive portals, and mesh networking. Some popular alternative firmware
packages for the WRT54G are DD-Wrt (http://www.dd-wrt.com/), OpenWRT
(http://openwrt.org/), Tomato (http://www.polarcloud.com/tomato) and Frei-
funk (http://www.freifunk.net/).

Unfortunately, in the fall of 2005, Linksys released version 5 of the WRT54G.
This hardware revision eliminated some RAM and flash storage on the moth-
erboard, making it very difficult to run Linux (it ships with VxWorks, a much


smaller operating system that does not allow easy customization). Linksys
also released the WRT54GL, which is essentially the WRT54G v4 (which
runs Linux) with a slightly bigger price tag.

A number of other Linksys access points also run Linux, including the
WRT54GS and WAP54G. While these also have relatively low price tags,
the hardware specifications may change at any time. It is difficult to know
which hardware revision is used without opening the packaging, making it
risky to purchase them at a retail store and practically impossible to order
online. While the WRT54GL is guaranteed to run Linux, Linksys has made
it known that it does not expect to sell this model in large volume, and it is
unclear how long it will be offered for sale.

Fortunately, wireless hackers have now been able to install custom firmware
on the notoriously difficult WRT54G version 5 and 6, and the latest revisions
as well(v7 and v8). For details on getting alternate firmware installed on a v5 or
v6 access point see: http://www.scorpiontek.org/portal/content/view/27/36/

For more information about the current state of Linksys wireless router hack-
ing, see http://linksysinfo.org/

DD-WRT
One popular alternate firmware for the Linksys family of access point hard-
ware is DD-WRT (http://www.dd-wrt.com/). It includes several useful fea-
tures, including radio client mode, adjustable transmission power, various
captive portals, QoS support, and much more. It uses an intuitive web-
based configuration tool (unencrypted or via HTTPS), and also provides
SSH and telnet access.

Several versions of the firmware are available from the DD-WRT website.
The general procedure for upgrading is to download the version of the firm-
ware appropriate for your hardware, and upload it via the router's "firmware
update" feature. Specific installation details vary according to the hardware
version of your router. In addition to Linksys hardware, DD-WRT will run on
Buffalo, ASUS, the La Fonera, and other access points.

For specific instructions for your hardware, see the installation guide on the
DD-WRT wiki at http://www.dd-wrt.com/wiki/index.php/Installation. The de-
fault login for a fresh DD-WRT installation is root with the password admin.


Figure 5.3: The DD-WRT (v23) control panel

6
Security & Monitoring

In a traditional wired network, access control is very straightforward: If a
person has physical access to a computer or network hub, they can use (or
abuse) the network resources. While software mechanisms are an impor-
tant component of network security, limiting physical access to the network
devices is the ultimate access control mechanism. Simply put, if all termi-
nals and network components are only accessible to trusted individuals, the
network can likely be trusted.

The rules change significantly with wireless networks. While the apparent
range of your access point may seem to be just a few hundred meters, a user
with a high gain antenna may be able to make use of the network from several
blocks away. Should an unauthorized user be detected, is impossible to sim-
ply “trace the cable” back to the user s location. Without transmitting a single
packet, a nefarious user can even log all network data to disk. This data can
later be used to launch a more sophisticated attack against the network.
Never assume that radio waves simply “stop” at the edge of your property line.

It is usually unreasonable to completely trust all users of the network, even on
wired networks. Disgruntled employees, uneducated network users, and sim-
ple mistakes on the part of honest users can cause significant harm to network
operations. As the network architect, your goal is to facilitate private commu-
nication between legitimate users of the network. While a certain amount of
access control and authentication is necessary in any network, you have failed
in your job if legitimate users find it difficult to use the network to communicate.

There s an old saying that the only way to completely secure a computer is to
unplug it, lock it in a safe, destroy the key, and bury the whole thing in con-

157

158 Chapter 6: Security & Monitoring

crete. While such a system might be completely “secure”, it is useless for
communication. When you make security decisions for your network, re-
member that above all else, the network exists so that its users can commu-
nicate with each other. Security considerations are important, but should not
get in the way of the network s users.

Physical security
When installing a network, you are building an infrastructure that people de-
pend on. Security measures exist to ensure that the network is reliable. For
many installations, outages often occur due to human tampering, whether
accidental or not. Networks have physical components, such as wires and
boxes, which are easily disturbed. In many installations, people will not un-
derstand the purpose of the installed equipment, or curiosity may lead them
to experiment. They may not realize the importance of a cable connected to
a port. Someone may unplug an Ethernet cable so that they can connect
their laptop for 5 minutes, or move a switch because it is in their way. A plug
might be removed from a power bar because someone needs that recepta-
cle. Assuring the physical security of an installation is paramount. Signs and
labels will only be useful to those who can read your language. Putting things
out of the way and limiting access is the best means to assure that accidents
and tinkering do not occur.

In less developed economies, proper fasteners, ties, or boxes will not be as
easy to ﬁnd. You should be able to ﬁnd electrical supplies that will work just
as well. Custom enclosures are also easy to manufacture and should be
considered essential to any installation. It is often economical to pay a mason
to make holes and install conduit. Where this would be an expensive option
in the developed world, this type of labour intensive activity can be affordable
in Southern countries. PVC can be embedded in cement walls for passing
cable from room to room. This avoids the need to smash new holes every
time a cable needs to be passed. Plastic bags can be stuffed into the conduit
around the cables for insulation.

Small equipment should be mounted on the wall and larger equipment
should be put in a closet or in a cabinet.

Switches
Switches, hubs or interior access points can be screwed directly onto a wall
with a wall plug. It is best to put this equipment as high as possible to reduce
the chance that someone will touch the device or its cables.

Chapter 6: Security & Monitoring 159

Cables
At the very least, cables should be hidden and fastened. It is possible to find
plastic cable conduit that can be used in buildings. If you cannot find it, simple
cable attachments can be nailed into the wall to secure the cable. This will make
sure that the cable doesn't hang where it can be snagged, pinched or cut.

It is preferable to bury cables, rather than to leave them hanging across a
yard. Hanging wires might be used for drying clothes, or be snagged by a
ladder, etc. To avoid vermin and insects, use plastic electrical conduit. The
marginal expense will be well worth the trouble. The conduit should be buried
about 30 cm deep, or below the frost level in cold climates. It is worth the
extra investment of buying larger conduit than is presently required, so that
future cables can be run through the same tubing. Consider labeling buried
cable with a "call before you dig" sign to avoid future accidental outages.

Power
It is best to have power bars locked in a cabinet. If that is not possible, mount
the power bar under a desk, or on the wall and use duct tape (or gaffer tape, a
strong adhesive tape) to secure the plug into the receptacle. On the UPS and
power bar, do not leave any empty receptacles. Tape them if necessary. Peo-
ple will have the tendency to use the easiest receptacle, so make these critical
ones difficult to use. If you do not, you might find a fan or light plugged into
your UPS; though it is nice to have light, it is nicer to keep your server running!

Water
Protect your equipment from water and moisture. In all cases make sure that
your equipment, including your UPS is at least 30 cm from the ground, to
avoid damage from ﬂooding. Also try to have a roof over your equipment, so
that water and moisture will not fall onto it. In moist climates, it is important
that the equipment has proper ventilation to assure that moisture can be ex-
hausted. Small closets need to have ventilation, or moisture and heat can
degrade or destroy your gear.

Masts
Equipment installed on a mast is often safe from thieves. Nevertheless, to de-
ter thieves and to keep your equipment safe from winds it is good to over-
engineer mounts. Painting equipment a dull white or grey color reflects the sun
and makes it look plain and uninteresting. Panel antennas are often preferred
because they are much more subtle and less interesting than dishes. Any in-
stallation on walls should be high enough to require a ladder to reach. Try
choosing well-lit but not prominent places to put equipment. Also avoid anten-


nae that resemble television antennae, as those are items that will attract in-
terest by thieves, where a wifi antenna will be useless to the average thief.

Threats to the network
One critical difference between Ethernet and wireless is that wireless networks
are built on a shared medium. They more closely resemble the old network
hubs than modern switches, in that every computer connected to the network
can “see” the traffic of every other user. To monitor all network traffic on an
access point, one can simply tune to the channel being used, put the network
card into monitor mode, and log every frame. This data might be directly valu-
able to an eavesdropper (including data such as email, voice data, or online
chat logs). It may also provide passwords and other sensitive data, making it
possible to compromise the network even further. As we ll see later in this
chapter, this problem can be mitigated by the use of encryption.

Another serious problem with wireless networks is that its users are relatively
anonymous. While it is true that every wireless device includes a unique
MAC address that is supplied by the manufacturer, these addresses can of-
ten be changed with software. Even when the MAC address is known, it can
be very difficult to judge where a wireless user is physically located. Multi-
path effects, high-gain antennas, and widely varying radio transmitter charac-
teristics can make it impossible to determine if a malicious wireless user is
sitting in the next room or is in an apartment building a mile away.

While unlicensed spectrum provides a huge cost savings to the user, it has
the unfortunate side effect that denial of service (DoS) attacks are trivially
simple. By simply turning on a high powered access point, cordless phone,
video transmitter, or other 2.4 GHz device, a malicious person could cause
significant problems on the network. Many network devices are vulnerable to
other forms of denial of service attacks as well, such as disassociation flood-
ing and ARP table overflows.

Here are several categories of individuals who may cause problems on a
wireless network:

• Unintentional users. As more wireless networks are installed in densely
populated areas, it is common for laptop users to accidentally associate to
the wrong network. Most wireless clients will simply choose any available
wireless network when their preferred network is unavailable. The user
may then make use of this network as usual, completely unaware that they
may be transmitting sensitive data on someone else s network. Malicious
people may even take advantage of this by setting up access points in stra-
tegic locations, to try to attract unwitting users and capture their data.


The first step in avoiding this problem is educating your users, and stress-
ing the importance of connecting only to known and trusted networks.
Many wireless clients can be configured to only connect to trusted net-
works, or to ask permission before joining a new network. As we will see
later in this chapter, users can safely connect to open public networks by
using strong encryption.
• War drivers. The “war driving” phenomenon draws its name from the
popular 1983 hacker film, “War Games”. War drivers are interested in find-
ing the physical location of wireless networks. They typically drive around
with a laptop, GPS, and omnidirectional antenna, logging the name and
location of any networks they find. These logs are then combined with logs
from other war drivers, and are turned into graphical maps depicting the
wireless “footprint” of a particular city.
The vast majority of war drivers likely pose no direct threat to networks, but
the data they collect might be of interest to a network cracker. For example,
it might be obvious that an unprotected access point detected by a war driver
is located inside a sensitive building, such as a government or corporate of-
fice. A malicious person could use this information to illegally access the
network there. Arguably, such an AP should never have been set up in the
first place, but war driving makes the problem all the more urgent. As we will
see later in this chapter, war drivers who use the popular program NetStum-
bler can be detected with programs such as Kismet. For more information
about war driving, see sites such as http://www.wifimaps.com/,
http://www.nodedb.com/, or http://www.netstumbler.com/ .
• Rogue access points. There are two general classes of rogue access
points: those incorrectly installed by legitimate users, and those installed
by malicious people who intend to collect data or do harm to the network.
In the simplest case, a legitimate network user may want better wireless
coverage in their office, or they might find security restrictions on the corpo-
rate wireless network too difficult to comply with. By installing an inexpen-
sive consumer access point without permission, the user opens the entire
network up to potential attacks from the inside. While it is possible to scan
for unauthorized access points on your wired network, setting a clear policy
that prohibits them is very important.
The second class of rogue access point can be very difficult to deal with. By
installing a high powered AP that uses the same ESSID as an existing net-
work, a malicious person can trick people into using their equipment, and log
or even manipulate all data that passes through it. Again, if your users are
trained to use strong encryption, this problem is significantly reduced.
• Eavesdroppers. As mentioned earlier, eavesdropping is a very difficult
problem to deal with on wireless networks. By using a passive monitoring
tool (such as Kismet), an eavesdropper can log all network data from a
great distance away, without ever making their presence known. Poorly


encrypted data can simply be logged and cracked later, while unencrypted
data can be easily read in real time.
If you have difficulty convincing others of this problem, you might want to
demonstrate tools such as Etherpeg (http://www.etherpeg.org/) or Driftnet
(http://www.ex-parrot.com/~chris/driftnet/). These tools watch a wireless
network for graphical data, such as GIF and JPEG files. While other users
are browsing the Internet, these tools simply display all graphics found in a
graphical collage. I often use tools such as this as a demonstration when
lecturing on wireless security. While you can tell a user that their email is
vulnerable without encryption, nothing drives the message home like show-
ing them the pictures they are looking at in their web browser.
Again, while it cannot be completely prevented, proper application of strong
encryption will discourage eavesdropping.

This introduction is intended to give you an idea of the problems you are up
against when designing a wireless network. Later in this chapter, we will look
at tools and techniques that will help you to mitigate these problems.

Authentication
Before being granted access to network resources, users should first be
authenticated. In an ideal world, every wireless user would have an identi-
fier that is unique, unchangeable, and cannot be impersonated by other us-
ers. This turns out to be a very difficult problem to solve in the real world.

The closest feature we have to a unique identifier is the MAC address. This
is the 48-bit number assigned by the manufacturer to every wireless and
Ethernet device. By employing mac filtering on our access points, we can
authenticate users based on their MAC address. With this feature, the ac-
cess point keeps an internal table of approved MAC addresses. When a
wireless user tries to associate to the access point, the MAC address of the
client must be on the approved list, or the association will be denied. Alter-
nately, the AP may keep a table of known “bad” MAC addresses, and permit
all devices that are not on the list.

Unfortunately, this is not an ideal security mechanism. Maintaining MAC ta-
bles on every device can be cumbersome, requiring all client devices to have
their MAC addresses recorded and uploaded to the APs. Even worse, MAC
addresses can often be changed in software. By observing MAC addresses
in use on a wireless network, a determined attacker can spoof (impersonate)
an approved MAC address and successfully associate to the AP. While MAC
filtering will prevent unintentional users and even most curious individuals
from accessing the network, MAC filtering alone cannot prevent attacks from
determined attackers.


MAC filters are useful for temporarily limiting access from misbehaving clients.
For example, if a laptop has a virus that sends large amounts of spam or other
traffic, its MAC address can be added to the filter table to stop the traffic imme-
diately. This will buy you time to track down the user and fix the problem.

Another popular authentication feature of wireless the so-called closed net-
work. In a typical network, APs will broadcast their ESSID many times per
second, allowing wireless clients (as well as tools such as NetStumbler) to
find the network and display its presence to the user. In a closed network,
the AP does not beacon the ESSID, and users must know the full name of
the network before the AP will allow association. This prevents casual users
from discovering the network and selecting it in their wireless client.

There are a number of drawbacks to this feature. Forcing users to type in
the full ESSID before connecting to the network is error prone and often
leads to support calls and complaints. Since the network isn t obviously pre-
sent in site survey tools like NetStumbler, this can prevent your networks
from showing up on war driving maps. But it also means that other network
builders cannot easily find your network either, and specifically won t know
that you are already using a given channel. A conscientious neighbor may
perform a site survey, see no nearby networks, and install their own network
on the same channel you are using. This will cause interference problems
for both you and your neighbor.

Finally, using closed networks ultimately adds little to your overall networks
security. By using passive monitoring tools (such as Kismet), a skilled user
can detect frames sent from your legitimate clients to the AP. These frames
necessarily contain the network name. A malicious user can then use this
name to associate to the access point, just like a normal user would.

Encryption is probably the best tool we have for authenticating wireless us-
ers. Through strong encryption, we can uniquely identify a user in a manner
that is very difficult to spoof, and use that identity to determine further net-
work access. Encryption also has the benefit of adding a layer of privacy by
preventing eavesdroppers from easily watching network traffic.

The most widely employed encryption method on wireless networks is WEP
encryption. WEP stands for wired equivalent privacy, and is supported by
virtually all 802.11a/b/g equipment. WEP uses a shared 40-bit key to encrypt
data between the access point and client. The key must be entered on the
APs as well as on each of the clients. With WEP enabled, wireless clients
cannot associate with the AP until they use the correct key. An eavesdropper
listening to a WEP-enabled network will still see traffic and MAC addresses,
but the data payload of each packet is encrypted. This provides a fairly good
authentication mechanism while also adding a bit of privacy to the network.


WEP is definitely not the strongest encryption solution available. For one
thing, the WEP key is shared between all users. If the key is compromised
(say, if one user tells a friend what the password is, or if an employee is let
go) then changing the password can be prohibitively difficult, since all APs
and client devices need to be changed. This also means that legitimate us-
ers of the network can still eavesdrop on each others traffic, since they all
know the shared key.

The key itself is often poorly chosen, making offline cracking attempts feasi-
ble. Even worse, the implementation of WEP itself is broken in many access
points, making it even easier to crack some networks. While manufacturers
have implemented a number of extensions to WEP (such as longer keys and
fast rotation schemes), these extensions are not part of the standard, and
generally will not interoperate between equipment from different manufactur-
ers. By upgrading to the most recent firmware for all of your wireless de-
vices, you can prevent some of the early attacks found in WEP.

WEP can still be a useful authentication tool. Assuming your users can be
trusted not to give away the password, you can be fairly sure that your wire-
less clients are legitimate. While WEP cracking is possible, it is beyond the
skill of most users. WEP is quite useful for securing long distance point-to-
point links, even on generally open networks. By using WEP on such a link,
you will discourage others from associating to the link, and they will likely use
other available APs instead. Think of WEP as a handy “keep out” sign for
your network. Anyone who detects the network will see that a key is re-
quired, making it clear that they are not welcome to use it.

WEPs greatest strength is its interoperability. In order to comply with the
802.11 standards, all wireless devices support basic WEP. While it isn t the
strongest method available, it is certainly the most commonly implemented
encryption feature. We will look at other more advanced encryption techniques
later in this chapter.

For more details about the state of WEP encryption, see these papers:

• http://www.isaac.cs.berkeley.edu/isaac/wep-faq.html
• http://www.cs.umd.edu/~waa/wireless.pdf
• http://www.crypto.com/papers/others/rc4_ksaproc.ps

Another data-link layer authentication protocol is Wi-Fi Protected Access, or
WPA. WPA was created specifically to deal with the known problems with
WEP mentioned earlier. It provides a significantly stronger encryption
scheme, and can use a shared private key, unique keys assigned to each
user, or even SSL certificates to authenticate both the client and the access
point. Authentication credentials are checked using the 802.1X protocol,


which can consult a third party database such as RADIUS. Through the use
of Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), keys can be rotated quickly
over time, further reducing the likelihood that a particular session can be
cracked. Overall, WPA provides significantly better authentication and pri-
vacy than standard WEP.

WPA requires fairly recent access point hardware and up-to-date firmware on
all wireless clients, as well as a substantial amount of configuration. If you
are installing a network in a setting where you control the entire hardware
platform, WPA can be ideal. By authenticating both clients and APs, it solves
the rogue access point problem and provides many significant advantages
over WEP. But in most network settings where the vintage of hardware is
mixed and the knowledge of wireless users is limited, WPA can be a night-
mare to install. It is for this reason that most sites continue to use WEP, if
encryption is used at all.

Captive portals
One common authentication tool used on wireless networks is the captive
portal. A captive portal uses a standard web browser to give a wireless user
the opportunity to present login credentials. It can also be used to present
information (such as an Acceptable Use Policy) to the user before granting
further access. By using a web browser instead of a custom program for
authentication, captive portals work with virtually all laptops and operating
systems. Captive portals are typically used on open networks with no other
authentication methods (such as WEP or MAC filters).

To begin, a wireless user opens their laptop and selects the network. Their
computer requests a DHCP lease, which is granted. They then use their web
browser to go to any site on the Internet.

http://google.com/

Internet Captive
portal Login:

Figure 6.1: The user requests a web page and is redirected.

Instead of receiving the requested page, the user is presented with a login
screen. This page can require the user to enter a user name and password,
simply click a “login” button, type in numbers from a pre-paid ticket, or enter
any other credentials that the network administrators require. The user then


enters their credentials, which are checked by the access point or another
server on the network. All other network access is blocked until these cre-
dentials are verified.

HTTP request waiting

Internet
Captive
portal
User: joe
Password: secret

Authentication
service

Figure 6.2: The user’s credentials are verified before further network access is
granted. The authentication server can be the access point itself, another machine
on the local network, or a server anywhere on the Internet.
Once authenticated, the user is permitted to access network resources, and
is typically redirected to the site they originally requested.

Redirect to http://google.com/

Internet
Captive
Credentials portal http://google.com/
verified.

Authentication
service

Figure 6.3: After authenticating, the user is permitted to access the rest
of the network.
Captive portals provide no encryption for the wireless users, instead relying
on the MAC and IP address of the client as a unique identifier. Since this is
not necessarily very secure, many implementations will require the user to
re-authenticate periodically. This can often be automatically done by mini-
mizing a special pop-up browser window when the user first logs in.

Since they do not provide strong encryption, captive portals are not a very
good choice for networks that need to be locked down to only allow access


from trusted users. They are much more suited to cafes, hotels, and other
public access locations where casual network users are expected.

In public or semi-public network settings, encryption techniques such as
WEP and WPA are effectively useless. There is simply no way to distribute
public or shared keys to members of the general public without compromis-
ing the security of those keys. In these settings, a simple application such as
a captive portal provides a level of service somewhere between completely
open and completely closed.

Popular hotspot projects
• Chillispot (http://www.chillispot.info/). Chillispot is a captive portal de-
signed to authenticate against an existing user credentials database, such
as RADUIS. Combined with the application phpMyPrePaid, pre-paid ticket
based authentication can be implemented very easily You can download
phpMyPrePaid from http://sourceforge.net/projects/phpmyprepaid/.
• WiFi Dog (http://www.wiﬁdog.org/). WiFi Dog provides a very complete
captive portal authentication package in very little space (typically under
30kb). From a user s perspective, it requires no pop-up or javascript sup-
port, allowing it to work on a wider variety of wireless devices.
• m0n0wall (http://m0n0.ch/wall/). m0n0wall is a complete embedded oper-
ating system based on FreeBSD. It includes a captive portal with RADIUS
support, as well as a PHP web server.
• NoCatSplash (http://nocat.net/download/NoCatSplash/) provides a cus-
tomizable splash page to your users, requiring them to click a “login” button
before using the network. This is useful for identifying the operators of the
network and displaying rules for network access. It provides a very easy
solution in situations where you need to provide users of an open network
with information and an acceptable use policy.

Privacy
Most users are blissfully unaware that their private email, chat conversations,
and even passwords are often sent “in the clear” over dozens of untrusted
networks before arriving at their ultimate destination on the Internet. How-
ever mistaken they may be, users still typically have some expectation of
privacy when using computer networks.

Privacy can be achieved, even on untrusted networks such as public access
points and the Internet. The only proven effective method for protecting pri-
vacy is the use of strong end-to-end encryption.


Encryption techniques such as WEP and WPA attempt to address the privacy
issue at layer two, the data-link layer. This does protect against eavesdrop-
pers listening in on the wireless connection, but this protection ends at the
access point. If the wireless client uses insecure protocols (such as POP or
simple SMTP for receiving and sending email), then users beyond the AP
can still log the session and see the sensitive data. As mentioned earlier,
WEP also suffers from the fact that it uses a shared private key. This means
that legitimate wireless users can eavesdrop on each other, since they all
know the private key.

By using encryption to the remote end of the connection, users can neatly
sidestep the entire problem. These techniques work well even on untrusted
public networks, where eavesdroppers are listening and possibly even ma-
nipulating data coming from the access point.

To ensure data privacy, good end-to-end encryption should provide the fol-
lowing features:

• Veriﬁed authentication of the remote end. The user should be able to
know without a doubt that the remote end is who it claims to be. Without
authentication, a user could give sensitive data to anyone claiming to be
the legitimate service.
• Strong encryption methods. The encryption algorithm should stand up
to public scrutiny, and not be easily decrypted by a third party. There is no
security in obscurity, and strong encryption is even stronger when the algo-
rithm is widely known and subject to peer review. A good algorithm with a
suitably large and protected key can provide encryption that is unlikely to
be broken by any effort in our lifetimes using current technology.
• Public key cryptography. While not an absolute requirement for end-to-
end encryption, the use of public key cryptography instead of a shared key
can ensure that an individual's data remains private, even if the key of an-
other user of the service is compromised. It also solves certain problems
with distributing keys to users over untrusted networks.
• Data encapsulation. A good end-to-end encryption mechanism protects
as much data as possible. This can range from encrypting a single email
transaction to encapsulation of all IP trafﬁc, including DNS lookups and
other supporting protocols. Some encryption tools simply provide a secure
channel that other applications can use. This allows users to run any pro-
gram they like and still have the protection of strong encryption, even if the
programs themselves don t support it.

Be aware that laws regarding the use of encryption vary widely from place to
place. Some countries treat encryption as munitions, and may require a
permit, escrow of private keys, or even prohibit its use altogether. Before


implementing any solution that involves encryption, be sure to verify that use
of this technology is permitted in your local area.

In the following sections, we ll take a look at some specific tools that can pro-
vide good protection for your users data.

SSL
The most widely available end-to-end encryption technology is Secure
Sockets Layer, known simply as SSL. Built into virtually all web browsers,
SSL uses public key cryptography and a trusted public key infrastructure
(PKI) to secure data communications on the web. Whenever you visit a web
URL that starts with https, you are using SSL.

The SSL implementation built into web browsers includes a collection of cer-
tificates from trusted sources, called certificate authorities (CA). These
certificates are cryptographic keys that are used to verify the authenticity of
websites. When you browse to a website that uses SSL, the browser and
the server first exchange certificates. The browser then verifies that the cer-
tificate provided by the server matches its DNS host name, that it has not
expired, and that it is signed by a trusted certificate authority. The server
optionally verifies the identity of the browser s certificate. If the certificates
are approved, the browser and server then negotiate a master session key
using the previously exchanged certificates to protect it. That key is then
used to encrypt all communications until the browser disconnects. This kind
of data encapsulation is known as a tunnel.

The tunnel can terminate Eavesdroppers can watch
anywhere on the Internet. unencrypted wireless traffic.

Internet
Access point

Wireless traffic is protected
by an encrypted tunnel.

Figure 6.4: Eavesdroppers must break strong encryption to monitor traffic over an
encrypted tunnel. The conversation inside the tunnel is identical to any other unen-
crypted conversation.

The use of certificates with a PKI not only protects the communication from
eavesdroppers, but also prevents so-called man-in-the-middle (MITM) at-


tacks. In a man-in-the-middle attack, a malicious user intercepts all commu-
nication between the browser and the server. By presenting counterfeit cer-
tificates to both the browser and the server, the malicious user could carry on
two simultaneous encrypted sessions. Since the malicious user knows the
secret on both connections, it is trivial to observe and manipulate data pass-
ing between the server and the browser.

Server Man-in-the-middle User

Figure 6.5: The man-in-the-middle effectively controls everything the user sees, and
can record and manipulate all traffic. Without a public key infrastructure to verify the
authenticity of keys, strong encryption alone cannot protect against this kind of attack.

Use of a good PKI prevents this kind of attack. In order to be successful, the
malicious user would have to present a certificate to the client that is signed
by a trusted certificate authority. Unless a CA has been compromised (very
unlikely) or the user is tricked into accepting the forged certificate, then such
an attack is not possible. This is why it is vitally important that users under-
stand that ignoring warnings about expired or improper certificates is very
dangerous, especially when using wireless networks. By clicking the “ignore”
button when prompted by their browser, users open themselves up to many
potential attacks.

SSL is not only used for web browsing. Insecure email protocols such as
IMAP, POP, and SMTP can be secured by wrapping them in an SSL tunnel.
Most modern email clients support IMAPS and POPS (secure IMAP and
POP) as well as SSL/TLS protected SMTP. If your email server does not
provide SSL support, you can still secure it with SSL using a package like
Stunnel (http://www.stunnel.org/). SSL can be used to effectively secure just
about any service that runs over TCP.

SSH
Most people think of SSH as a secure replacement for telnet, just as scp
and sftp are the secure counterparts of rcp and ftp. But SSH is much
more than encrypted remote shell. Like SSL, it uses strong public key cryp-
tography to verify the remote server and encrypt data. Instead of a PKI, it
uses a key fingerprint cache that is checked before a connection is permitted.
It can use passwords, public keys, or other methods for user authentication.

Many people do not know that SSH can also act as a general purpose en-
crypting tunnel, or even an encrypting web proxy. By first establishing an


SSH connection to a trusted location near (or even on) a remote server, in-
secure protocols can be protected from eavesdropping and attack.

While this technique may be a bit advanced for many users, network archi-
tects can use SSH to encrypt traffic across untrusted links, such as wireless
point-to-point links. Since the tools are freely available and run over stan-
dard TCP, any educated user can implement SSH connections for them-
selves, providing their own end-to-end encryption without administrator inter-
vention.

OpenSSH (http://openssh.org/) is probably the most popular implementation
on Unix-like platforms. Free implementations such as Putty
(http://www.putty.nl/) and WinSCP (http://winscp.net/) are available for
Windows. OpenSSH will also run on Windows under the Cygwin package
(http://www.cygwin.com/). These examples will assume that you are using
a recent version of OpenSSH.

Internet SSH Server
All traffic sent from
SSH server is
unencrypted

All web traffic is
SSH listens for a TCP encrypted by SSH
connection on localhost
port 3128

Web browser uses
localhost port 3128
for its proxy

Figure 6.6: The SSH tunnel protects web traffic up to the SSH server itself.

To establish an encrypted tunnel from a port on the local machine to a port
on the remote side, use the -L switch. For example, suppose you want to
forward web proxy traffic over an encrypted link to the squid server at
squid.example.net. Forward port 3128 (the default proxy port) using this
command:

ssh -fN -g -L3128:squid.example.net:3128 squid.example.net


The -fN switches instruct ssh to fork into the background after connecting.
The -g switch allows other users on your local segment to connect to the lo-
cal machine and use it for encryption over the untrusted link. OpenSSH will
use a public key for authentication if you have set one up, or it will prompt
you for your password on the remote side. You can then configure your web
browser to connect to localhost port 3128 as its web proxy service. All web
traffic will then be encrypted before transmission to the remote side.

SSH can also act as a dynamic SOCKS4 or SOCKS5 proxy. This allows you
to create an encrypting web proxy, without the need to set up squid. Note
that this is not a caching proxy; it simply encrypts all traffic.

ssh -fN -D 8080 remote.example.net

Configure your web browser to use SOCKS4 or SOCKS5 on local port 8080,
and away you go.

SSH can encrypt data on any TCP port, including ports used for email. It can
even compress the data along the way, which can decrease latency on low
capacity links.

ssh -fNCg -L110:localhost:110 -L25:localhost:25 mailhost.example.net

The -C switch turns on compression. You can add as many port forwarding
rules as you like by specifying the -L switch multiple times. Note that in order
to bind to a local port less than 1024, you must have root privileges on the
local machine.

These are just a few examples of the flexibility of SSH. By implementing
public keys and using the ssh forwarding agent, you can automate the crea-
tion of encrypted tunnels throughout your wireless network, and protect your
communications with strong encryption and authentication.

OpenVPN
OpenVPN is a free, open source VPN implementation built on SSL encryp-
tion. There are OpenVPN client implementations for a wide range of operat-
ing systems, including Linux, Windows 2000/XP and higher, OpenBSD,
FreeBSD, NetBSD, Mac OS X, and Solaris. Being a VPN, it encapsulates all
traffic (including DNS and all other protocols) in an encrypted tunnel, not just
a single TCP port. Most people find it considerably easier to understand and
configure than IPSEC.

OpenVPN also has some disadvantages, such as fairly high latency. Some
amount of latency is unavoidable since all encryption/decryption is done in
user space, but using relatively new computers on either end of the tunnel
can minimize this. While it can use traditional shared keys, OpenVPN


really shines when used with SSL certificates and a certificate authority.
OpenVPN has many advantages that make it a good option for providing
end-to-end security.

Some of these reasons include:

• It is based on a proven, robust encryption protocol (SSL and RSA)
• It is relatively easy to configure
• It functions across many different platforms
• It is well documented
• It's free and open source.

OpenVPN needs to connect to a single TCP or UDP port on the remote side.
Once established, it can encapsulate all data down to the Networking layer,
or even down to the Data-Link layer, if your solution requires it. You can use it
to create robust VPN connections between individual machines, or simply
use it to connect network routers over untrusted wireless networks.

VPN technology is a complex field, and is a bit beyond the scope of this
section to go into more detail. It is important to understand how VPNs fit
into the structure of your network in order to provide the best possible pro-
tection without opening up your organization to unintentional problems.
There are many good online resources that deal with installing OpenVPN
on a server and client, we recommend this article from Linux Journal:
http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7949 as well as the official HOWTO:
http://openvpn.net/howto.html

Tor & Anonymizers
The Internet is basically an open network based on trust. When you connect
to a web server across the Internet, your traffic passes through many differ-
ent routers, owned by a great variety of institutions, corporations and indi-
viduals. In principle, any one of these routers has the ability to look closely at
your data, seeing the source and destination addresses, and quite often also
the actual content of the data. Even if your data is encrypted using a secure
protocol, it is possible for your Internet provider to monitor the amount of data
transferred, as well as the source and destination of that data. Often this is
enough to piece together a fairly complete picture of your activities on-line.

Privacy and anonymity are important, and closely linked to each other. There
are many valid reasons to consider protecting your privacy by anonymizing
your network traffic. Suppose you want to offer Internet connectivity to your
local community by setting up a number of access points for people to con-
nect to. Whether you charge them for their access or not, there is always the


risk that people use the network for something that is not legal in your coun-
try or region. You could plead with the legal system that this particular illegal
action was not performed by yourself, but could have been performed by
anyone connecting to your network. The problem is neatly sidestepped if it
were technically infeasible to determine where your traffic was actually
headed. And what about on-line censorship? Publishing web pages anony-
mously may also be necessary to avoid government censorship.

There are tools that allow you to anonymize your traffic in relatively easy
ways. The combination of Tor (http://www.torproject.org/) and Privoxy
(http://www.privoxy.org/) is a powerful way to run a local proxy server that
will pass your Internet traffic through a number of servers all across the net,
making it very difficult to follow the trail of information. Tor can be run on a
local PC, under Microsoft Windows, Mac OSX, Linux and a variety of BSD's,
where it anonymizes traffic from the browser on that particular machine. Tor
and Privoxy can also be installed on a gateway server, or even a small em-
bedded access point (such as a Linksys WRT54G) where they provides ano-
nymity to all network users automatically.

Tor works by repeatedly bouncing your TCP connections across a number of
servers spread throughout the Internet, and by wrapping routing information
in a number of encrypted layers (hence the term onion routing), that get
peeled off as the packet moves across the network. This means that, at any
given point in the network, the source and destination addresses cannot be
linked together. This makes traffic analysis extremely difficult.

The need for the Privoxy privacy proxy in connection with Tor is due to the
fact that name server queries (DNS queries) in most cases are not passed
through the proxy server, and someone analyzing your traffic would easily be
able to see that you were trying to reach a specific site (say google.com) by
the fact that you sent a DNS query to translate google.com to the appropriate
IP address. Privoxy connects to Tor as a SOCKS4a proxy, which uses host-
names (not IP addresses) to get your packets to the intended destination.

In other words, using Privoxy with Tor is a simple and effective way to pre-
vent traffic analysis from linking your IP address with the services you use
online. Combined with secure, encrypted protocols (such as those we have
seen in this chapter), Tor and Privoxy provide a high level of anonymity on
the Internet.

Network Monitoring
Network monitoring is the use of logging and analysis tools to accurately de-
termine traffic flows, utilization, and other performance indicators on a net-
work. Good monitoring tools give you both hard numbers and graphical ag-


gregate representations of the state of the network. This helps you to visu-
alize precisely what is happening, so you know where adjustments may be
needed. These tools can help you answer critical questions, such as:

• What are the most popular services used on the network?
• Who are the heaviest network users?
• What other wireless channels are in use in my area?
• Are users installing wireless access points on my private wired network?
• At what time of the day is the network most utilized?
• What sites do your users frequent?
• Is the amount of inbound or outbound traffic close to our available network
capacity?
• Are there indications of an unusual network situation that is consuming
bandwidth or causing other problems?
• Is our Internet Service Provider (ISP) providing the level of service that we
are paying for? This should be answered in terms of available bandwidth,
packet loss, latency, and overall availability.

And perhaps the most important question of all:

• Do the observed traffic patterns fit our expectations?

Let's look at how a typical system administrator can make good use of net-
work monitoring tools.

An effective network monitoring example
For the purposes of example, let's assume that we are in charge of a network
that has been running for three months. It consists of 50 computers and three
servers: email, web, and proxy servers. While initially things are going well,
users begin to complain of slow network speeds and an increase in spam
emails. As time goes on, computer performance slows to a crawl (even
when not using the network), causing considerable frustration in your users.

With frequent complaints and very low computer usage, the Board is ques-
tioning the need for so much network hardware. The Board also wants evi-
dence that the bandwidth they are paying for is actually being used. As the
network administrator, you are on the receiving end of these complaints. How
can you diagnose the sudden drop in network and computer performance
and also justify the network hardware and bandwidth costs?


Monitoring the LAN (local traffic)
To get an idea of exactly what is causing the slow down, you should begin by
looking at traffic on the local LAN. There are several advantages to monitor-
ing local traffic:

• Troubleshooting is greatly simplified.
• Viruses can be detected and eliminated.
• Malicious users can be detected and dealt with.
• Network hardware and resources can be justified with real statistics.

Assume that all of the switches support the Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP). SNMP is an application-layer protocol designed to facili-
tate the exchange of management information between network devices. By
assigning an IP address to each switch, you are able to monitor all the inter-
faces on that switch, observing the entire network from a single point. This is
much easier than enabling SNMP on all computers in a network.

By using a free tool such as MRTG (see Page 190), you can monitor each
port on the switch and present data graphically, as an aggregate average
over time. The graphs are accessible from the web, so you are able to view
the graphs from any machine at anytime.

With MRTG monitoring in place, it becomes obvious that the internal LAN is
swamped with far more traffic than the Internet connection can support, even
when the lab is unoccupied. This is a pretty clear indication that some of the
computers are infested with a network virus. After installing good anti-virus
and anti-spyware software on all of the machines, the internal LAN traffic
settles down to expected levels. The machines run much more quickly,
spam emails are reduced, and the users' morale quickly improves.

Monitoring the WAN (external traffic)
In addition to watching the traffic on the internal LAN, you need to demon-
strate that the bandwidth the organization is paying for is actually what they
are getting from their ISP. You can achieve this by monitoring external traf-
fic.

External traffic is generally classified as anything sent over a Wide Area
Network (WAN). Anything received from (or sent to) a network other than
your internal LAN also qualifies as external traffic. The advantages of moni-
toring external traffic include:

• Internet bandwidth costs are justified by showing actual usage, and
whether that usage agrees with your ISP's bandwidth charges.


• Future capacity needs are estimated by watching usage trends and pre-
dicting likely growth patterns.
• Intruders from the Internet are detected and filtered before they can cause
problems.

Monitoring this traffic is easily done with the use of MRTG on an SNMP en-
abled device, such as a router. If your router does not support SNMP, then
you can add a switch between your router and your ISP connection, and
monitor the port traffic just as you would with an internal LAN.

Detecting Network Outages
With monitoring tools in place, you now have an accurate measurement of
how much bandwidth the organization is using. This measurement should
agree with your ISP's bandwidth charges. It can also indicate the actual
throughput of your connection if you are using close to your available capac-
ity at peak times. A "flat top" graph is a fairly clear indication that you are
operating at full capacity. Figure 6.7 shows flat tops in peak outbound traffic
in the middle of every day except Sunday.

It is clear that your current Internet connection is overutilized at peak times,
causing network lag. After presenting this information to the Board, you can
make a plan for further optimizing your existing connection (by upgrading
your proxy server and using other techniques in this book) and estimate how
soon you will need to upgrade your connection to keep up with the demand.
This is also an excellent time to review your operational policy with the
Board, and discuss ways to bring actual usage in line with that policy.

Figure 6.7: A graph with a "flat top" is one indication of overutilization.


Later in the week, you receive an emergency phone call in the evening.
Apparently, no one in the lab can browse the web or send email. You rush to
the lab and hastily reboot the proxy server, with no results. Browsing and
email are still broken. You then reboot the router, but there is still no success.
You continue eliminating the possible fault areas one by one until you realize
that the network switch is off - a loose power cable is to blame. After applying
power, the network comes to life again.

How can you troubleshoot such an outage without such time consuming trial
and error? Is it possible to be notified of outages as they occur, rather than
waiting for a user to complain? One way to do this is to use a program such
as Nagios that continually polls network devices and notifies you of outages.
Nagios will report on the availability of various machines and services, and
will alert you to machines that have gone down. In addition to displaying the
network status graphically on a web page, it will send notifications via SMS
or email, alerting you immediately when problems arise.

With good monitoring tools in place, you will be able to justify the cost of
equipment and bandwidth by effectively demonstrating how it is being used
by the organization. You are notified automatically when problems arise, and
you have historical statistics of how the network devices are performing. You
can check the current performance against this history to find unusual behav-
ior, and head off problems before they become critical. When problems do
come up, it is simple to determine the source and nature of the problem.
Your job is easier, the Board is satisfied, and your users are much happier.

Monitoring your network
Managing a network without monitoring is similar to driving a vehicle without
a speedometer or a fuel gauge, with your eyes closed. How do you know
how fast you are going? Is the car consuming fuel as efficiently as promised
by the dealers? If you do an engine overhaul several months later, is the car
any faster or more efficient than it was before?

Similarly, how can you pay for an electricity or water bill without seeing your
monthly usage from a meter? You must have an account of your network
bandwidth utilization in order to justify the cost of services and hardware pur-
chases, and to account for usage trends.

There are several benefits to implementing a good monitoring system for
your network:

1. Network budget and resources are justified. Good monitoring tools
can demonstrate without a doubt that the network infrastructure (band-
width, hardware, and software) is suitable and able to handle the re-
quirements of network users.


2. Network intruders are detected and filtered. By watching your net-
work traffic, you can detect attackers and prevent access to critical inter-
nal servers and services.
3. Network viruses are easily detected. You can be alerted to the pres-
ence of network viruses, and take appropriate action before they con-
sume Internet bandwidth and destabilize your network
4. Troubleshooting of network problems is greatly simplified. Rather
than attempting "trial and error" to debug network problems, you can be
instantly notified of specific problems. Some kinds of problems can even
be repaired automatically.
5. Network performance can be highly optimized. Without effective
monitoring, it is impossible to fine tune your devices and protocols to
achieve the best possible performance.
6. Capacity planning is much easier. With solid historical performance
records, you do not have to "guess" how much bandwidth you will need
as your network grows.
7. Proper network usage can be enforced. When bandwidth is a scarce
resource, the only way to be fair to all users is to ensure that the network
is being used for its intended purpose.

Fortunately, network monitoring does not need to be an expensive undertak-
ing. There are many freely available open source tools that will show you
exactly what is happening on your network in considerable detail. This sec-
tion will help you identify many invaluable tools and how best to use them.

The dedicated monitoring server
While monitoring services can be added to an existing network server, it is of-
ten desirable to dedicate one machine (or more, if necessary) to network moni-
toring. Some applications (such as ntop) require considerable resources to
run, particularly on a busy network. But most logging and monitoring programs
have modest RAM and storage requirements, typically with little CPU power
required. Since open source operating systems (such as Linux or BSD) make
very efficient use of hardware resources, this makes it possible to build a very
capable monitoring server from recycled PC parts. There is usually no need
to purchase a brand new server to relegate to monitoring duties.

The exception to this rule is in very large installations. If your network in-
cludes more than a few hundred nodes, or if you consume more than
50 Mbps of Internet bandwidth, you will likely need to split up monitoring du-
ties between a few dedicated machines. This depends largely on exactly
what you want to monitor. If you are attempting to account for all services
accessed per MAC address, this will consume considerably more resources


than simply measuring network ﬂows on a switch port. But for the majority of
installations, a single dedicated monitoring machine is usually enough.

While consolidating monitoring services to a single machine will streamline
administration and upgrades, it can also ensure better ongoing monitoring.
For example, if you install monitoring services on a web server, and that web
server develops problems, then your network may not be monitored until the
problem is resolved.

To a network administrator, the data collected about network performance is
nearly as important as the network itself. Your monitoring should be robust
and protected from service outages as well as possible. Without network
statistics, you are effectively blind to problems with the network.

Where does the server ﬁt in my network?
If you are only interested in collecting network flow statistics from a router,
you can do this from just about anywhere on the LAN. This provides simple
feedback about utilization, but cannot give you comprehensive details
about usage patterns. Figure 6.8 shows a typical MRTG graph generated
from the Internet router. While the inbound and outbound utilization are
clear, there is no detail about which computers, users, or protocols are us-
ing bandwidth.

Figure 6.8: Polling the edge router can show you the overall network utilization, but
you cannot break the data down further into machines, services, and users.

For more detail, the dedicated monitoring server must have access to eve-
rything that needs to be watched. Typically, this means it must have ac-
cess to the entire network. To monitor a WAN connection, such as the
Internet link to your ISP, the monitoring server must be able to see the traf-
fic passing through the edge router. To monitor a LAN, the monitoring
server is typically connected to a monitor port on the switch. If multiple
switches are used in an installation, the monitoring server may need a con-
nection to all of them. That connection can either be a physical cable, or if


your network switches support it, a VLAN specifically configured for moni-
toring traffic.

Internet

Monitor port Network
Switch
monitor

Figure 6.9: Use the monitor port on your switch to observe trafﬁc crossing all of the
network ports.
If monitor port functionality is not available on your switch, the monitoring
server may be installed between your internal LAN and the Internet. While
this will work, it introduces a single point of failure for the network, as the
network will fail if the monitoring server develops a problem. It is also a po-
tential performance bottleneck, if the server cannot keep up with the de-
mands of the network.

Internet

Network
monitor

Figure 6.10: By inserting a network monitor between the LAN and your Internet con-
nection, you can observe all network trafﬁc.


A better solution is to use a simple network hub (not a switch) which con-
nects the monitoring machine to the internal LAN, external router, and the
monitoring machine. While this does still introduce an additional point of fail-
ure to the network (since the entire network will be unreachable if the hub
dies), hubs are generally considered to be much more reliable than routers.
They are also very easily replaced should they fail.

Internet

Hub Network
monitor

Figure 6.11: If your switch does not provide monitor port functionality, you can insert
a network hub between your Internet router and the LAN, and connect the monitoring
server to the hub.
Once your monitoring server is in place, you are ready to start collecting
data.

What to monitor
It is possible to plot just about any network event and watch its value on a
graph over time. Since every network is slightly different, you will have to
decide what information is important in order to gauge the performance of
your network.

Here are some important indicators that many network administrators will
typically track.

Wireless statistics
• Received signal and noise from all backbone nodes
• Number of associated stations
• Detected adjacent networks and channels
• Excessive retransmissions


• Radio data rate, if using automatic rate scaling

Switch statistics
• Bandwidth usage per switch port
• Bandwidth usage broken down by protocol
• Bandwidth usage broken down by MAC address
• Broadcasts as a percentage of total packets
• Packet loss and error rate

Internet statistics
• Internet bandwidth use by host and protocol
• Proxy server cache hits
• Top 100 sites accessed
• DNS requests
• Number of inbound emails / spam emails / email bounces
• Outbound email queue size
• Availability of critical services (web servers, email servers, etc.).
• Ping times and packet loss rates to your ISP
• Status of backups

System health statistics
• Memory usage
• Swap ﬁle usage
• Process count / zombie processes
• System load
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) voltage and load
• Temperature, fan speed, and system voltages
• Disk SMART status
• RAID array status

You should use this list as a suggestion of where to begin. As your network
matures, you will likely ﬁnd new key indicators of network performance, and
you should of course track those as well. There are many freely available


tools that will show you as much detail as you like about what is happening
on your network. You should consider monitoring the availability of any re-
source where unavailability would adversely affect your network users.

For example, your users may dial into modems on your site to gain remote
access to your network. If all the modems are used, or if any are faulty, then
users will be denied access and will probably complain. You can predict and
avoid such problems by monitoring the number of available modems, and
provisioning extra capacity before you run out.

Don't forget to monitor the monitoring machine itself, for example its CPU
usage and disk space, in order to receive advance warning if it becomes
overloaded or faulty. A monitoring machine that is low on resources can af-
fect your ability to monitor the network effectively.

Types of monitoring tools
We will now look at several different classes of monitoring tools. Network
detection tools listen for the beacons sent by wireless access points, and
display information such as the network name, received signal strength, and
channel. Spot check tools are designed for troubleshooting and normally run
interactively for short periods of time. A program such as ping may be con-
sidered an active spot check tool, since it generates trafﬁc by polling a par-
ticular machine. Passive spot check tools include protocol analyzers, which
inspect every packet on the network and provide complete detail about any
network conversation (including source and destination addresses, protocol
information, and even application data). Trending tools perform unattended
monitoring over long periods, and typically plot the results on a graph. Real-
time monitoring tools perform similar monitoring, but notify administrators
immediately if they detect a problem. Throughput testing tools tell you the
actual bandwidth available between two points on a network. Intrusion de-
tection tools watch for undesirable or unexpected network trafﬁc, and take
appropriate action (typically denying access and/or notifying a network ad-
ministrator). Finally, benchmarking tools estimate the maximum perform-
ance of a service or network connection.

Network detection
The simplest wireless monitoring tools simply provide a list of available net-
works, along with basic information (such as signal strength and channel).
They let you quickly detect nearby networks and determine if they are in
range or are causing interference.

• The built-in client. All modern operating systems provide built-in support
for wireless networking. This typically includes the ability to scan for avail-
able networks, allowing the user to choose a network from a list. While


virtually all wireless devices are guaranteed to have a simple scanning util-
ity, functionality can vary widely between implementations. These tools are
typically only useful for configuring a computer in a home or office setting.
They tend to provide little information apart from network names and the
available signal to the access point currently in use.
• Netstumbler (http://www.netstumbler.com/). This is the most popular tool
for detecting wireless networks using Microsoft Windows. It supports a
variety of wireless cards, and is very easy to use. It will detect open and
encrypted networks, but cannot detect “closed” wireless networks. It also
features a signal/noise meter that plots radio receiver data as a graph over
time. It also integrates with a variety of GPS devices, for logging precise
location and signal strength information. This makes Netstumbler a handy
tool to have for an informal site survey.
• Ministumbler (http://www.netstumbler.com/). From the makers of
Netstumbler, Ministumbler provides much of the same functionality as the
Windows version, but works on the Pocket PC platform. Ministumbler is
handy to run on a handheld PDA with a wireless card for detecting access
points in the field.
• Macstumbler (http://www.macstumbler.com/). While not directly related
to the Netstumbler, Macstumbler provides much of the same functionality
but for the Mac OS X platform. It works with all Apple Airport cards.
• Wellenreiter (http://www.wellenreiter.net/). Wellenreiter is a nice graphi-
cal wireless network detector for Linux. It requires Perl and GTK, and sup-
ports Prism2, Lucent, and Cisco wireless cards.

Spot check tools
What do you do when the network breaks? If you can t access a web page
or email server, and clicking the reload button doesn t fix the problem, then
you ll need to be able to isolate the exact location of the problem. These
tools will help you to determine just where a connection problem exists.

This section is simply an introduction to commonly used troubleshooting
tools. For more discussion of common network problems and how to diag-
nose them, see Chapter 9, Troubleshooting.

ping
Just about every operating system (including Windows, Mac OS X, and of
course Linux and BSD) includes a version of the ping utility. It uses ICMP
packets to attempt to contact a specified host, and tells you how long it takes
to get a response.


Knowing what to ping is just as important as knowing how to ping. If you find
that you cannot connect to a particular service in your web browser (say,
http://yahoo.com/), you could try to ping it:

$ ping yahoo.com
PING yahoo.com (66.94.234.13): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 66.94.234.13: icmp_seq=0 ttl=57 time=29.375 ms
^C
--- yahoo.com ping statistics ---
3 packets transmitted, 3 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 29.375/33.000/35.467/2.618 ms

Hit control-C when you are finished collecting data. If packets take a long
time to come back, there may be network congestion. If return ping packets
have an unusually low Time To Live (TTL), you may have routing problems
between your machine and the remote end. But what if the ping doesn t re-
turn any data at all? If you are pinging a name instead of an IP address, you
may be running into DNS problems.

Try pinging an IP address on the Internet. If you can t reach it, it s a good
idea to see if you can ping your default router:

$ ping 69.90.235.230
PING 69.90.235.230 (69.90.235.230): 56 data bytes
^C
--- 216.231.38.1 ping statistics ---
3 packets transmitted, 3 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 12.991/13.919/14.869/0.767 ms

If you can t ping your default router, then chances are you won t be able to
get to the Internet either. If you can t even ping other IP addresses on your
local LAN, then it s time to check your connection. If you re using Ethernet,
is it plugged in? If you re using wireless, are you connected to the proper
wireless network, and is it in range?
Network debugging with ping is a bit of an art, but it is useful to learn.
Since you will likely find ping on just about any machine you will work on,
it s a good idea to learn how to use it well.

traceroute and mtr
http://www.bitwizard.nl/mtr/. As with ping, traceroute is found on most oper-
ating systems (it s called tracert in some versions of Microsoft Windows). By
running traceroute, you can find the location of problems between your com-
puter and any point on the Internet:


$ traceroute -n google.com
traceroute to google.com (72.14.207.99), 64 hops max, 40 byte packets
1 10.15.6.1 4.322 ms 1.763 ms 1.731 ms
2 216.231.38.1 36.187 ms 14.648 ms 13.561 ms
3 69.17.83.233 14.197 ms 13.256 ms 13.267 ms
4 69.17.83.150 32.478 ms 29.545 ms 27.494 ms
5 198.32.176.31 40.788 ms 28.160 ms 28.115 ms
6 66.249.94.14 28.601 ms 29.913 ms 28.811 ms
7 172.16.236.8 2328.809 ms 2528.944 ms 2428.719 ms
8 * * *

The -n switch tells traceroute not to bother resolving names in DNS, and
makes the trace run more quickly. You can see that at hop seven, the round
trip time shoots up to more than two seconds, while packets seem to be dis-
carded at hop eight. This might indicate a problem at that point in the net-
work. If this part of the network is in your control, it might be worth starting
your troubleshooting effort there.

My TraceRoute (mtr) is a handy program that combines ping and traceroute
into a single tool. By running mtr, you can get an ongoing average of latency
and packet loss to a single host, instead of the momentary snapshot that
ping and traceroute provide.

My traceroute [v0.69]
tesla.rob.swn (0.0.0.0) (tos=0x0 psize=64 bitpatSun Jan 8 20:01:26 2006
Keys: Help Display mode Restart statistics Order of fields quit
Packets Pings
Host Loss% Snt Last Avg Best Wrst StDev
1. gremlin.rob.swn 0.0% 4 1.9 2.0 1.7 2.6 0.4
2. er1.sea1.speakeasy.net 0.0% 4 15.5 14.0 12.7 15.5 1.3
3. 220.ge-0-1-0.cr2.sea1.speakeasy. 0.0% 4 11.0 11.7 10.7 14.0 1.6
4. fe-0-3-0.cr2.sfo1.speakeasy.net 0.0% 4 36.0 34.7 28.7 38.1 4.1
5. bas1-m.pao.yahoo.com 0.0% 4 27.9 29.6 27.9 33.0 2.4
6. so-1-1-0.pat1.dce.yahoo.com 0.0% 4 89.7 91.0 89.7 93.0 1.4
7. ae1.p400.msr1.dcn.yahoo.com 0.0% 4 91.2 93.1 90.8 99.2 4.1
8. ge5-2.bas1-m.dcn.yahoo.com 0.0% 4 89.3 91.0 89.3 93.4 1.9
9. w2.rc.vip.dcn.yahoo.com 0.0% 3 91.2 93.1 90.8 99.2 4.1

The data will be continuously updated and averaged over time. As with ping,
you should hit control-C when you are ﬁnished looking at the data. Note that
you must have root privileges to run mtr.

While these tools will not revel precisely what is wrong with the network, they
can give you enough information to know where to continue troubleshooting.

Protocol analyzers
Network protocol analyzers provide a great deal of detail about information flow-
ing through a network, by allowing you to inspect individual packets. For wired
networks, you can inspect packets at the data-link layer or above. For wireless
networks, you can inspect information all the way down to individual 802.11
frames. Here are several popular (and free) network protocol analyzers:


Kismet
http://www.kismetwireless.net/. Kismet is a powerful wireless protocol ana-
lyzer for many platforms including Linux, Mac OS X, and even the embedded
OpenWRT Linux distribution. It works with any wireless card that supports
passive monitor mode. In addition to basic network detection, Kismet will
passively log all 802.11 frames to disk or to the network in standard PCAP
format, for later analysis with tools like Ethereal. Kismet also features associ-
ated client information, AP hardware ﬁngerprinting, Netstumbler detection,
and GPS integration.

Since it is a passive network monitor, it can even detect “closed” wireless
networks by analyzing trafﬁc sent by wireless clients. You can run Kismet on
several machines at once, and have them all report over the network back to
a central user interface. This allows for wireless monitoring over a large area,
such as a university or corporate campus.

Figure 6.12: Kismet running on a Nokia 770 Internet Tablet

Since Kismet uses the radio card's passive monitor mode, it does all of this
without transmitting any data. Kismet is an invaluable tool for diagnosing
wireless network problems.

KisMAC
http://kismac.macpirate.ch/. Exclusively for the Mac OS X platform, KisMAC
does much of what Kismet can do, but with a slick Mac OS X graphical inter-
face. It is a passive scanner that will log data to disk in PCAP format com-
patible with Wireshark. It supports passive scanning with AirportExtreme
cards as well as a variety of USB wireless adapters.


tcpdump
http://www.tcpdump.org/. tcpdump is a command-line tool for monitoring
network trafﬁc. It does not have all the bells and whistles of wireshark but it
does use fewer resources. Tcpdump can capture and display all network pro-
tocol information down to the link layer. It can show all of the packet headers
and data received, or just the packets that match particular criteria. Packets
captured with tcpdump can be loaded into wireshark for visual analysis and
further diagnostics. This is very useful if you wish to monitor an interface on a
remote system and bring the ﬁle back to your local machine for analysis. The
tcpdump tool is available as a standard tool in Unix derivatives (Linux, BSD,
and Mac OS X). There is also a Windows port called WinDump available at
http://www.winpcap.org/windump/.

Wireshark
http://www.wireshark.org/. Formerly known as Ethereal, Wireshark is a free
network protocol analyzer for Unix and Windows. It is billed as "The World's
Most Popular Network Protocol Analyzer."

Figure 6.13: Wireshark (formerly Ethereal) is a powerful network protocol analyzer that
can show you as much detail as you like about any packet.

Wireshark allows you to examine data from a live network or from a capture
file on disk, and interactively browse and sort the captured data. Both
summary and detailed information is available for each packet, including


the full header and data portions. Wireshark has several powerful features,
including a rich display filter language and the ability to view the recon-
structed stream of a TCP session.

It can be daunting to use for first time users or those that are not familiar with
the OSI layers. It is typically used to isolate and analyze specific traffic to or
from an IP address, but it can be also used as a general purpose fault finding
tool. For example, a machine infected with a network worm or virus can be
identified by looking for the machine that is send out the same sort of TCPIP
packets to large groups of IP addresses.

Trending tools
Trending tools are used to see how your network is used over a long period
of time. They work by periodically monitoring your network activity, and dis-
playing a summary in a human-readable form (such as a graph). Trending
tools collect data as well as analyze and report on it.

Below are some examples of trending tools. Some of them need to be used
in conjunction with each other, as they are not stand-alone programs.

MRTG
http://oss.oetiker.ch/mrtg/. The Multi Router Traffic Grapher (MRTG)
monitors the traffic load on network links using SNMP. MRTG generates
graphs that provide a visual representation of inbound and outbound traffic.
These are typically displayed on a web page.

MRTG can be a little confusing to set up, especially if you are not familiar
with SNMP. But once it is installed, MRTG requires virtually no maintenance,
unless you change something on the system that is being monitored (such as
its IP address).

Figure 6.14: MRTG is probably the most widely installed network flow grapher.

RRDtool
http://oss.oetiker.ch/rrdtool/. RRD is short for Round Robin Database. RRD
is a database that stores information in a very compact way that does not


expand over time. RRDtool refers to a suite of tools that allow you to create
and modify RRD databases, as well as generate useful graphs to present the
data. It is used to keep track of time-series data (such as network band-
width, machine room temperature, or server load average) and can display
that data as an average over time.

Note that RRDtool itself does not contact network devices to retrieve data. It is
merely a database manipulation tool. You can use a simple wrapper script
(typically in shell or Perl) to do that work for you. RRDtool is also used by
many full featured front-ends that present you with a friendly web interface for
configuration and display. RRD graphs give you more control over display op-
tions and the number of items available on a graph as compared to MRTG.

Figure 6.15: RRDtool gives you a lot of flexibility in how your collected network data
may be displayed.

RRDtool is included in virtually all modern Linux distributions, and can be
downloaded from http://oss.oetiker.ch/rrdtool/.

ntop
http://www.ntop.org/. For historical traffic analysis and usage, you will cer-
tainly want to investigate ntop. This program builds a detailed real-time re-
port on observed network traffic, displayed in your web browser. It integrates
with rrdtool, and makes graphs and charts visually depicting how the network
is being used. On very busy networks, ntop can use a lot of CPU and disk
space, but it gives you extensive insight into how your network is being used.
It runs on Linux, BSD, Mac OS X, and Windows.

Some of its more useful features include:

• Traffic display can be sorted by various criteria (source, destination, proto-
col, MAC address, etc.).
• Traffic statistics grouped by protocol and port number
• An IP traffic matrix which shows connections between machines
• Network flows for routers or switches that support the NetFlow protocol
• Host operating system identification


• P2P traffic identification
• Numerous graphical charts
• Perl, PHP, and Python API

Ntop is available from http://www.ntop.org/ and is available for most operat-
ing systems. It is often included in many of the popular Linux distributions,
including RedHat, Debian, and Ubuntu. While it can be left running to collect
historical data, ntop can be fairly CPU intensive, depending on the amount of
traffic observed. If you are going to run it for long periods you should monitor
the CPU utilization of the monitoring machine.

Figure 6.16: ntop displays a wealth of information about how your network is
utilized by various clients and servers.

The main disadvantage of ntop is that it does not provide instantaneous in-
formation, only long-term totals and averages. This can make it difficult to
use to diagnose a problem that starts suddenly.

Cacti
http://www.cacti.net/. Cacti is a front-end for RRDtool. It stores all of the
necessary information to create graphs in a MySQL database. The front-end
is written in PHP. Cacti does the work of maintaining graphs, data sources,


and handles the actual data gathering. There is support for SNMP devices,
and custom scripts can easily be written to poll virtually any conceivable net-
work event.

Figure 6.17: Cacti can manage the polling of your network devices, and can build
very complex and informative visualizations of network behavior.

Cacti can be somewhat confusing to configure, but once you work through
the documentation and examples, it can yield very impressive graphs. There
are hundreds of templates for various systems available on the cacti website,
and the code is under rapid development.

NetFlow
NetFlow is a protocol for collecting IP traffic information invented by Cisco.
From the Cisco website:

Cisco IOS NetFlow efficiently provides a key set of services for IP appli-
cations, including network traffic accounting, usage-based network bill-
ing, network planning, security, Denial of Service monitoring capabilities,
and network monitoring. NetFlow provides valuable information about
network users and applications, peak usage times, and traffic routing.

Cisco routers can generate NetFlow information which is available from the
router in the form of UDP packets. NetFlow is also less CPU-intensive on
Cisco routers than using SNMP. It also provides more granular information
than SNMP, letting you get a more detailed picture of port and protocol usage.


This information is collected by a NetFlow collector that stores and presents
the data as an aggregate over time. By analyzing flow data, one can build a
picture of traffic flow and traffic volume in a network or on a connection.
There are several commercial and free NetFlow collectors available. Ntop is
one free tool that can act as a NetFlow collector and probe. Another is Flowc
(see below).

It can also be desirable to use Netflow as a spot check tool, by just looking at
a quick snapshot of data during a network crisis. Think of NetFlow as an al-
ternative to SNMP for Cisco devices. For more information about NetFlow,
see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflow .

Flowc
http://netacad.kiev.ua/flowc/. Flowc is an open source NetFlow collector
(see NetFlow above). It is lightweight and easy to configure. Flowc uses a
MySQL database to store aggregated traffic information. Therefore, it is pos-
sible to generate your own reports from the data using SQL, or use the in-
cluded report generators. The built-in report generators produce reports in
HTML, plain text or a graphical format.

Figure 6.18: A typical flow chart generated by Flowc.

The large gap in data probably indicates a network outage. Trending tools
typically will not notify you of outages, but merely log the occurrence. To be
notified when network problems occur, use a realtime monitoring tool such as
Nagios (see Page 200).

SmokePing
http://oss.oetiker.ch/smokeping/. SmokePing is a deluxe latency measure-
ment tool written in Perl. It can measure, store and display latency, latency
distribution and packet loss all on a single graph. SmokePing uses RRDtool
for data storage, and can draw very informative graphs that present up to the
minute information on the state of your network connection.


It is very useful to run SmokePing on a host with good connectivity to your en-
tire network. Over time, trends are revealed that can point to all sorts of net-
work problems. Combined with MRTG (see Page 190) or Cacti (see Page
192), you can observe the effect that network congestion has on packet loss
and latency. SmokePing can optionally send alerts when certain conditions
are met, such as when excessive packet loss is seen on a link for an extended
period of time. An example of SmokePing in action is shown in Figure 6.19.

Figure 6.19: SmokePing can simultaneously display packet loss and latency spreads
in a single graph.

EtherApe
http://etherape.sourceforge.net/. EtherApe displays a graphical representa-
tion of network traffic. Hosts and links change size depending on the amount
of traffic sent and received. The colors change to represent the protocol
most used. As with wireshark and tcpdump, data can be captured "off the
wire" from a live network connection or read from a tcpdump capture file.

EtherApe doesn't show quite as much detail as ntop, but its resource re-
quirements are much lighter.

iptraf
http://iptraf.seul.org/. IPTraf is a lightweight but powerful LAN monitor. It
has an ncurses interface and runs in a command shell. IPTraf takes a mo-
ment to measure observed traffic, and then displays various network statis-
tics including TCP and UDP connections, ICMP and OSPF information, traf-
fic flows, IP checksum errors, and more. It is a simple to use program that
uses minimal system resources.

While it does not keep historical data, it is very useful for displaying an in-
stantaneous usage report.


Figure 6.20: iptraf's statistical breakdown of traffic by port.

Argus
http://qosient.com/argus/. Argus stands for Audit Record Generation and
Utilization System. Argus is also the name of the mythological Greek god
who had hundreds of eyes.

From the Argus website:

Argus generates flow statistics such as connectivity, capacity, demand,
loss, delay, and jitter on a per transaction basis. Argus can be used to
analyze and report on the contents of packet capture files or it can run as
a continuous monitor, examining data from a live interface; generating an
audit log of all the network activity seen in the packet stream. Argus can
be deployed to monitor individual end-systems, or an entire enterprises
network activity. As a continuous monitor, Argus provides both push and
pull data handling models, to allow flexible strategies for collecting net-
work audit data. Argus data clients support a range of operations, such
as sorting, aggregation, archival and reporting.

Argus consists of two parts: a master collector that reads packets from a
network device, and a client that connects to the master and displays the
usage statistics. Argus runs on BSD, Linux, and most other UNIX systems.


NeTraMet
http://freshmeat.net/projects/netramet/. NeTraMet is another popular flow
analysis tool. Like Argus, NeTraMet consists of two parts: a collector that
gathers statistics via SNMP, and a manager that specifies which flows should
be watched. Flows are specified using a simple programming language that
define the addresses used on either end, and can include Ethernet, IP, proto-
col information, or other identifiers. NeTraMet runs on DOS and most UNIX
systems, including Linux and BSD.

Throughput testing
How fast can the network go? What is the actual usable capacity of a par-
ticular network link? You can get a very good estimate of your throughput
capacity by flooding the link with traffic and measuring how long it takes to
transfer the data.

Figure 6.21: Tools such as this one from SpeedTest.net are pretty, but don't always
give you an accurate picture of network performance.

While there are web pages available that will perform a “speed test” in your
browser (such as http://www.dslreports.com/stest or http://speedtest.net/),
these tests are increasingly inaccurate as you get further from the testing source.
Even worse, they do not allow you to test the speed of a given link, but only the
speed of your link to a particular site on the Internet. Here are a few tools that
will allow you to perform throughput testing on your own networks.


ttcp
http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/pub/ttcp/. Now a standard part of most Unix-like sys-
tems, ttcp is a simple network performance testing tool. One instance is run
on either side of the link you want to test. The ﬁrst node runs in receive
mode, and the other transmits:

node_a$ ttcp -r -s

node_b$ ttcp -t -s node_a
ttcp-t: buflen=8192, nbuf=2048, align=16384/0, port=5001 tcp -> node_a
ttcp-t: socket
ttcp-t: connect
ttcp-t: 16777216 bytes in 249.14 real seconds = 65.76 KB/sec +++
ttcp-t: 2048 I/O calls, msec/call = 124.57, calls/sec = 8.22
ttcp-t: 0.0user 0.2sys 4:09real 0% 0i+0d 0maxrss 0+0pf 7533+0csw

After collecting data in one direction, you should reverse the transmit and receive
partners to test the link in the other direction. It can test UDP as well as TCP
streams, and can alter various TCP parameters and buffer lengths to give the
network a good workout. It can even use a user-supplied data stream instead of
sending random data. Remember that the speed readout is in kilobytes, not
kilobits. Multiply the result by 8 to ﬁnd the speed in kilobits per second.

The only real disadvantage to ttcp is that it hasn t been developed in years. For-
tunately, the code has been released in the public domain and is freely available.
Like ping and traceroute, ttcp is found as a standard tool on many systems.

iperf
http://dast.nlanr.net/Projects/Iperf/. Much like ttcp, iperf is a commandline
tool for estimating the throughput of a network connection. It supports many
of the same features as ttcp, but uses a “client” and “server” model instead of
a “receive” and “transmit” pair. To run iperf, launch a server on one side and
a client on the other:

node_a$ iperf -s

node_b$ iperf -c node_a
------------------------------------------------------------
Client connecting to node_a, TCP port 5001
TCP window size: 16.0 KByte (default)
------------------------------------------------------------
[ 5] local 10.15.6.1 port 1212 connected with 10.15.6.23 port 5001
[ ID] Interval Transfer Bandwidth
[ 5] 0.0-11.3 sec 768 KBytes 558 Kbits/sec

The server side will continue to listen and accept client connections on port
5001 until you hit control-C to kill it. This can make it handy when running
multiple test runs from a variety of locations.


The biggest difference between ttcp and iperf is that iperf is under active de-
velopment, and has many new features (including IPv6 support). This makes
it a good choice as a performance tool when building new networks.

bing
http://fgouget.free.fr/bing/index-en.shtml. Rather than flood a connection
with data and see how long the transfer takes to complete, Bing attempts to
estimate the available throughput of a point-to-point connection by analyzing
round trip times for various sized ICMP packets. While it is not always as
accurate as a flood test, it can provide a good estimate without transmitting a
large number of bytes.

Since bing works using standard ICMP echo requests, so it can estimate
available bandwidth without the need to run a special client on the other end,
and can even attempt to estimate the throughput of links outside your net-
work. Since it uses relatively little bandwidth, bing can give you a rough idea
of network performance without running up the charges that a flood test
would certainly incur.

Realtime tools
It is desirable to find out when people are trying to break into your network, or
when some part of the network has failed. Because no system administrator can
be monitoring a network all the time, there are programs that constantly monitor
the status of the network and can send alerts when notable events occur. The
following are some open source tools that can help perform this task.

Snort
Snort (http://www.snort.org/) is a packet sniffer and logger which can be
used as a lightweight network intrusion detection system. It features rule-
based logging and can perform protocol analysis, content searching, and
packet matching. It can be used to detect a variety of attacks and probes,
such as stealth port scans, CGI attacks, SMB probes, OS fingerprinting at-
tempts, and many other kinds of anomalous traffic patterns. Snort has a real-
time alert capability that can notify administrators about problems as they
occur with a variety of methods.

Installing and running Snort is not trivial, and depending on the amount of
network traffic, will likely require a dedicated monitoring machine with con-
siderable resources. Fortunately, Snort is very well documented and has a
strong user community. By implementing a comprehensive Snort rule set,
you can identify unexpected behavior that would otherwise mysteriously eat
up your Internet bandwidth.


See http://snort.org/docs/ for an extensive list of installation and configura-
tion resources.

Apache: mod_security
ModSecurity (http://www.modsecurity.org/) is an open source intrusion de-
tection and prevention engine for web applications. This kind of security tool
is also known as a web application firewall. ModSecurity increases web
application security by protecting web applications from known and unknown
attacks. It can be used on its own, or as a module in the Apache web server
(http://www.apache.org/).

There are several sources for updated mod_security rules that help protect
against the latest security exploits. One excellent resource is GotRoot, which
maintains a huge and frequently updated repository of rules:

http://gotroot.com/tiki-index.php?page=mod_security+rules

Web application security is important in defending against attacks on your
web server, which could result in the theft of valuable or personal data, or in
the server being used to launch attacks or send spam to other Internet users.
As well as being damaging to the Internet as a whole, such intrusions can
seriously reduce your available bandwidth.

Nagios
Nagios (http://nagios.org/) is a program that monitors hosts and services on
your network, notifying you immediately when problems arise. It can send
notifications via email, SMS, or by running a script, and will send notifications
to the relevant person or group depending on the nature of the problem.
Nagios runs on Linux or BSD, and provides a web interface to show up-to-
the-minute system status.

Nagios is extensible, and can monitor the status of virtually any network
event. It performs checks by running small scripts at regular intervals, and
checks the results against an expected response. This can yield much more
sophisticated checks than a simple network probe. For example, ping (page
185) may tell you that a machine is up, and nmap may report that a TCP port
responds to requests, but Nagios can actually retrieve a web page or make a
database request, and verify that the response is not an error.


Figure 6.22: Nagios keeps you informed the moment a network fault or
service outage occurs.

Nagios can even notify you when bandwidth usage, packet loss, machine
room temperature, or other network health indicator crosses a particular
threshold. This can give you advance warning of network problems, often al-
lowing you to respond to the problem before users have a chance to complain.

Zabbix
Zabbix (http://www.zabbix.org/) is an open source realtime monitoring tool
that is something of a hybrid between Cacti and Nagios. It uses a SQL data-
base for data storage, has its own graph rendering package, and performs all
of the functions you would expect from a modern realtime monitor (such as
SNMP polling and instant notiﬁcation of error conditions). Zabbix is released
under the GNU General Public License.

Other useful tools
There are thousands of free network monitoring tools that fill very specialized
needs. Here are a few of our favorites that don't quite fit into the above categories.

Driftnet and Etherpeg.
These tools decode graphical data (such as GIF and JPEG files) and display
them as a collage. As mentioned earlier, tools such as these are of limited use in


troubleshooting problems, but are very valuable for demonstrating the insecurity
of unencrypted protocols. Etherpeg is available from http://www.etherpeg.org/,
and Driftnet can be downloaded at http://www.ex-parrot.com/~chris/driftnet/.

Figure 6.23: A web collage generated by Etherpeg.

ngrep
Ngrep provides most of GNU grep's pattern matching features, but applies
them to network traffic. It currently recognizes IPv4 and IPv6, TCP, UDP,
ICMP, IGMP, PPP, SLIP, FDDI, Token Ring, and much more. As it makes
extensive use of regular expression matches, it is a tool suited to advanced
users or those that have a good knowledge of regular expressions.

But you don't necessarily need to be a regex expert to be able to make basic
use of ngrep. For example, to view all packets that contain the string GET
(presumably HTTP requests), try this:

# ngrep -q GET

Pattern matches can be constrained further to match particular protocols,
ports, or other criteria using BPF filters. This is the filter language used by
common packet sniffing tools, such as tcpdump and snoop. To view GET or
POST strings sent to destination port 80, use this command line:

# ngrep -q 'GET|POST' port 80


By using ngrep creatively, you can detect anything from virus activity to spam
email. You can download ngrep at http://ngrep.sourceforge.net/.

What is normal?
If you are looking for a definitive answer as to what your traffic patterns
should look like, you are going to be disappointed. There is no absolute right
answer to this question, but given some work you can determine what is
normal for your network. While every environment is different, some of the
factors that can influence the appearance of your traffic patterns are:

• The capacity of your Internet connection
• The number of users that have access to the network
• The social policy (byte charging, quotas, honor system, etc.).
• The number, types, and level of services offered
• The health of the network (presence of viruses, excessive broadcasts,
routing loops, open email relays, denial of service attacks, etc.).
• The competence of your computer users
• The location and configuration of control structures (firewalls, proxy servers,
caches, and so on)

This is not a definitive list, but should give you an idea of how a wide range of
factors can affect your bandwidth patterns. With this in mind, let's look at the
topic of baselines.

Establishing a baseline
Since every environment is different, you need to determine for yourself
what your traffic patterns look like under normal situations. This is useful
because it allows you to identify changes over time, either sudden or grad-
ual. These changes may in turn indicate a problem, or a potential future
problem, with your network.

For example, suppose that your network grinds to a halt, and you are not
sure of the cause. Fortunately, you have decided to keep a graph of
broadcasts as a percentage of the overall network traffic. If this graph
shows a sudden increase in the amount of broadcast traffic, it may mean
that your network has been infected with a virus. Without an idea of what is
"normal" for your network (a baseline), you would not be able to see that
the number of broadcasts had increased, only that it was relatively high,
which may not indicate a problem.


Baseline graphs and figures are also useful when analyzing the effects of
changes made to the network. It is often very useful to experiment with such
changes by trying different possible values. Knowing what the baseline looks
like will show you whether your changes have improved matters, or made
them worse.

Figure 6.24: By collecting data over a long period of time, you can predict the growth
of your network and make changes before problems develop.

In Figure 6.24, we can see the effect the implementation of delay pools has
made on Internet utilization around the period of May. If we did not keep a
graph of the line utilization, we would never know what the effect of the
change over the long term was. When watching a total traffic graph after
making changes, don't assume that just because the graph does not change
radically that your efforts were wasted. You might have removed frivolous
usage from your line only to have it replaced by genuine legitimate traffic.
You could then combine this baseline with others, say the top 100 sites ac-
cessed or the average utilization by your top twenty users, to determine if
habits have simply changed. As we will see later, MRTG, RRDtool, and Cacti
are excellent tools you can use to keep a baseline.

Figure 6.25: The traffic trend at Aidworld logged over a single day.

Figure 6.25 shows traffic on an Aidworld firewall over a period of 24 hours.
There is nothing apparently wrong with this graph, but users were complain-
ing about slow Internet access.
Figure 6.26 shows that the upload bandwidth use (dark area) was higher
during working hours on the last day than on previous days. A period of
heavy upload usage started every morning at 03:00, and was normally fin-


ished by 09:00, but on the last day it was still running at 16:30. Further in-
vestigation revealed a problem with the backup software, which ran at
03:00 every day.

Figure 6.26: The same network logged over an entire week reveals a problem with
backups, which caused unexpected congestion for network users.

Figure 6.27 shows measurements of latency on the same connection as
measured by a program called SmokePing. The position of the dots shows
the average latency, while the gray smoke indicates the distribution of latency
(jitter). The color of the dots indicates the number of lost packets. This graph
over a period of four hours does not help to identify whether there are any
problems on the network.

Figure 6.27: Four hours of jitter and packet loss.
The next graph (Figure 6.28) shows the same data over a period of 16
hours. This indicates that the values in the graph above are close to the nor-
mal level (baseline), but that there were signiﬁcant increases in latency at
several times during the early morning, up to 30 times the baseline value.
This indicates that additional monitoring should be performed during these
early morning periods to establish the cause of the high latency, which is
probably heavy trafﬁc of some kind.


Figure 6.28: A higher spread of jitter is revealed in the 16 hour log.
Figure 6.29 shows that Tuesday was significantly worse than Sunday or
Monday for latency, especially during the early morning period. This might
indicate that something has changed on the network.

Figure 6.29: Zooming out to the week long view reveals a definite repetition of in-
creased latency and packet loss in the early morning hours.

How do I interpret the traffic graph?
In a basic network flow graph (such as that generated by the network monitor
MRTG), the green area indicates inbound traffic, while the blue line indi-
cates outbound traffic. Inbound traffic is traffic that originates from another
network (typically the Internet) and is addressed to a computer inside your
network. Outbound traffic is traffic that originates from your network, and is
addressed to a computer somewhere on the Internet. Depending on what
sort of network environment you have, the graph will help you understand
how your network is actually being used. For example, monitoring of servers
usually reveals larger amounts of outbound traffic as the servers respond to
requests (such as sending mail or serving web pages), while monitoring cli-


ent machines might reveal higher amounts of inbound traffic to the machines
as they receive data from the servers.

Figure 6.30: The classic network flow graph. The dark area represents inbound traf-
fic, while the line represents outbound traffic. The repeating arcs of outbound traffic
show when the nightly backups have run.

Traffic patterns will vary with what you are monitoring. A router will normally
show more incoming traffic than outgoing traffic as users download data from
the Internet. An excess of outbound bandwidth that is not transmitted by your
network servers may indicate a peer-to-peer client, unauthorized server, or
even a virus on one or more of your clients. There are no set metrics that
indicate what outgoing traffic to incoming traffic should look like. It is up to
you to establish a baseline to understand what normal network traffic pat-
terns look like on your network.

Detecting network overload
Figure 6.31 shows traffic on an overloaded Internet connection.

Figure 6.31: Flat-topped graphs indicate that a line is using the maximum available
bandwidth, and is overutilized during these times.


The most apparent sign of overloading is the flat tops on outbound traffic
during the middle of every day. Flat tops may indicate overloading, even if
they are well below the maximum theoretical capacity of the link. In this case
it may indicate that you are not getting as much bandwidth from your service
provider as you expect.

Measuring 95th percentile
The 95th percentile is a widely used mathematical calculation to evaluate
regular and sustained utilization of a network pipe. Its value shows the high-
est consumption of traffic for a given period. Calculating the 95th percentile
means that 95% of the time the usage is below a certain amount, and 5% of
the time usage is above that amount. The 95th percentile is a good value to
use to show the bandwidth that is actually used at least 95% of the time.

Figure 6.32: The horizontal line shows the 95th percentile amount.

MRTG and Cacti will calculate the 95th Percentile for you. This is a sample
graph of a 960 kbps connection. The 95th percentile came to 945 kbps after
discarding the highest 5% of traffic.

Monitoring RAM and CPU usage
By definition, servers provide critical services that should always be available.
Servers receive and respond to client machine requests, providing access to
services that are the whole point of having a network in the first place. There-
fore, servers must have sufficient hardware capabilities to accommodate the
work load. This means they must have adequate RAM, storage, and process-
ing power to accommodate the number of client requests. Otherwise, the
server will take longer to respond, or in the worst case, may be incapable of
responding at all. Since hardware resources are finite, it is important to keep


track of how system resources are being used. If a core server (such as a
proxy server or email server) is overwhelmed by requests, access times be-
come slow. This is often perceived by users as a network problem.

There are several programs that can be used to monitor resources on a
server. The simplest method on a Windows machine is to access the Task
Manager using the Ctrl Alt + Del keys, and then click on the Performance
tab. On a Linux or BSD box, you can type top in a terminal window. To keep
historical logs of such performance, MRTG or RRDtool (on Page 190) can
also be used.

Figure 6.33: RRDtool can show arbitrary data, such as memory and CPU usage,
expressed as an average over time.

Mail servers require adequate space, as some people may prefer to leave their
email messages on the server for long periods of time. The messages can ac-
cumulate and fill the hard disk, especially if quotas are not in use. If the disk or
partition used for mail storage fills up, the mail server cannot receive mail. If
that disk is also used by the system, all kinds of system problems may occur
as the operating system runs out of swap space and temporary storage.

File servers need to be monitored, even if they have large disks. Users will
find a way to fill any size disk more quickly than you might think. Disk us-
age can be enforced through the use of quotas, or by simply monitoring
usage and telling people when they are using too much. Nagios (see Page
200) can notify you when disk usage, CPU utilization, or other system re-
sources cross a critical threshold.


If a machine becomes unresponsive or slow, and measurements show that a
system resource is being heavily used, this may be an indication that an up-
grade is required. If processor usage constantly exceeds 60% of the total, it
may be time to upgrade the processor. Slow speeds could also be as a result
of insufﬁcient RAM. Be sure to check the overall usage of CPU, RAM, and
disk space before deciding to upgrade a particular component.

A simple way to check whether a machine has insufficient RAM is to look at the
hard disk light. When the light is on constantly, it usually means that the ma-
chine is constantly swapping large amounts of data to and from the disk. This
is known as thrashing, and is extremely bad for performance. It can usually be
fixed by investigating which process is using the most RAM, and killing or re-
configuring that process. Failing that, the system needs more RAM.

You should always determine whether it is more cost effective to upgrade an
individual component or purchase a whole new machine. Some computers
are difﬁcult or impossible to upgrade, and it often costs more to replace indi-
vidual components than to replace the entire system. Since the availability of
parts and systems varies widely around the world, be sure to weigh the cost
of parts vs. whole systems, including shipping and taxes, when determining
the cost of upgrading.

7
Solar Power

This chapter provides an introduction to the components of a standalone
photovoltaic system. The word standalone refers to the fact that the system
works without any connection to an established power grid. In this chapter,
we will present the basic concepts of the generation and storage of photovol-
taic solar energy. We will also provide a method for designing a functional
solar system with limited access to information and resources.

This chapter only discusses the use of solar energy for the direct production
of electricity (photovoltaic solar energy). Solar energy can also be used to
heat ﬂuids (thermal solar energy) which can then be used as a heat source
or to turn a turbine to generate electricity. Thermal solar energy systems are
beyond the scope of this chapter.

Solar energy
A photovoltaic system is based on the ability of certain materials to convert
the radiant energy of the sun into electrical energy. The total amount of solar
energy that lights a given area is known as irradiance (G) and it is measured
in watts per square meter (W/m2). The instantaneous values are normally
averaged over a period of time, so it is common to talk about total irradiance
per hour, day or month.

Of course, the precise amount of radiation that arrives at the surface of the
Earth cannot be predicted with high precision, due to natural weather varia-
tions. Therefore it is necessary to work with statistical data based on the "so-
lar history" of a particular place. This data is gathered by a weather station
over a long period and is available from a number of sources, as tables or

211

212 Chapter 7: Solar Power

databases. In most cases, it can be difficult to find detailed information about
a specific area, and you will need to work with approximate values.

A few organizations have produced maps that include average values of daily
global irradiation for different regions. These values are known as peak sun
hours or PSHs. You can use the PSH value for your region to simplify your
calculations. One unit of "peak sun" corresponds to a radiation of 1000 Watts
per square meter. If we find that certain area has 4 PSH in the worst of the
months, it means that in that month we should not expect a daily irradiation
bigger than 4000 W/m2 (day). The peak sun hours are an easy way to repre-
sent the worst case average of irradiation per day.

Low resolution PSH maps are available from a number of online sources, such
as http://www.solar4power.com/solar-power-global-maps.html. For more de-
tailed information, consult a local solar energy vendor or weather station.

What about wind power?
It is possible to use a wind generator in place of solar panels when an
autonomous system is being designed for installation on a hill or mountain.
To be effective, the average wind speed over the year should be at least 3 to
4 meter per second, and the wind generator should be 6 meters higher than
other objects within a distance of 100 meters. A location far away from the
coast usually lacks sufficient wind energy to support a wind powered system.

Generally speaking, photovoltaic systems are more reliable than wind gen-
erators, as sunlight is more available than consistent wind in most places. On
the other hand, wind generators are able to charge batteries even at night, as
long as there is sufficient wind. It is of course possible to use wind in con-
junction with solar power to help cover times when there is extended cloud
cover, or when there is insufficient wind.

For most locations, the cost of a good wind generator is not justified by the
meager amount of power it will add to the overall system. This chapter will
therefore focus on the use of solar panels for generating electricity.

Photovoltaic system components
A basic photovoltaic system consists of four main components: the solar
panel, the batteries, the regulator, and the load. The panels are responsi-
ble for collecting the energy of the sun and generating electricity. The battery
stores the electrical energy for later use. The regulator ensures that panel
and battery are working together in an optimal fashion. The load refers to any
device that requires electrical power, and is the sum of the consumption of all

Chapter 7: Solar Power 213

electrical equipment connected to the system. It is important to remember
that solar panels and batteries use direct current (DC).

If the range of operational voltage of your equipment does not ﬁt the voltage
supplied by your battery, it will also be necessary to include some type of
converter. If the equipment that you want to power uses a different DC volt-
age than the one supplied by the battery, you will need to use a DC/DC con-
verter. If some of your equipment requires AC power, you will need to use a
DC/AC converter, also known as an inverter.

Every electrical system should also incorporate various safety devices in the
event that something goes wrong. These devices include proper wiring, cir-
cuit breakers, surge protectors, fuses, ground rods, lighting arrestors, etc.

The solar panel
The solar panel is composed of solar cells that collect solar radiation and
transform it into electrical energy. This part of the system is sometimes referred
to as a solar module or photovoltaic generator. Solar panel arrays can be
made by connecting a set of panels in series and/or parallel in order to provide
the necessary energy for a given load. The electrical current supplied by a so-
lar panel varies proportionally to the solar radiation. This will vary according to
climatological conditions, the hour of the day, and the time of the year.

Figure 7.1: A solar panel
Several technologies are used in the manufacturing of solar cells. The most
common is crystalline silicon, and can be either monocrystalline or polycrystal-
line. Amorphous silicon can be cheaper but is less efficient at converting solar


energy to electricity. With a reduced life expectancy and a 6 to 8% transforma-
tion efficiency, amorphous silicon is typically used for low power equipment,
such as portable calculators. New solar technologies, such as silicon ribbon
and thin film photovoltaics, are currently under development. These technolo-
gies promise higher efficiencies but are not yet widely available.

The battery
The battery stores the energy produced by the panels that is not immedi-
ately consumed by the load. This stored energy can then be used during pe-
riods of low solar irradiation. The battery component is also sometimes called
the accumulator. Batteries store electricity in the form of chemical energy.
The most common type of batteries used in solar applications are
maintenance-free lead-acid batteries, also called recombinant or VRLA
(valve regulated lead acid) batteries.

Figure 7.2: A 200 Ah lead-acid battery. The negative terminal was broken due to
weight on the terminals during transportation.

Aside from storing energy, sealed lead-acid batteries also serve two impor-
tant functions:

• They are able to provide an instantaneous power superior to what the array
of panels can generate. This instantaneous power is needed to start some
appliances, such as the motor of a refrigerator or a pump.
• They determine the operating voltage of your installation.


For a small power installation and where space constraints are important,
other type of batteries (such as NiCd, NiMh, or Li-ion) can be used. These
types of batteries need a specialized charger/regulator and cannot directly
replace lead-acid batteries.

The regulator
The regulator (or more formally, the solar power charge regulator) assures
that the battery is working in appropriate conditions. It avoids overcharging or
overdischarging the battery, both of which are very detrimental to the life of
the battery. To ensure proper charging and discharging of the battery, the regu-
lator maintains knowledge of the state of charge (SoC) of the battery. The
SoC is estimated based on the actual voltage of the battery. By measuring
the battery voltage and being programmed with the type of storage technol-
ogy used by the battery, the regulator can know the precise points where the
battery would be overcharged or excessively discharged.

Figure 7.3: A 30 Amp solar charge controller

The regulator can include other features that add valuable information and
security control to the equipment. These features include ammeters, voltme-
ters, measurement of ampere-hour, timers, alarms, etc. While convenient,
none of these features are required for a working photovoltaic system.

The converter
The electricity provided by the panel array and battery is DC at a ﬁxed volt-
age. The voltage provided might not match what is required by your load. A
direct/alternating (DC/AC) converter, also known as inverter, converts


the DC current from your batteries into AC. This comes at the price of losing
some energy during the conversion. If necessary, you can also use convert-
ers to obtain DC at voltage level other than what is supplied by the batteries.
DC/DC converters also lose some energy during the conversion. For opti-
mal operation, you should design your solar-powered system to match the
generated DC voltage to match the load.

Figure 7.4: An 800 Watt DC/AC converter (power inverter)

The load
The load is the equipment that consumes the power generated by your energy
system. The load may include wireless communications equipment, routers,
workstations, lamps, TV sets, VSAT modems, etc. Although it is not possible to
precisely calculate the exact total consumption of your equipment, it is vital to
be able to make a good estimate. In this type of system it is absolutely nec-
essary to use efﬁcient and low power equipment to avoid wasting energy.

Putting it all together
The complete photovoltaic system incorporates all of these components. The
solar panels generate power when solar energy is available. The regulator
ensures the most efﬁcient operation of the panels and prevents damage to
the batteries. The battery bank stores collected energy for later use. Con-
verters and inverters adapt the stored energy to match the requirements of
your load. Finally, the load consumes the stored energy to do work. When all
of the components are in balance and are properly maintained, the system
will support itself for years.


+

-
+
Regulator

-
DC/DC DC load
+

-
Solar panels
+
Inverter AC load

-
Battery bank

Figure 7.5: A solar installation with DC and AC loads
We will now examine each of the individual components of the photovoltaic
system in greater detail.

The solar panel
An individual solar panel is made of many solar cells. The cells are electri-
cally connected to provide a particular value of current and voltage. The indi-
vidual cells are properly encapsulated to provide isolation and protection
from humidity and corrosion.

Figure 7.6: The effect of water and corrosion in a solar panel

There are different types of modules available on the market, depending on
the power demands of your application. The most common modules are
composed of 32 or 36 solar cells of crystalline silicon. These cells are all of
equal size, wired in series, and encapsulated between glass and plastic ma-


terial, using a polymer resin (EVA) as a thermal insulator. The surface area of
the module is typically between 0.1 and 0.5 m2. Solar panels usually have
two electrical contacts, one positive and one negative.

Some panels also include extra contacts to allow the installation of bypass
diodes across individual cells. Bypass diodes protect the panel against a
phenomenon known as “hot-spots”. A hot-spot occurs when some of the cells
are in shadow while the rest of the panel is in full sun. Rather than producing
energy, shaded cells behave as a load that dissipates energy. In this situa-
tion, shaded cells can see a signiﬁcant increase in temperature (about 85 to
100ºC.) Bypass diodes will prevent hot-spots on shaded cells, but reduce the
maximum voltage of the panel. They should only be used when shading is
unavoidable. It is a much better solution to expose the entire panel to full sun
whenever possible.

Irradiance: 1kW / m2
Cell Temperature 25C
8

75C 50C 25C
800W / m2
6

600W / m2
Current (A)

4

400W / m2

2
200W / m2

0 10 20 30

Voltage (V)

Figure 7.7: Different IV Curves. The current (A) changes with the irradiance, and the
voltage (V) changes with the temperature.

The electrical performance of a solar module its represented by the IV char-
acteristic curve, which represents the current that is provided based on the
voltage generated for a certain solar radiation.


The curve represents all the possible values of voltage-current. The curves
depend on two main factors: the temperature and the solar radiation received
by the cells. For a given solar cell area, the current generated is directly pro-
portional to solar irradiance (G), while the voltage reduces slightly with an
increase of temperature. A good regulator will try to maximize the amount of
energy that a panel provides by tracking the point that provides maximum
power (V x I). The maximum power corresponds to the knee of the IV curve.

Solar Panel Parameters
The main parameters that characterize a photovoltaic panel are:

1. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT (ISC): the maximum current provided by the
panel when the connectors are short circuited.
2. OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (VOC): the maximum voltage that the panel
provides when the terminals are not connected to any load (an open cir-
cuit). This value is normally 22 V for panels that are going to work in 12 V
systems, and is directly proportional to the number of cells connected in
series.
3. MAXIMUM POWER POINT (Pmax): the point where the power supplied
by the panel is at maximum, where Pmax = Imax x Vmax. The maximum
power point of a panel is measured in Watts (W) or peak Watts (Wp). It is
important not to forget that in normal conditions the panel will not work at
peak conditions, as the voltage of operation is fixed by the load or the
regulator. Typical values of Vmax and Imax should be a bit smaller than the
ISC and VOC

4. FILL FACTOR (FF): the relation between the maximum power that the
panel can actually provide and the product ISC . VOC. This gives you an
idea of the quality of the panel because it is an indication of the type of IV
characteristic curve. The closer FF is to 1, the more power a panel can
provide. Common values usually are between 0.7 and 0.8.
5. EFFICIENCY (h): the ratio between the maximum electrical power that
the panel can give to the load and the power of the solar radiation (PL)
incident on the panel. This is normally around 10-12%, depending on the
type of cells (monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin film).
Considering the definitions of point of maximum power and the fill factor we
see that:

h = Pmax / PL = FF . ISC . VOC / PL


The values of ISC, VOC, IPmax and VPmax are provided by the manufacturer and
refer to standard conditions of measurement with irradiance G = 1000 W/m2,
at sea-level, for a temperature of cells of Tc = 25ºC.

The panel parameters values change for other conditions of irradiance and tem-
perature. Manufacturers will sometimes include graphs or tables with values for
conditions different from the standard. You should check the performance values
at the panel temperatures that are likely to match your particular installation.

Be aware that two panels can have the same Wp but very different behavior
in different operating conditions. When acquiring a panel, it is important to
verify, if possible, that their parameters (at least, ISC and VOC) match the val-
ues promised by the manufacturer.

Panel parameters for system sizing
To calculate the number of panels required to cover a given load, you just
need to know the current and voltage at the point of maximum power: IPmax
and VPmax.

You should always be aware that the panel is not going to perform under per-
fect conditions as the load or regulation system is not always going to work at
the point of maximum power of the panel. You should assume a loss of efﬁ-
ciency of 5% in your calculations to compensate for this.

Interconnection of panels
A solar panel array is a collection of solar panels that are electrically inter-
connected and installed on some type of support structure. Using a solar
panel array allows you to generate greater voltage and current than is possi-
ble with a single solar panel. The panels are interconnected in such a way
that the voltage generated is close to (but greater than) the level of voltage of
the batteries, and that the current generated is sufﬁcient to feed the equip-
ment and to charge the batteries.

Connecting solar panels in series increases the generated voltage. Connect-
ing panels in parallel increases the current. The number of panels used
should be increased until the amount of power generated slightly exceeds
the demands of your load.

It is very important that all of the panels in your array are as identical as possi-
ble. In an array, you should use panels of the same brand and characteristics
because any difference in their operating conditions will have a big impact on
the health and performance of your system. Even panels that have identical


performance ratings will usually display some variance in their characteristics
due to manufacturing processes. The actual operating characteristics of two
panels from the same manufacturer can vary by as much as ±10%.

Whenever possible, it is a good idea to test the real-world performance of
individual panels to verify their operating characteristics before assembling
them into an array.

Figure 7.8: Interconnection of panels in parallel. The voltage remains constant while
the current duplicates. (Photo: Fantsuam Foundation, Nigeria)

How to choose a good panel
One obvious metric to use when shopping for solar panels is to compare the
ratio of the nominal peak power (Wp) to the price. This will give you a rough
idea of the cost per Watt for different panels. But there are a number of other
considerations to keep in mind as well.

If you are going to install solar panels in geographical areas where soiling
(from dust, sand, or grit) will likely be a problem, consider purchasing pan-
els with a low affinity for soil retention. These panels are made of materials
that increase the likelihood that the panel will be automatically cleaned by
wind and rain.

Always check the mechanical construction of each panel. Verify that the
glass is hardened and the aluminum frame is robust and well built. The solar


cells inside the panel can last for more than 20 years, but they are very frag-
ile and the panel must protect them from mechanical hazards. Look for the
manufacturer's quality guarantee in terms of expected power output and me-
chanical construction.

Finally, be sure that the manufacturer provides not only the nominal peak
power of the panel (Wp) but also the variation of the power with irradiation
and temperature. This is particularly important when panels are used in ar-
rays, as variations in the operating parameters can have a big impact on the
quality of power generated and the useful lifetime of the panels.

The battery
The battery “hosts” a certain reversible chemical reaction that stores electri-
cal energy that can later be retrieved when needed. Electrical energy is
transformed into chemical energy when the battery is being charged, and the
reverse happens when the battery is discharged.

A battery is formed by a set of elements or cells arranged in series. Lead-
acid batteries consist of two submerged lead electrodes in an electrolytic so-
lution of water and sulfuric acid. A potential difference of about 2 volts takes
place between the electrodes, depending on the instantaneous value of the
charge state of the battery. The most common batteries in photovoltaic solar
applications have a nominal voltage of 12 or 24 volts. A 12 V battery there-
fore contains 6 cells in series.

The battery serves two important purposes in a photovoltaic system: to pro-
vide electrical energy to the system when energy is not supplied by the array
of solar panels, and to store excess energy generated by the panels when-
ever that energy exceeds the load. The battery experiences a cyclical proc-
ess of charging and discharging, depending on the presence or absence of
sunlight. During the hours that there is sun, the array of panels produces
electrical energy. The energy that is not consumed immediately it is used to
charge the battery. During the hours of absence of sun, any demand of elec-
trical energy is supplied by the battery, thereby discharging it.

These cycles of charge and discharge occur whenever the energy produced
by the panels does not match the energy required to support the load. When
there is sufﬁcient sun and the load is light, the batteries will charge. Obvi-
ously, the batteries will discharge at night whenever any amount of power is
required. The batteries will also discharge when the irradiance is insufﬁcient
to cover the requirements of the load (due to the natural variation of climato-
logical conditions, clouds, dust, etc.)


If the battery does not store enough energy to meet the demand during peri-
ods without sun, the system will be exhausted and will be unavailable for
consumption. On the other hand, the oversizing the system (by adding far too
many panels and batteries) is expensive and inefficient. When designing a
stand-alone system we need to reach a compromise between the cost of
components and the availability of power from the system. One way to do
this is to estimate the required number of days of autonomy. In the case of
a telecommunications system, the number of days of autonomy depends on
its critical function within your network design. If the equipment is going to
serve as repeater and is part of the backbone of your network, you will likely
want to design your photovoltaic system with an autonomy of up to 5-7 days.
On the other hand, if the solar system is responsible for a providing energy to
client equipment you can probably reduce number of days of autonomy to
two or three. In areas with low irradiance, this value may need to be in-
creased even more. In any case, you will always have to find the proper bal-
ance between cost and reliability.

Types of batteries
Many different battery technologies exist, and are intended for use in a vari-
ety of different applications. The most suitable type for photovoltaic applica-
tions is the stationary battery, designed to have a fixed location and for
scenarios where the power consumption is more or less irregular. "Station-
ary" batteries can accommodate deep discharge cycles, but they are not de-
signed to produce high currents in brief periods of time.

Stationary batteries can use an electrolyte that is alkaline (such as Nickel-
Cadmium) or acidic (such as Lead-Acid). Stationary batteries based on
Nickel-Cadmium are recommended for their high reliability and resistance
whenever possible. Unfortunately, they tend to be much more expensive and
difficult to obtain than sealed lead-acid batteries.

In many cases when it is difficult to find local, good and cheap stationary bat-
teries (importing batteries is not cheap), you will be forced to use batteries
targeted to the automobile market.

Using car batteries
Automobile batteries are not well suited for photovoltaic applications as they
are designed to provide a substantial current for just few seconds (when
starting then engine) rather than sustaining a low current for long period of
time. This design characteristic of car batteries (also called traction batter-
ies) results in an shortened effective life when used in photovoltaic systems.
Traction batteries can be used in small applications where low cost is the
most important consideration, or when other batteries are not available.


Traction batteries are designed for vehicles and electric wheelbarrows. They
are cheaper than stationary batteries and can serve in a photovoltaic installa-
tion, although they require very frequent maintenance. These batteries
should never be deeply discharged, because doing so will greatly reduce
their ability to hold a charge. A truck battery should not discharged by more
than 70% of its total capacity. This means that you can only use a maximum
of 30% of a lead-acid battery's nominal capacity before it must be recharged.

You can extend the life of a lead-acid battery by using distilled water. By us-
ing a densimeter or hydrometer, you can measure the density of the battery's
electrolyte. A typical battery has specific gravity of 1.28. Adding distilled water
and lowering the density to 1.2 can help reduce the anode's corrosion, at a
cost of reducing the overall capacity of the battery. If you adjust the density of
battery electrolyte, you must use distilled water, as tap water or well water
will permanently damage the battery.

States of charge
There are two special state of charge that can take place during the cyclic
charge and discharge of the battery. They should both be avoided in order to
preserve the useful life of the battery.

Overcharge
Overcharge takes place when the battery arrives at the limit of its capacity. If
energy is applied to a battery beyond its point of maximum charge, the electro-
lyte begins to break down. This produces bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen, in
a process is known as gasification. This results in a loss of water, oxidation on
the positive electrode, and in extreme cases, a danger of explosion.

On the other hand, the presence of gas avoids the stratification of the
acid. After several continuous cycles of charge and discharge, the acid
tends to concentrate itself at the bottom of the battery thereby reducing
the effective capacity. The process of gasification agitates the electrolyte
and avoids stratification.

Again, it is necessary to find a compromise between the advantages (avoid-
ing electrolyte stratification) and the disadvantages (losing water and produc-
tion of hydrogen). One solution is to allow a slight overcharge condition every
so often. One typical method is to allow a voltage of 2.35 to 2.4 Volts for each
element of the battery every few days, at 25ºC. The regulator should ensure
a periodical and controlled overcharges.


Overdischarge
In the same way that there is a upper limit, there is also a lower limit to a bat-
tery's state of charge. Discharging beyond that limit will result in deterioration
of the battery. When the effective battery supply is exhausted, the regulator
prevents any more energy from being extracted from the battery. When the
voltage of the battery reaches the minimum limit of 1.85 Volts per cell at
25°C, the regulator disconnects the load from the battery.

If the discharge of the battery is very deep and the battery remains dis-
charged for a long time, three effects take place: the formation of crystallized
sulfate on the battery plates, the loosening of the active material on the bat-
tery plate, and plate buckling. The process of forming stable sulfate crystals
is called hard sulfation. This is particularly negative as it generates big crys-
tals that do not take part in any chemical reaction and can make your battery
unusable.

Battery Parameters
The main parameters that characterize a battery are:

• Nominal Voltage, VNBat. the most common value being 12 V.

• Nominal Capacity, CNBat: the maximum amount of energy that can be ex-
tracted from a fully charged battery. It is expressed in Ampere-hours (Ah)
or Watt-hours (Wh). The amount of energy that can be obtained from a
battery depends on the time in which the extraction process takes place.
Discharging a battery over a long period will yield more energy compared
to discharging the same battery over a short period. The capacity of a bat-
tery is therefore speciﬁed at different discharging times. For photovoltaic
applications, this time should be longer than 100 hours (C100).

• Maximum Depth of Discharge, DoDmax: The depth of discharge is the
amount of energy extracted from a battery in a single discharge cycle, ex-
pressed as a percentage. The life expectancy of a battery depends on how
deeply it is discharged in each cycle. The manufacturer should provide graphs
that relate the number of charge-discharge cycles to the life of the battery. As a
general rule you should avoid discharging a deep cycle battery beyond
50%. Traction batteries should only be discharged by as little as 30%.

• Useful Capacity, CUBat: It is the real (as in usable) capacity of a battery. It
is equal to the product of the nominal capacity and the maximum DoD. For
example, a stationary battery of nominal capacity (C100) of 120 Ah and
depth of discharge of 70% has a useful capacity of (120 x 0.7) 84 Ah.


Measuring the state of charge of the battery
A sealed lead-acid battery of 12 V provides different voltages depending on
its state of charge. When the battery is fully charged in an open circuit, the
output voltage is about 12.8 V. The output voltage lowers quickly to 12.6 V
when loads are attached. As the battery is providing constant current during
operation, the battery voltage reduces linearly from 12.6 to 11.6 V depending
on the state of charge. A sealed lead-acid batteries provides 95% of its en-
ergy within this voltage range. If we make the broad assumption that a fully
loaded battery has a voltage of 12.6 V when "full" and 11.6 V when "empty",
we can estimate that a battery has discharged 70% when it reaches a volt-
age of 11.9 V. These values are only a rough approximation since they de-
pend on the life and quality of the battery, the temperature, etc.

State of Charge 12V Battery Volts per Cell
Voltage

100% 12.7 2.12

90% 12.5 2.08

80% 12.42 2.07

70% 12.32 2.05

60% 12.2 2.03

50% 12.06 2.01

40% 11.9 1.98

30% 11.75 1.96

20% 11.58 1.93

10% 11.31 1.89

0% 10.5 1.75

According to this table, and considering that a truck battery should not be
discharged more than 20% to 30%, we can determine that the useful capac-
ity of a truck 170 Ah truck battery is 34 Ah (20%) to 51 Ah (30%). Using the
same table, we ﬁnd that we should program the regulator to prevent the bat-
tery from discharging below 12.3 V.


Battery and regulator protection
Thermomagnetic circuit breakers or one time fuses must be used to protect
the batteries and the installation from short circuit and malfunctions. There
are two types of fuses: slow blow, and quick blow. Slow blow fuses should
be used with inductive or capacitive loads where a high current can occur at
power up. Slow blow fuses will allow a higher current than their rating to pass
for a short time. Quick blow fuses will immediately blow if the current ﬂowing
through them is higher than their rating.

The regulator is connected to the battery and the loads, so two different kinds
of protection needs to be considered. One fuse should be placed between
the battery and the regulator, to protect the battery from short-circuit in case
of regulator failure. A second fuse is needed to protect the regulator from ex-
cessive load current. This second fuse is normally integrated into the regula-
tor itself.

Figure 7.9: A battery bank of 3600 Ah, currents reach levels of 45 A during charging

Every fuse is rated with a maximum current and a maximum usable voltage.
The maximum current of the fuse should be 20% bigger than the maximum
current expected. Even if the batteries carry a low voltage, a short circuit can
lead to a very high current which can easily reach several hundred amperes.
Large currents can cause ﬁre, damage the equipment and batteries, and
possibly cause electric shock to a human body

If a fuse breaks, never replace a fuse with a wire or a higher rated fuse. First
determine the cause of the problem, then replace the fuse with another one
which has the same characteristics.


Temperature effects
The ambient temperature has several important effects on the characteristics
of a battery:

• The nominal capacity of a battery (that the manufacturer usually gives for
25°C) increases with temperature at the rate of about 1%/°C. But if the
temperature is too high, the chemical reaction that takes place in the bat-
tery accelerates, which can cause the same type of oxidation that takes
places during overcharging. This will obviously reduce the life expectancy
of battery. This problem can be compensated partially in car batteries by
using a low density of dissolution (a specific gravity of 1.25 when the bat-
tery is totally charged).
• As the temperature is reduced, the useful life of the battery increases.
But if the temperature is too low, you run the the risk of freezing the elec-
trolyte. The freezing temperature depends on the density of the solution,
which is also related to the state of charge of the battery. The lower the
density, the greater the risk of freezing. In areas of low temperatures, you
should avoid deeply discharging the batteries (that is, DoDmax is effec-
tively reduced.)
• The temperature also changes the relation between voltage and charge. It
is preferable to use a regulator which adjusts the low voltage disconnect
and reconnect parameters according to temperature. The temperature
sensor of the regulator should be fixed to the battery using tape or some
other simple method.
• In hot areas it is important to keep the batteries as cool as possible. The
batteries must be stored in a shaded area and never get direct sunlight. It's
also desirable to place the batteries on a small support to allow air to flow
under them, thus increase the cooling.

How to choose a good battery
Choosing a good battery can be very challenging in developing regions. High
capacity batteries are heavy, bulky and expensive to import. A 200 Ah battery
weights around 50 kg (120 pounds) and it can not be transported as hand
luggage. If you want long-life (as in > 5 years) and maintenance free batter-
ies be ready to pay the price.

A good battery should always come with its technical specifications, including
the capacity at different discharge rates (C20, C100), operating temperature,
cut-off voltage points, and requirements for chargers.

The batteries must be free of cracks, liquid spillage or any sign of damage,
and battery terminals should be free of corrosion. As laboratory tests are


necessary to obtain complete data about real capacity and aging, expect
lots of low quality batteries (including fakes) in the local markets. A typical
price (not including transport and import tax) is $3-4 USD per Ah for 12 V
lead-acid batteries.

Life expectancy versus number of cycles
Batteries are the only component of a solar system that should be amortized
over a short period and regularly replaced. You can increase the useful life-
time of a battery by reducing the depth of discharge per cycle. Even deep
cycle batteries will have an increased battery life if the the number of deep
discharge (>30%) cycles is reduced.

If you completely discharge the battery every day, you will typically need to
change it after less than one year. If you use only 1/3 of the capacity the bat-
tery, it can last more than 3 years. It can be cheaper to buy a battery with 3
times the capacity than to change the battery every year.

The power charge regulator
The power charge regulator is also known as charge controller, voltage regu-
lator, charge-discharge controller or charge-discharge and load controller.
The regulator sits between the array of panels, the batteries, and your
equipment or loads.

Remember that the voltage of a battery, although always close to 2 V per
cell, varies according to its state of charge. By monitoring the voltage of the
battery, the regulator prevents overcharging or overdischarging.

Regulators used in solar applications should be connected in series: they
disconnect the array of panels from the battery to avoid overcharging, and
they disconnect the battery from the load to avoid overdischarging. The
connection and disconnection is done by means of switches which can be
of two types: electromechanical (relays) or solid state (bipolar transistor,
MOSFET). Regulators should never be connected in parallel.

In order to protect the battery from gasification, the switch opens the
charging circuit when the voltage in the battery reaches its high voltage
disconnect (HVD) or cut-off set point. The low voltage disconnect (LVD)
prevents the battery from overdischarging by disconnecting or shedding
the load. To prevent continuous connections and disconnections the regu-
lator will not connect back the loads until the battery reaches a low recon-
nect voltage (LRV).


Typical values for a 12 V lead-acid battery are:

Voltage Point Voltage

LVD 11.5

LRV 12.6

Constant Voltage 14.3
Regulated

Equalization 14.6

HVD 15.5

The most modern regulators are also able to automatically disconnect the panels
during the night to avoid discharging of the battery. They can also periodically
overcharge the battery to improve their life, and they may use a mechanism
known as pulse width modulation (PWM) to prevent excessive gassing.

As the peak power operating point of the array of panels will vary with tem-
perature and solar illumination, new regulators are capable of constantly
tracking the maximum point of power of the solar array. This feature is known
as maximum power point tracking (MPPT).

Regulator Parameters
When selecting a regulator for your system, you should at least know the
operating voltage and the maximum current that the regulator can handle.
The operating Voltage will be 12, 24, or 48 V. The maximum current must be
20% bigger than the current provided by the array of panels connected to the
regulator.

Other features and data of interest include:

• Speciﬁc values for LVD, LRV and HVD.
• Support for temperature compensation. The voltage that indicates the state
of charge of the battery vary with temperature. For that reason some regu-
lators are able to measure the battery temperature and correct the different
cut-off and reconnection values.
• Instrumentation and gauges. The most common instruments measure the
voltage of the panels and batteries, the state of charge (SoC) or Depth of Dis-
charge (DoD). Some regulators include special alarms to indicate that the
panels or loads have been disconnected, LVD or HVD has been reached, etc.


Converters
The regulator provides DC power at a specific voltage. Converters and invert-
ers are used to adjust the voltage to match the requirements of your load.

DC/DC Converters
DC/DC converters transform a continuous voltage to another continuous
voltage of a different value. There are two conversion methods which can be
used to adapt the voltage from the batteries: linear conversion and switch-
ing conversion.

Linear conversion lowers the voltage from the batteries by converting excess
energy to heat. This method is very simple but is obviously inefficient.
Switching conversion generally uses a magnetic component to temporarily
store the energy and transform it to another voltage. The resulting voltage
can be greater, less than, or the inverse (negative) of the input voltage.

The efficiency of a linear regulator decreases as the difference between the
input voltage and the output voltage increases. For example, if we want to
convert from 12 V to 6 V, the linear regulator will have an efficiency of only
50%. A standard switching regulator has an efficiency of at least 80%.

DC/AC Converter or Inverter
Inverters are used when your equipment requires AC power. Inverters chop
and invert the DC current to generate a square wave that is later filtered to
approximate a sine wave and eliminate undesired harmonics. Very few
inverters actually supply a pure sine wave as output. Most models available
on the market produce what is known as "modified sine wave", as their volt-
age output is not a pure sinusoid. When it comes to efficiency, modified sine
wave inverters perform better than pure sinusoidal inverters.

Be aware that not all the equipment will accept a modified sine wave as volt-
age input. Most commonly, some laser printers will not work with a modified
sine wave inverter. Motors will work, but they may consume more power than
if they are fed with a pure sine wave. In addition, DC power supplies tend to
warm up more, and audio amplifiers can emit a buzzing sound.

Aside from the type of waveform, some important features of inverters include:

• Reliability in the presence of surges. Inverters have two power ratings:
one for continuous power, and a higher rating for peak power. They are
capable of providing the peak power for a very short amount of time, as
when starting a motor. The inverter should also be able to safely interrupt


itself (with a circuit breaker or fuse) in the event of a short circuit, or if the
requested power is too high.
• Conversion efficiency. Inverters are most efficient when providing 50% to
90% of their continuous power rating. You should select an inverter that
most closely matches your load requirements. The manufacturer usually
provides the performance of the inverter at 70% of its nominal power.
• Battery charging. Many inverters also incorporate the inverse function:
the possibility of charging batteries in the presence of an alternative source
of current (grid, generator, etc). This type of inverter is known as a charger/
inverter.
• Automatic fall-over. Some inverters can switch automatically between
different sources of power (grid, generator, solar) depending on what is
available.

When using telecommunication equipment, it is best to avoid the use of DC/
AC converters and feed them directly from a DC source. Most communica-
tions equipment can accept a wide range of input voltage.

Equipment or load
It should be obvious that as power requirements increase, the expense of the
photovoltaic system also increases. It is therefore critical to match the size of
the system as closely as possible to the expected load. When designing the
system you must first make a realistic estimate of the maximum consump-
tion. Once the installation is in place, the established maximum consumption
must be respected in order to avoid frequent power failures.

Home Appliances
The use of photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for heat-exchange
applications (electrical heating, refrigerators, toasters, etc.) Whenever possi-
ble, energy should be used sparingly using low power appliances.

Here are some points to keep in mind when choosing appropriate equipment
for use with a solar system:

• The photovoltaic solar energy is suitable for illumination. In this case, the
use of halogen light bulbs or fluorescent lamps is mandatory. Although
these lamps are more expensive, they have much better energy efficiency
than incandescent light bulbs. LED lamps are also a good choice as they
are very efficient and are fed with DC.
• It is possible to use photovoltaic power for appliances that require low and
constant consumption (as in a typical case, the TV). Smaller televisions


use less power than larger televisions. Also consider that a black-and-white
TV consumes about half the power of a color TV.
• Photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for any application that
transforms energy into heat (thermal energy). Use solar heating or butane
as alternative.
• Conventional automatic washing machines will work, but you should avoid
the use of any washing programs that include centrifuged water heating.
• If you must use a refrigerators, it should consume as little power as possi-
ble. There are specialized refrigerators that work in DC, although their con-
sumption can be quite high (around 1000 Wh/day).

The estimation of total consumption is a fundamental step in sizing your solar
system. Here is a table that gives you a general idea of the power consump-
tion that you can expect from different appliances.

Equipment Consumption (Watts)

Portable computer 30-50

Low power lamp 6-10

WRAP router (one radio) 4-10

VSAT modem 15-30

PC (without LCD) 20-30

PC (with LCD) 200-300

Network Switch (16 port) 6-8

Wireless telecommunications equipment
Saving power by choosing the right gear saves a lot of money and trouble.
For example , a long distance link doesn't necessarily need a strong amplifier
that draws a lot of power. A Wi-Fi card with good receiver sensitivity and a
fresnel zone that is at least 60% clear will work better than an amplifier, and
save power consumption as well. A well known saying of radio amateurs ap-
plies here, too: The best amplifier is a good antenna. Further measures to
reduce power consumption include throttling the CPU speed, reducing
transmit power to the minimum value that is necessary to provide a stable


link, increasing the length of beacon intervals, and switching the system off
during times it is not needed.

Most autonomous solar systems work at 12 or 24 volts. Preferably, a wireless
device that runs on DC voltage should be used, operating at the 12 Volts that
most lead acid batteries provide. Transforming the voltage provided by the
battery to AC or using a voltage at the input of the access point different from
the voltage of the battery will cause unnecessary energy loss. A router or
access point that accepts 8-20 Volts DC is perfect.

Most cheap access points have a switched mode voltage regulator inside
and will work through such a voltage range without modiﬁcation or becoming
hot (even if the device was shipped with a 5 or 12 Volt power supply).

WARNING: Operating your access point with a power supply other than the
one provided by your manufacturer will certainly void any warranty, and may
cause damage to your equipment. While the following technique will typically
work as described, remember that should you attempt it, you do so at your
own risk.

Open your access point and look near the DC input for two relatively big ca-
pacitors and an inductor (a ferrite toroid with copper wire wrapped around it).
If they are present then the device has a switched mode input, and the
maximum input voltage should be somewhat below the voltage printed on the
capacitors. Usually the rating of these capacitors is 16 or 25 volts. Be aware
that an unregulated power supply has a ripple and may feed a much higher
voltage into your access point than the typical voltage printed on it may sug-
gest. So, connecting an unregulated power supply with 24 Volts to a device
with 25 Volt-capacitors is not a good idea. Of course, opening your device
will void any existing warranty. Do not try to operate an access point at higher
voltage if it doesn't have a switched mode regulator. It will get hot, malfunc-
tion, or burn.

Equipment based on traditional Intel x86 CPUs are power hungry in compari-
son with RISC-based architectures as ARM or MIPS. One of the boards with
lowest power consumptions is the Soekris platform that uses an AMD
ElanSC520 processor. Another alternative to AMD (ElanSC or Geode
SC1100) is the use of equipment with MIPS processors. MIPS processors
have a better performance than an AMD Geode at the price of consuming
between 20-30% of more energy.

The popular Linksys WRT54G runs at any voltage between 5 and 20 volts
DC and draws about 6 Watts, but it has an Ethernet switch onboard. Having
a switch is of course nice and handy - but it draws extra power. Linksys also
offers a Wi-Fi access point called WAP54G that draws only 3 Watts and can
run OpenWRT and Freifunk ﬁrmware. The 4G Systems Accesscube draws


about 6 Watts when equipped with a single WiFi interface. If 802.11b is suffi-
cient, mini-PCI cards with the Orinoco chipset perform very well while draw-
ing a minimum amount of power.

Equipment Consumption (Watts)

Linksys WRT54G
6
(BCM2050 radio)

Linksys WAP54G
3
(BCM2050 radio)

Orinoco WavePoint II ROR
15
(30mW radio)

Soekris net4511
1.8
(no radio)

PC Engines WRAP.1E-1
2.04
(no radio)

Mikrotik Routerboard 532
2.3
(no radio)

Inhand ELF3
1.53
(no radio)

Senao 250mW radio 3

Ubiquiti 400mW radio 6

The amount of power required by wireless equipment depends not only on
the architecture but on the number of network interfaces, radios, type of
memory/storage and traffic. As a general rule, a wireless board of low con-
sumption consumes 2 to 3 W, and a 200 mW radio card consumes as much
as 3 W. High power cards (such as the 400 mW Ubiquity) consume around 6
W. A repeating station with two radios can range between 8 and 10 W.

Although the standard IEEE 802.11 incorporates a power saving mode (PS)
mechanism, its benefit is not as good as you might hope. The main mecha-
nism for energy saving is to allow stations to periodically put their wireless
cards to "sleep" by means of a timing circuit. When the wireless card wakes
up it verifies if a beacon exists, indicating pending traffic. The energy saving
therefore only takes place in the client side, as the access point always
needs to remain awake to send beacons and store traffic for the clients.
Power saving mode may be incompatible between implementations from
different manufacturers, which can cause unstable wireless connections. It is


nearly always best to leave power saving mode disabled on all equipment, as
the difficulties created will likely outweigh the meager amount of saved
power.

Selecting the voltage
Most low power stand-alone systems use 12 V battery power as that is the
most common operational voltage in sealed lead-acid batteries. When de-
signing a wireless communication system you need to take into consideration
the most efficient voltage of operation of your equipment. While the input
voltage can accept a wide range of values, you need to ensure that the over-
all power consumption of the system is minimal.

Wiring
An important component of the installation is the wiring, as proper wiring
will ensure efficient energy transfer. Some good practices that you should
consider include:

• Use a screw to fasten the cable to the battery terminal. Loose connections
will waste power.
• Spread Vaseline or mineral jelly on the battery terminals. Corroded connec-
tion have an increased resistance, resulting in loss.
• For low currents (<10 A) consider the use of Faston or Anderson power-
pole connectors. For bigger currents, use metallic ring lugs.

Wire size is normally given in American Wire Gauge (AWG). During your cal-
culations you will need to convert between AWG and mm2 to estimate cable
resistance. For example, an AWG #6 cable has a diameter of 4.11 mm and
can handle up to 55 A. A conversion chart, including an estimate of resis-
tance and current carrying capacity, is available in Appendix D. Keep in
mind that the current carrying capacity can also vary depending on the type
of insulation and application. When in doubt, consult the manufacturer for
more information.

Orientation of the panels
Most of the energy coming from the sun arrives in straight line. The solar
module will capture more energy if it is “facing” the sun, perpendicular to the
straight line between the position of the installation and the sun. Of course,
the sun's position is constantly changing relative to the earth, so we need to
find an optimal position for our panels. The orientation of the panels is de-
termined by two angles, the azimuth a and the inclination or elevation ß.
The azimuth is the angle that measures the deviation with respect to the


south in the northern hemisphere, and with respect to the north in the south-
ern hemisphere. The inclination is the angle formed by the surface of the
module and the horizontal plane.

Azimuth
You should have the module turned towards the terrestrial equator (facing
south in the northern hemisphere, and north in the southern) so that during
the day the panel catches the greatest possible amount of radiation (a = 0).

It is very important that no part of the panels are ever under shade!. Study
the elements that surround the panel array (trees, buildings, walls, other
panels, etc.) to be sure that they will not cast a shadow on the panels at any
time of the day or year. It is acceptable to turn the panels ±20º towards the
east or the west if needed (a = ±20º).

Inclination
Once you have ﬁxed the azimuth, the parameter that is key in our calcula-
tions is the inclination of the panel, which we will express as the angle beta
(ß). The maximum height that the sun reaches every day will vary, with the
maximum on the day of the summer solstice and the minimum on the winter
solstice. Ideally, the panels should track this variation, but this is usually not
possible for cost reasons.

In installations with telecommunications equipment it is normal to install the
panels at a fixed inclination. In most telecommunications scenarios the energy
demands of the system are constant throughout the year. Providing for suffi-
cient power during the "worst month" will work well for the rest of the year.

The value of ß should maximize the ratio between the offer and the demand
of energy.

• For installations with consistent (or nearly consistent) consumption through-
out the year, it is preferable to optimize the installation to capture the maxi-
mum radiation during "the winter" months. You should use the absolute value
of the latitude of the place (angle F) increased by 10° (ß = | F | + 10 °).
• For installations with less consumptions during winter, the value of the lati-
tude of the place can be used as the solar panel inclination. This way the
system is optimized for the months of spring and autumn (ß = | F |).
• For installations that are only used during summer, you should use the absolute
value of the latitude of the place (angle F) decreased by 10° (ß = | F | - 10°).
The inclination of the panel should never be less than 15° to avoid the accu-
mulation of dust and/or humidity on the panel. In areas where snow and ice


occur, it is very important to protect the panels and to incline them an angle
of 65° or greater.

If there is a considerable increase in consumption during the summer, you might
consider arranging for two fixed inclinations, one position for the months of
summer and another for the months of winter. This would require special support
structures and a regular schedule for changing the position of the panels.

How to size your photovoltaic system
When choosing equipment to meet your power needs, you will need to de-
termine the following, at a minimum:

• The number and type of solar panels required to capture enough solar en-
ergy to support your load.
• The minimum capacity of the battery. The battery will need to store enough
energy to provide power at night and through days with little sun, and will
determine your number of days of autonomy.
• The characteristics of all other components (the regulator, wiring, etc.)
needed to support the amount of power generated and stored.

System sizing calculations are important, because unless the system com-
ponents are balanced, energy (and ultimately, money) is wasted. For exam-
ple, if we install more solar panels to produce more energy, the batteries
should have enough capacity to store the additional energy produced. If the
bank of batteries is too small and the load is not using the energy as it is
generated, then energy must be thrown away. A regulator of a smaller am-
perage than needed, or one single cable that is too small, can be a cause of
failure (or even ﬁre) and render the installation unusable.

Never forget that the ability of the photovoltaic energy to produce and store
electrical energy is limited. Accidentally leaving on a light bulb during the
day can easily drain your reserves before nighttime, at which point no addi-
tional power will be available. The availability of "fuel" for photovoltaic sys-
tems (i.e. solar radiation) can be difficult to predict. In fact, it is never possi-
ble to be absolutely sure that a standalone system is going to be able to
provide the necessary energy at any particular moment. Solar systems are
designed for a certain consumption, and if the user exceeds the planned
limits the provision of energy will fail.

The design method that we propose consists of considering the energy re-
quirements, and based on them to calculate a system that works for the
maximum amount of time so it is as reliable as possible. Of course, if more


panels and batteries are installed, more energy will be able to be collected
and stored. This increase of reliability will also have an increase in cost.

In some photovoltaic installations (such as the provision of energy for tele-
communications equipment on a network backbone) the reliability factor is
more important that the cost. In a client installation, low cost is likely going to
be a the most important factor. Finding a balance between cost and reliability
is not a easy task, but whatever your situation, you should be able to deter-
mine what it is expected from your design choices, and at what price.

The method we will use for sizing the system is known as the method of
the worst month. We simply calculate the dimensions of the standalone
system so it will work in the month in which the demand for energy is
greatest with respect to the available solar energy. It is the worst month of
the year, as this month with have the largest ratio of demanded energy to
available energy.

Using this method, reliability is taken into consideration by ﬁxing the maxi-
mum number of days that the system can work without receiving solar radia-
tion (that is, when all consumption is made solely at the expense of the en-
ergy stored in the battery.) This is known as the maximum number of days
of autonomy (N), and can be thought of as the number of consecutive
cloudy days when the panels do not collect any signiﬁcant amount of energy.

When choosing N, it is necessary to know the climatology of the place, as well
as the economic and social relevance of the installation. Will it be used to illu-
minate houses, a hospital, a factory, for a radio link, or for some other applica-
tion? Remember that as N increases, so does the investment in equipment
and maintenance. It is also important to evaluate all possible logistical costs of
equipment replacement. It is not the same to change a discharged battery from
an installation in the middle of a city versus one at the top a telecommunica-
tion tower that is several hours or days of walking distance.

Fixing the value of N it is not an easy task as there are many factors in-
volved, and many of them cannot be evaluated easily. Your experience will
play an important role in this part of the system sizing. One commonly used
value for critical telecommunications equipment is N = 5, whereas for low
cost client equipment it is possible to reduce the autonomy to N = 3.

In Appendix E, we have included several tables that will facilitate the collec-
tion of required data for sizing the system. The rest of this chapter will explain
in detail what information you need to collect or estimate and how to use the
method of the "worst month".


Data to collect
• Latitude of the installation. Remember to use a positive sign in the
northern hemisphere and negative in the south.
• Solar radiation data. For the method of the "worst month" it is enough to
know just twelve values, one for every month. The twelve numbers are the
monthly average values of daily global irradiation on horizontal plane
(Gdm(0), in kWh/m2 per day). The monthly value is the sum of the values of
global irradiation for every day of the month, divided by the number of days
of the month.

If you have the data in Joules (J), you can apply the following conversion:

1 J = 2.78 10-7 kWh

The irradiation data Gdm(0) of many places of the world is gathered in tables
and databases. You should check for this information from a weather station
close to your implementation site, but do not be surprised if you cannot ﬁnd
the data in electronic format. It is a good idea to ask companies that install
photovoltaic systems in the region, as their experience can be of great value.

Do not confuse "sun hours" with the number of "peak sun hours". The number
of peak sun hours has nothing to do with the number of hours without clouds,
but refers to the amount of daily irradiation. A day of 5 hours of sun without
clouds does not necessary have those hours when the sun is at its zenith.

A peak sun hour is a normalized value of solar radiation of 1000 W/m2 at 25
C. So when we refer to 5 peak sun hours, this implies a daily solar radiation
of 5000 W/m2.

Electrical characteristics of system components
The electrical characteristics of the components of your system should be
provided by the manufacturer. It is advisable to make your our own meas-
urements to check for any deviation from the nominal values. Unfortunately,
deviation from promised values can be large and should be expected.

These are the minimum values that you need to gather before starting your
system sizing:

Panels
You need to know the voltage VPmax and the current IPmax at the point of
maximum power in standard conditions.


Batteries
Nominal capacity (for 100 hours discharge) CNBat , operational voltage VNBat ,
and either the maximum depth of discharge DoDmax or useful capacity CUBat .
You also need to know the type of battery that you plan to use, whether
sealed lead-acid, gel, AGM, modiﬁed traction etc. The type of battery is im-
portant when deciding the cut-off points in the regulator.

Regulator
You need to know the nominal voltage VNReg, and the maximum current that
can operate ImaxReg.

DC/AC Converter/Inverter
If you are going to use a converter, you need to know the nominal voltage VNConv,
instantaneous power PIConv and performance at 70% of maximum load H70.

Equipment or load
It is necessary to know the nominal voltage VNC and the nominal power of
operation PC for every piece of equipment powered by the system.

In order to know the total energy that our installation is going to consume, it
is also very important to consider the average time each load will be used. Is
it constant? Or will it be used daily, weekly, monthly or annually? Consider
any changes in the usage that might impact the amount of energy needed
(seasonal usage, training or school periods, etc.)

Other variables
Aside from the electrical characteristics of the components and load, it is
necessary to decide on two more pieces of information before being able to
size a photovoltaic system. These two decisions are the required number of
days of autonomy and the operational voltage of the system.

N, number of days of autonomy
You need to decide on a value for N that will balance meteorological condi-
tions with the type of installation and overall costs. It is impossible to give a
concrete value of N that is valid for every installation, but the next table gives
some recommended values. Take these values as a rough approximation,
and consult with an experienced designer to reach a ﬁnal decision.


Available Domestic Critical
Sunlight Installation Installation

Very cloudy 5 10

Variable 4 8

Sunny 3 6

VN, nominal voltage of the installation
The components of your system need to be chosen to operate at a nominal
voltage VN. This voltage is usually 12 or 24 Volts for small systems, and if the
total power of consumption surpasses 3 kW, the voltage will be 48 V. The
selection of VN is not arbitrary, and depends on the availability of equipment.

• If the equipment allows it, try to ﬁx the nominal voltage to 12 or 24 V. Many
wireless communications boards accept a wide range of input voltage and
can be used without a converter.
• If you need to power several types of equipment that work at different
nominal voltages, calculate the voltage that minimizes the overall power
consumption including the losses for power conversion in DC/DC and DC/
AC converters.

Procedure of calculation
There are three main steps that need to be followed to calculate the proper
size of a system:

1. Calculate the available solar energy (the offer). Based on statistical
data of solar radiation, and the orientation and the optimal inclination of
the solar panels, we calculate the solar energy available. The estimation
of solar energy available is done in monthly intervals, reducing the statis-
tical data to 12 values. This estimation is a good compromise between
precision and simplicity.
2. Estimate the required electrical energy (the demand). Record the
power consumption characteristics of the equipment chosen as well as
estimated usage. Then calculate the electrical energy required on a
monthly basis. You should consider the expected ﬂuctuations of usage
due to the variations between winter and summer, the rainy period / dry
season, school / vacation periods, etc. The result will be 12 values of
energy demand, one for each month of the year.


3. Calculate the ideal system size (the result). With the data from the
“worst month”, when the relation between the solar demanded energy
and the energy available is greatest, we calculate:
• The current that the array of panels needs to provide, which will
determine the minimum number of panels.
• The necessary energy storage capacity to cover the minimum
number of days of autonomy, which will determine the required
number of batteries.
• The required electrical characteristics of the regulator.
• The length and the necessary sections of cables for the electrical
connections.

Required current in the worst month
For each month you need to calculate the value of Im, which is the maximum
daily current that an array of panels operating at nominal voltage of VN needs
to provide, in a day with a irradiation of Gdm for month "m", for panels with an
inclination of ß degrees..

The Im(WORST MONTH) will be the largest value of Im, and the system sizing
is based on the data of that worth month. The calculations of Gdm(ß) for a cer-
tain place can be made based on Gdm(0) using computer software such as
PVSYST (http://www.pvsyst.com/) or PVSOL (http://www.solardesign.co.uk/).

Due to losses in the regulator and batteries, and due to the fact that the pan-
els do not always work at the point of maximum power, the required current
ImMAX is calculated as:

ImMAX = 1.21 Im (WORST MONTH)

Once you have determined the worst month, the value of ImMAX, and the total
energy that you require ETOTAL(WORST MONTH) you can proceed to the ﬁnal
calculations. ETOTAL is the sum of all DC and AC loads, in Watts. To calculate
ETOTAL see Appendix E.

Number of panels
By combining solar panels in series and parallel, we can obtain the desired
voltage and current. When panels are connected in series, the total voltage is
equal to the sum of the individual voltages of each module, while the current
remains unchanged. When connecting panels in parallel, the currents are


summed together while the voltage remains unchanged. It is very important,
to use panels of nearly identical characteristics when building an array.

You should try to acquire panels with VPmax a bit bigger than the nominal volt-
age of the system (12, 24 or 48 V). Remember that you need to provide a
few volts more than the nominal voltage of the battery in order to charge it. If
it is not possible to find a single panel that satisfies your requirements, you
need to connect several panels in series to reach your desired voltage. The
number of panels in series Nps is equal to the nominal voltage of the system
divided by the voltage of a single panel, rounded up to the nearest integer.

Nps = VN / VPmax

In order to calculate the number of panels in parallel (Npp), you need to divide
the ImMAX by the current of a single panel at the point of maximum power
Ipmax, rounded up to the nearest integer.

Npp = ImMAX / IPmax

The total number of panels is the result of multiplying the number of panels in
series (to set the voltage) by the number of panels in parallel (to set the cur-
rent).

NTOTAL = Nps x Npp

Capacity of the battery or accumulator
The battery determines the overall voltage of the system and needs to have
enough capacity to provide energy to the load when there is not enough
solar radiation.

To estimate the capacity of our battery, we first calculate the required energy
capacity of our system (necessary capacity, CNEC). The necessary capacity
depends on the energy available during the "worst month" and the desired
number of days of autonomy (N).

CNEC (Ah)= ETOTAL(WORST MONTH)(Wh) / VN(V) x N

The nominal capacity of the battery CNOM needs to be bigger than the CNEC as
we cannot fully discharge a battery. To calculate the size of the battery we need
to consider the maximum depth of discharge (DoD) that the battery allows:

CNOM(Ah) = CNEC(Ah) / DoDMAX


In order to calculate the number of batteries in series (Nbs), we divide the
nominal voltage of our installation (VN) by the nominal voltage of a single
battery (VNBat):

Nbs = VN / VNBat

Regulator
One important warning: always use regulators in series, never in parallel. If
your regulator does not support the current required by your system, you will
need to buy a new regulator with a larger working current.

For security reasons, a regulator needs to be able to operate with a current
ImaxReg at least 20% greater than the maximum intensity that is provided by
the array of panels:

ImaxReg = 1.2 Npp IPMax

DC/AC Inverter
The total energy needed for the AC equipment is calculated including all the
losses that are introduced by the DC/AC converter or inverter. When choos-
ing an inverter, keep in mind that the performance of the inverter varies ac-
cording to the amount of requested power. An inverter has better perform-
ance characteristics when operating close to its rated power. Using a 1500
Watt inverter to power a 25 Watt load is extremely inefﬁcient. In order to
avoid this wasted energy, it is important to consider not the peak power of all
your equipment, but the peak power of the equipment that is expected to op-
erate simultaneously.

Cables
Once you know the numbers of panels and batteries, and type of regulators
and inverters that you want to use, it is necessary to calculate the length and
the thickness of the cables needed to connect the components together.

The length depends on the location of your the installation. You should try to
minimize the length of the cables between the regulator, panels, and batter-
ies. Using short cables will minimize lost power and cable costs.

The thickness is chosen is based on the length of the cable and the maxi-
mum current it must carry. The goal is to minimize voltage drops. In order to
calculate the thickness S of the cable it is necessary to know:


• The maximum current IMC that is going to circulate in the cable. In the case of
the panel-battery subsystem, it is ImMAX calculated for every month. In the
battery-load subsystem it depends on the way that the loads are connected.

• The voltage drop (Va-Vb) that we consider acceptable in the cable. The
voltage drop that results of adding all possible individual drops is ex-
pressed as a percent of the nominal voltage of the installation. Typical
maximum values are:

Voltage Drop
Component
(% of VN)

Panel Array -> Battery 1%

Battery -> Converter 1%

Main Line 3%

Main Line (Illumination) 3%

Main Line (Equipment) 5%

Typical acceptable voltage drops in cables
The section of the cable is determined by Ohm's Law:

S(mm2) = r( mm2/m)L(m) ImMAX(A)/ (Va-Vb)(V)

where S is the section, r is resistivity (intrinsic property of the material: for
copper, 0.01286 mm2/m), and L the length.

S is chosen taking into consideration the cables available in the market. You
should choose the immediately superior section to the one that is obtained
from the formula. For security reasons that are some minimum values, for the
cable that connects panels and battery, this is a minimum of 6 mm2. For the
other sections, that minimum is 4 mm2.

Cost of a solar installation
While solar energy itself is free, the equipment needed to turn it into useful
electric energy is not. You not only need to buy equipment to transform the
solar energy in electricity and store it for use, but you must also replace
and maintain various components of the system. The problem of equipment


replacement is often overlooked, and a solar system is implemented with-
out a proper maintenance plan.

In order to calculate the real cost of your installation, we include an illustra-
tive example. The ﬁrst thing to do it is to calculate the initial investment costs.

Description Number Unit Cost Subtotal

60W Solar panel
4 $300 $1,200
(about $4 / W)

30A Regulator 1 $100 $100

Wiring (meters) 25 $1 / meter $25

50 Ah Deep cycle bat-
6 $150 $900
teries

Total: $2,225

The calculation of our investment cost is relatively easy once the system
has been dimensioned. You just need to add the price for each piece
equipment and the labor cost to install and wire the equipments together.
For simplicity, we do not include the costs of transport and installation but
you should not overlook them.

To ﬁgure out how much a system will really cost to operate we must estimate
how long each part will last and how often you must replace it. In accounting
terminology this is known as amortization. Our new table will look like this:

Description # Unit Cost Subtotal Lifetime Yearly
(Years) Cost

60W Solar panel 4 $300 $1,200 20 $60

30A Regulator 1 $100 $100 5 $20

Wiring (meters) 25 $1 / meter $25 10 $2.50

50 Ah Deep
6 $150 $900 5 $180
cycle batteries

Total: $2,225 Annual Cost: $262.50


As you see, once the first investment has been done, an annual cost of
$262.50 is expected. The annual cost is an estimation of the required capi-
tal per year to replace the system components once they reach the end of
their useful life.

8
Building an Outdoor Node

There are many practical considerations when installing electronic equipment
outdoors. Obviously, it has to be protected from the rain, wind, sun, and
other harsh elements. Power needs to be provided, and the antenna should
be mounted at a sufﬁcient height. Without proper grounding, nearby lightning
strikes, ﬂuctuating mains power, and even a light winds in the proper climate
can annihilate your wireless links. This chapter will give you some idea of
the practical problems you will be up against when installing wireless equip-
ment outdoors.

Waterproof enclosures
Suitable waterproof enclosures come in many varieties. Metal or plastic may
be used to create a watertight container for outdoor embedded equipment.

Of course, equipment needs power to work, and will likely need to connect to
an antenna and Ethernet cable. Each time you pierce a watertight enclosure,
you provide another potential place for water to seep in.

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) provides guidelines
for protection of electrical equipment from rain, ice, dust, and other contami-
nants. An enclosure with a rating of NEMA 3 or better is suitable for outdoor
use in a fair climate. A NEMA 4X or NEMA 6 provides excellent protection,
even from hose driven water and ice. For fixtures that pierce the body of an
enclosure (such as cable glands and bulkhead connectors), the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) assigns an ingress protection (IP) rating.
An ingress protection rating of IP66 or IP67 will protect these holes from very
strong jets of water. A good outdoor enclosure should also provide UV protec-

249

250 Chapter 8: Building an Outdoor Node

tion to prevent breakdown of the seal from exposure to the sun, as well as to
protect the equipment inside.

Of course, finding NEMA or IEC rated enclosures may be a challenge in your
local area. Often, locally available parts can be repurposed for use as enclo-
sures. Rugged plastic or metal sprinkler boxes, electrical conduit housings,
or even plastic food containers can be used in a pinch. When piercing an
enclosure, use quality gaskets or o-rings along with a cable gland to seal the
opening. UV stabilized silicone compound or other sealant can be used for
temporary installations, but remember that cables flex in the wind, and glued
joints will eventually weaken and allow moisture to seep in.

You can greatly extend the life of a plastic enclosure by providing some pro-
tection from the sun. Mounting the box in the shade, either beneath existing
equipment, solar panel, or thin sheet of metal specifically for this purpose,
will add to the life span of the box as well as the equipment contained inside.

Before putting any piece of electronics in a sealed box, be sure that it has
minimal heat dissipation requirements. If your motherboard requires a fan or
large heat sink, remember that there will be no airflow, and your electronics
will likely bake to death on the tower. Only use electronic components that
are designed to be used in an embedded environment.

Providing power
Obviously, DC power can be provided by simply poking a hole in your enclo-
sure and running a wire. If your enclosure is large enough (say, an outdoor
electrical box) you could even wire an AC outlet inside the box. But manu-
facturers are increasingly supporting a very handy feature that eliminates the
need for an additional hole in the box: Power over Ethernet (POE).

The 802.3af standard defines a method for supplying power to devices using
the unused pairs in a standard Ethernet cable. Nearly 13 Watts of power can
be provided safely on a CAT5 cable without interfering with data transmis-
sions on the same wire. Newer 802.3af compliant Ethernet switches (called
end span injectors) supply power directly to connected devices. End span
switches can supply power on the same wires that are used for data (pairs 1-
2 and 3-6) or on the unused wires (pairs 4-5 and 7-8). Other equipment,
called mid span injectors, are inserted between Ethernet switches and the
device to be powered. These injectors supply power on the unused pairs.

If your wireless router or CPE includes support for 802.3af, you could in the-
ory simply connect it to an injector. Unfortunately, some manufacturers (no-
tably Cisco) disagree on power polarity, and connecting mismatching gear
can damage the injector and the equipment to be powered. Read the fine

Chapter 8: Building an Outdoor Node 251

print and be sure that your injector and wireless equipment agree on which
pins and polarity should be used for power.

If your wireless equipment doesn t support power over Ethernet, you can still use
the unused pairs in a CAT5 cable to carry power. You can either use a passive
POE injector, or simply build one yourself. These devices manually connect DC
power to the unused wires on one end of the cable, and connect the other end
directly to a barrel connector inserted in the device s power receptacle. A pair of
passive POE devices can typically be purchased for under $20.

To make your own, you will need to find out how much power the device re-
quires to operate, and provide at least that much current and voltage, plus
enough to account for loss in the Ethernet run. You don t want to supply too
much power, as the resistance of the small cable can present a fire hazard.
Here is an online calculator that will help you calculate the voltage drop for a
given run of CAT5 : http://www.gweep.net/~sfoskett/tech/poecalc.html

Once you know the proper power and electrical polarity needed to power
your wireless gear, crimp a CAT5 cable only using the data wires (pairs 1-2
and 3-6). Then simply connect the transformer to pairs 4-5 (usually blue /
blue-white) and 7-8 (brown / brown-white) on one end, and a matching barrel
connector on the other.

Mounting considerations
In many cases, equipment can be located inside a building, provided there is
a window with ordinary glass through which the beam can travel. Normal
glass will introduce little attenuation, but tinted glass will introduce unaccept-
able attenuation. This greatly simplifies mounting, power, and weatherproof-
ing problems, but is obviously only useful in populated areas.

When mounting antennas on towers, it is very important to use a stand off bracket,
and not mount the antennas directly to the tower. These brackets help with many
functions including antenna separation, antenna alignment and protection.

Stand off brackets need to be strong enough to support the weight of the an-
tenna, and also hold it in place on windy days. Remember, antennas can act
like small sails, and can put a lot of force on to their mounts in strong winds.
When estimating wind resistance, the total surface of the antenna structure
must be considered, as well as the distance from the center of the antenna to
the point of attachment to the building. Large antennas such as solid dishes
or high gain sectorial panels can have considerable wind load. Using a slot-
ted or mesh parabolic, rather than a solid dish, will help reduce the wind load
without much affect on antenna gain. Be sure that the mounting brackets


and supporting structure are solid, or your antennas will become misaligned
over time (or worse, fall off the tower entirely!)

Mounting brackets must have enough clearance from the tower to allow for
aiming, but not too much clearance that the antennas become too hard to
reach if any service or maintenance is required.

Figure 8.1: An antenna with a standoff bracket being lifted onto a tower.

The pipe on the standoff bracket that the antenna will be mounted on needs
to be round. This way the antenna can be pivoted on the pipe for aiming.
Secondly, the pipe must also be vertical. If it is being mounted on a tapered
tower, the standoff bracket will have to be designed to allow for this. This
can be done using different lengths of steel, or by using combinations of
threaded rod and steel plates.

As the equipment will be outside for all of its service life, it is important to be
sure that the steel used is weatherproofed. Stainless steel often has too high
a price tag for tower installations. Hot galvanizing is preferred, but may not
be available in some areas. Painting all steel with a good rust paint will also
work. If paint is chosen, it will be important to plan a yearly inspection of the
mount and repaint when necessary.


Guyed towers
A climbable guyed tower is an excellent choice for many installations, but for
very tall structures a self supporting tower might be required.

When installing guyed towers, a pulley attached to the top of a pole will facili-
tate the tower installation. The pole will be secured to the lower section al-
ready in place, while the two tower sections are attached with an articulated
joint. A rope passing through the pulley will facilitate the raising of the next
section. After the cantilever section becomes vertical, bolt it to the lower sec-
tion of the pole. The pole (called a gin pole in the trade) can then be re-
moved, and the operation may be repeated, if required. Tighten the guy
wires carefully, ensuring that you use the same tension at all suitable anchor-
ing points. Chose the points so that the angles, as seen from the center of
the tower, are as evenly spaced as possible.

Figure 8.2: A climbable guyed tower.

Self-supporting towers
Self supporting towers are expensive but sometimes needed, particularly when
greater elevation is a requirement. This can be as simple as a heavy pole
sunk into a concrete piling, or as complicated as a professional radio tower.


Figure 8.3: A simple self-supporting tower.

An existing tower can sometimes be used for subscribers, although AM
transmitting station antennas should be avoided because the whole structure
is active. FM station antennas are acceptable, provided that at least a few of
meters of separation is kept between the antennas. Be aware that while ad-
jacent transmitting antennas may not interfere with your wireless connection,
high powered FM may interfere with your wired Ethernet cable. Whenever


using a heavily populated antenna tower, be very scrupulous about proper
grounding and consider using shielded cable.

Figure 8.4: A much more complicated tower.

Rooftop assemblies
Non-penetrating roof mount antenna assemblies can be used on ﬂat roofs.
These consist of a tripod mounted to a metal or wooden base. The base is
then weighed down with bricks, sandbags, water jugs, or just about anything
heavy. Using such a rooftop “sled” eliminates the need to pierce the roof with
mounting bolts, avoiding potential leaks.


Figure 8.5: This metal base can be weighed down with sandbags, rocks, or water
bottles to make a stable platform without penetrating a roof.

Wall mount or metal strap assemblies can be used on existing structures
such as chimneys or the sides of a buildings. If the antennas have to be
mounted more than about 4 meters above the rooftop, a climbable tower may
be a better solution to allow easier access to the equipment and to prevent
antenna movement during high winds.

Dissimilar metals
To minimize electrolytic corrosion when two different metals are in moist con-
tact, their electrolytic potential should be as close as possible. Use dielectric
grease on the connection between two metals of different type to prevent any
electrolysis effect.

Copper should never touch galvanized material directly without proper joint
protection. Water shedding from the copper contains ions that will wash away


the galvanized (zinc) tower covering. Stainless steel can be used as a buffer
material, but you should be aware that stainless steel is not a very good con-
ductor. If it is used as a buffer between copper and galvanized metals, the
surface area of the contact should be large and the stainless steel should be
thin. Joint compound should also be used to cover the connection so water
can not bridge between the dissimilar metals.

Protecting microwave connectors
Moisture leakage in connectors is likely the most observed cause of radio link
failure. Be sure to tighten connectors firmly, but never use a wrench or other tool
to do so. Remember that metals expand and contract as temperature changes,
and an over-tightened connector can break in extreme weather changes.

To Access Point To Antenna

Water Water
ﬂow ﬂow

Figure 8.6: A drip loop forces rainwater away from your connectors.

Once tight, connectors should be protected by applying a layer of electrical
tape, then a layer of sealing tape, and then another layer of electrical tape on
top. The sealant protects the connector from water seepage, and the tape
layer protects the sealant from ultraviolet (UV) damage. Cables should have
an extra drip loop to prevent water from getting inside the transceiver.

Safety
Always use a harness securely attached to the tower when working at
heights. If you have never worked on a tower, hire a professional to do it for
you. Many countries require special training for people to be allowed to work
on towers above a certain height.

Avoid working on towers during strong winds or storms. Always climb with a
partner, and only when there is plenty of light. Tower work will likely take
longer than you think it will. Remember that it is extremely hazardous to work
in the dark. Give yourself plenty of time to complete the job long before the
sun sets. If you run out of time, remember that the tower will be there in the
morning, when you can start on the problem again after a good night s sleep.


Aligning antennas on a long distance link
To properly align antennas at a great distance, you will need some sort of
visual feedback that shows you the instantaneous received power at the an-
tenna feed. This lets you to make small changes to the antenna alignment
while watching the feedback tool, ultimately stopping when the maximum
received power has been found.

The ideal antenna alignment toolkit consists of a signal generator and a
spectrum analyzer, preferably one of each at both ends of the link. By at-
taching a signal generator to one end of the link and a spectrum analyzer to
the other, you can observe the received power and watch the effect of mov-
ing the antenna to various positions in real time. Once the maximum has
been found on one end of a point to point link, the generator and analyzer
can be swapped, and the process repeated for the other end.

The use of a signal generator is preferable to using the radio card itself, as
the signal generator can generate a continuous carrier. A WiFi card transmits
many discrete packets of information, switching the transmitter on and off
very rapidly. This can be very difﬁcult to ﬁnd with a spectrum analyzer, par-
ticularly when operating in noisy areas.

Obviously, the cost of a calibrated signal generator and spectrum analyzer
that works at 2.4 GHz (or even 5 GHz if using 802.11a) is well beyond the
budget of most projects. Fortunately there are a number of inexpensive tools
that can be used instead.

Inexpensive signal generator
There are many inexpensive transmitters that use the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
For example, cordless phones, baby monitors, and miniature television
transmitters all generate a continuous signal at 2.4 GHz. Television trans-
mitters (sometimes called video senders) are particularly useful, since they
often include an external SMA antenna connector and can be powered by a
small battery.

Video senders usually include support for three or four channels. While these
do not directly correspond to WiFi channels, they permit you to test the low,
middle, or high end of the band.

For 5 GHz work, you can use a video sender in combination with a 2.4 GHz
to 5 GHz converter. These devices accept a low power 2.4 GHz signal and
emit high power 5 GHz signals. They are usually quite expensive ($300-
$500 each) but will still likely be cheaper than a 5 GHz signal generator and
spectrum analyzer.


Figure 8.7: A 2.4 GHz video sender with an SMA antenna connector.

Whatever you choose for a signal source, you will need a way to display the
received power level levels at the other end. While the cost of 2.4 GHz spec-
trum analyzers is slowly coming down, they still typically cost a few thousand
dollars, even for used equipment.

Wi-Spy
The Wi-Spy is a USB spectrum analysis tool made by MetaGeek
(http://www.metageek.net/). It features a very sensitive receiver in a small
form factor (about the size of a USB thumb drive).

Figure 8.8: The Wi-Spy USB spectrum analyzer


The latest version of the Wi-Spy includes better dynamic range and an exter-
nal antenna connector. It also comes with very good spectrum analysis soft-
ware for Windows called Chanalyzer. It provides instantaneous, average,
maximum, topographic, and spectral views.

Figure 8.9: The distinctive spiked pattern to the left of the graph was caused by a
high power 2.4 GHz television transmitter.

There is an excellent free software package for Mac OS X called EaKiu
(http://www.cookwareinc.com/EaKiu/). In addition to the standard views, it also
provides an animated 3D view, and adds support for multiple Wi-Spy devices.

Figure 8.10: EaKiu's 3D view lets you rotate and zoom in on any part of the graph in
real time. There is probably a WiFi network on channel 11, with other noise sources
lower down in the band.


For Linux users, the Wi-Spy is supported by the Kismet Spectrum-Tools pro-
ject (http://kismetwireless.net/spectools/). This package includes command
line tools as well as a GUI built on GTK.

Other methods
Some wireless routers (such as the Mikrotik) provide an "antenna alignment
tool" that shows you a moving bar representing the received power. When
the bar is at the maximum, the antenna is aligned. With some routers, you
can also enable an audio feedback mode. This causes the router to emit a
loud tone, changing the pitch according to the received power.

If you don't have a spectrum analyzer, Wi-Spy, or a device that supports an
antenna alignment mode, you will need to use the operating system to pro-
vide feedback about the wireless link quality. One simple method to do this in
Linux is with a loop that continually calls iwconfig. For example:

wildnet:~# while :; do clear; iwconfig; sleep 1; done

This will show the state of all radio cards in the system, updating once every
second. Note that this will only work on the client end of a link. On the access
point (master mode) side, you should use the iwspy command to collect
statistics for the MAC address of the client:

wildnet:~# iwspy ath0 00:15:6D:63:6C:3C
wildnet:~# iwspy
ath0 Statistics collected:
00:15:6D:63:6C:3C : Quality=21/94 Signal=-74 dBm Noise=-95 dBm
Link/Cell/AP : Quality=19/94 Signal=-76 dBm Noise=-95 dBm
Typical/Reference : Quality:0 Signal level:0 Noise level:0

You can then use a while loop (as in the previous example) to continually
update the link status.

wildnet:~# while :; do clear; iwspy; sleep 1; done

Antenna alignment procedure
The key to successfully aligning antennas on a very long distance link is
communication. If you change too many variables at once (say, one team
starts wiggling an antenna while the other tries to take a signal strength read-
ing), then the process will take all day and will probably end with misaligned
antennas.

You will have two teams of people. Ideally, each team should have at least
two people: one to take signal readings and communicate with the remote
end, the other to manipulate the antenna. Keep these points in mind while
working on long distance links.


1. Test all equipment ahead of time. You don t want to fiddle with settings
once you re in the field. Before separating the equipment, power every-
thing on, connect every antenna and pigtail, and make sure you can es-
tablish a connection between the devices. You should be able to return
to this known good state by simply powering on the device, without hav-
ing to log in or change any settings. Now is a good time to agree on an-
tenna polarization (see Chapter 2 if you don t understand what polariza-
tion means).
2. Bring backup communications gear. While mobile phones are usually
good enough for working in cities, mobile reception can be bad or nonex-
istent in rural areas. Bring a high powered FRS or GMRS radio, or if
your teams have amateur radio licenses, use a ham rig. Working at a
distance can be very frustrating if you are constantly asking the other
team “can you hear me now?” Pick your communication channels and
test your radios (including the batteries) before separating.
3. Bring a camera. Take some time to document the location of each site,
including surrounding landmarks and obstructions. This can be very use-
ful later to determine the feasibility of another link to the location without
having to travel there in person. If this is your first trip to the site, log the
GPS coordinates and elevation as well.
4. Start by estimating the proper bearing and elevation. To begin, both
teams should use triangulation (using GPS coordinates or a map) to get
a rough idea of the direction to point. Use a compass to roughly align
the antenna to the desired bearing. Large landmarks are also useful for
pointing. If you can use binoculars to see the other end, all the better.
Once you have made your guess, take a signal strength reading. If you
are close enough and have made a good guess, you may already have
signal.
5. If all else fails, build your own landmark. Some kinds of terrain make it
difficult to judge the location of the other end of a link. If you are building a
link in an area with few landmarks, a self-made landmark such as a kite,
balloon, flood light, flare, or even smoke signal might help. You don t nec-
essarily need a GPS to get an idea of where to point your antenna.
6. Test signal in both directions, but only one at a time. Once both
ends have made their best guess, the end with the lowest gain antenna
should make fix their antenna into position. Using a good monitoring tool
(such as Kismet, Netstumbler, or a good built-in wireless client), the team
with the highest gain antenna should slowly sweep it horizontally while
watching the signal meter. Once the best position is found, try altering
the elevation of the antenna. After the best possible position is found,
lock the antenna firmly into place and signal the other team to begin
slowly sweeping around. Repeat this process a couple of times until the
best possible position for both antennas is found.


7. Don t touch the antenna when taking a reading. Your body will affect
the radiation pattern of the antenna. Do not touch the antenna, and don t
stand in the path of the shot, when taking signal strength readings. The
same goes for the team on the other side of the link, too.
8. Don t be afraid to push past the best received signal. As we saw in
chapter four, radiation patterns incorporate many smaller sidelobes of
sensitivity, in addition to a much larger main lobe. If your received signal
is mysteriously small, you may have found a sidelobe. Continue sweep-
ing slowly beyond that lobe to see if you can find the main lobe.
9. The antenna angle may look completely wrong. The main lobe of an
antenna often radiates slightly to one side or the other of the visual dead
center of the antenna. Offset feed dishes will seem to be pointing too far
down, or even directly at the ground. Don t worry about how the antenna
looks; you are concerned with finding the best possible position to
achieve the greatest possible received signal.
10. Double-check polarization. It can be frustrating to attempt aligning a
dish only to discover that the other team is using the opposite polariza-
tion. Again, this should be agreed upon before leaving home base, but if
a link stays stubbornly weak, a double check doesn t hurt.
11. If nothing works, check all components one at a time. Are the devices
on both ends of the link powered on? Are all pigtails and connectors prop-
erly connected, with no damaged or suspect parts? As outlined in chapter
eight, proper troubleshooting technique will save you time and frustration.
Work slowly and communicate your status well with the other team.

By working methodically and communicating well, you can complete the job
of aligning high gain antennas in just a short while. If done properly, it should
be fun!

Surge and lightning protection
Power is the greatest challenge for most installations in the developing world.
Where there are electrical networks, they are often poorly controlled, fluctu-
ate dramatically and are susceptible to lightning. Proper surge protection is
critical to not only protect your wireless equipment, but all of the equipment
connected to it.

Fuses and circuit breakers
Fuses are critical, but very often neglected. In rural areas, and even in many
urban areas of developing countries, fuses are difficult to find. Despite the
added cost, it is always prudent to use circuit breakers instead. These may
need to be imported, but shouldn't be overlooked. Too often, replaceable


fuses are removed and pocket change is used instead. In a recent case, all
of the electronic equipment at at rural radio station was destroyed when a
lightning strike went through the circuit, without circuit breaker or even a fuse
to protect it.

How to ground
Proper grounding doesn t have to be a complicated job. When grounding,
you are trying to accomplish two things: provide a short-circuit for a lightning
strike, and provide a circuit for excess energy to be dissipated.

The first step is to protect equipment from a direct or near direct lightning hit,
while the second provides a path to dissipate excess energy that would oth-
erwise cause a build-up of static electricity. Static can cause significant deg-
radation to signal quality, particularly on sensitive receivers (VSATs for ex-
ample). Providing the short-circuit is simple. The installer simply needs to
make the shortest path from the highest conductive surface (a lightning rod)
to the ground. When a strike hits the rod, the energy will travel the shortest
path and thus by-pass the equipment. This ground should be able to handle
high-voltage (i.e. you need thick gauge wire, like 8 gauge braided copper).

To ground the equipment, mount a lightning rod above the equipment on a
tower or other structure. Then use a thick gauge conductive wire to connect
the rod to something that itself is well grounded. Underground copper pipes
can be very well grounded (depending on their depth, the moisture, salinity,
amount of metal and organic content of the soil). In many sites in West Af-
rica, pipes aren t yet in the ground, and previous grounding equipment is of-
ten inadequate due to ill-conductive soil (typical of seasonally arid, tropical
soils). There are three easy ways to measure the efficiency of your ground:

1. The least accurate is to simply plug a good quality UPS or power strip
into the circuit that has a ground detect indicator (a LED light). This LED
is lit by energy that is being diffused to the ground circuit. An effective
ground will dissipate small amounts of energy to the ground. Some peo-
ple actually use this to pirate a bit of free light, as this energy does not
turn an electrical counter!
2. Take a light socket and a low-wattage bulb (30 Watts), connect one wire
to the ground wire and the second to the hot wire. If the ground is work-
ing, the bulb should shine slightly.
3. The more sophisticated way is to simply measure the impedance be-
tween the positive circuit and the ground.
If your ground is not efficient you will need to bury a grounding stake deeper
(where the soil is more moist, has more organic matter and metals) or you
need to make the ground more conductive. A common approach where there


is little soil is to dig a hole that is 1 meter in diameter and 2 meters deep.
Drop in a highly conductive piece of metal that has some mass to it. This is
sometimes called a plomb, which literally means lead but can be any heavy
piece of metal weighing 50 kg or more, such as an iron anvil or steel wheel.
Then ﬁll the hole with charcoal and mix in salt, then top with soil. Soak the
area, and the charcoal and salt will diffuse around the hole and make a con-
ductive area surrounding your plomb, improving the efﬁciency of the ground.

If radio cable is being used, it too can be used to ground the tower, though a
more resilient design is to separate the ground for the tower from the cable.
To ground the cable, simply peel back a bit of cable at the point closest to the
ground before it goes into the building, then attach a ground cable from that
point, either by soldering or using a very conductive connector. This then
needs to be waterproofed.

Power stabilizers & regulators
There are many brands of power stabilizers, but most are either digital or
electromechanical. The latter are much cheaper and more common. Elec-
tromechanical stabilizers take power at 220V, 240V, or 110V and use that
energy to turn a motor, which always produces the desired voltage (nor-
mally 220V). This is normally effective, but these units offer little protection
from lightning or other heavy surges. They often burn out after just one
strike. Once burnt, they can actually be fused at a certain (usually wrong)
output voltage.

Digital regulators regulate the energy using resistors and other solid state
components. They are more expensive, but are much less susceptible to
being burnt.

Whenever possible, use a digital regulator. They are worth the added cost,
and will offer better protection for the rest of your equipment. Be sure to in-
spect all components of your power system (including the stabilizer) after
lightning activity.

9
Troubleshooting

How you establish the support infrastructure for your network is as important
as what type of equipment you use. Unlike wired connections, problems with
a wireless network are often invisible, and can require more skill and more
time to diagnose and remedy. Interference, wind, and new physical obstruc-
tions can cause a long-running network to fail. This chapter details a series
of strategies to help you build a team that can support your network effec-
tively.

Building your team
Every village, company or family has individuals who are intrigued by tech-
nology. They are the ones found splicing the television cable, re-wiring a bro-
ken television or welding a new piece to a bicycle. These people will take
interest in your network and want to learn as much about it as possible.
Though these people are invaluable resources, you must avoid imparting all
of the specialized knowledge of wireless networking to only one person. If
your only specialist loses interest or finds better paying work somewhere
else, they take the knowledge with them when they go.

There may also be many young and ambitious teenagers or young adults
who will be interested and have the time to listen, help, and learn about the
network. Again, they are very helpful and will learn quickly, but the project
team must focus their attention on those who are best placed to support the
network in the coming months and years. Young adults and teenagers will go
off to university or find employment, especially the ambitious youth who tend
to want to be involved. These youth also have little influence in the commu-
nity, where an older individual is likely to be more capable of making deci-
sions that positively affect the network as a whole. Even though these indi-
267

268 Chapter 9: Troubleshooting

viduals might have less time to learn and might appear to be less interested,
their involvement and proper education about the system can be critical.

Therefore, a key strategy in building a support team is to balance and to dis-
tribute the knowledge among those who are best placed to support the net-
work for the long term. You should involve the youth, but do not let them
capitalize use or knowledge of these systems. Find people who are commit-
ted to the community, who have roots in the community, who can be moti-
vated, and teach them. A complementary strategy is to compartmentalize
functions and duties, and to document all methodology and procedures. In
this way, people can be trained easily, and substituted with little effort.

For example, in one project site the training team selected a bright young
university graduate who had returned to his village. He was very motivated
and learned quickly. Because he learned so quickly, he was taught more than
had been foreseen, and he was able to deal with a variety of problems, from
fixing a PC to rewiring Ethernet cable. Unfortunately, two months after the
project launch he was offered a government job and left the community. Even
a better salary could not keep him, since the prospect of a stable government
job was too appealing. All of the knowledge about the network and how to
support it left with him. The training team had to return and begin the training
again. The next strategy was to divide functions, and to train people who
were permanently rooted in the community: people who had houses and
children, and were already employed. It took three times as long to teach
three people as it took to train the young university grad, but the community
will retain this knowledge for much longer.

Though this might seem to suggest that you should hand-pick who is to be
involved, that is not often the best approach. It is often best to find a local
partner organization or a local manager, and work with them to find the right
technical team. Values, history, local politics, and many other factors will be
important to them, while remaining completely unfathomable to people who
are not from that community. The best approach is to coach your local part-
ner, to provide them sound criteria, make sure that they understand that crite-
ria, and to set firm boundaries. Such boundaries should include rules about
nepotism and patronage, though these rules must consider the local situa-
tion. It may be impossible to say that you cannot hire kin, but it is best to pro-
vide a means of checks and balances. Where a candidate is kin, there
should be clear criteria and a second authority in deciding upon their candi-
dacy. It is also important that the local partner is given this authority and is
not undermined by the project organizers, thus compromising their ability to
manage. They will be best able to judge who will work best with them. If they
are well educated in this process, then your requirements should be satisfied.

Troubleshooting and support of technology is an abstract art. The first time you
look at an abstract painting, it may just look to you like a bunch of random paint

Chapter 9: Troubleshooting 269

splatters. After reflecting on the composition for a time, you may come to ap-
preciate the work as a whole, and the “invisible” coherence becomes very real.
The neophyte looking at a wireless network may see the antennas and wires
and computers, but it can take a while for them to appreciate the point of the
“invisible” network. In rural areas, it can often take a huge leap of understand-
ing before locals will appreciate an invisible network that is simply dropped into
their village. Therefore, a phased approach is needed to ease people into
supporting technology systems. The best method is involvement. Once the
participants are chosen and committed to the project, involve them as much as
possible. Let them "drive". Give them the cable crimper or keyboard and show
them how to do the work. Even if you do not have time to explain every detail
and even if it will take longer, they need to be involved physically and see not
only what has been done, but how much work was done.

The scientific method is taught in virtually all western schools. Many people
learn about it by the time they reach high-school science class. Simply put,
you take a set of variables, then slowly eliminate those variables through bi-
nary tests until you are left with one or only a few possibilities. With those pos-
sibilities in mind, you complete the experiment. You then test to see if the ex-
periment yields something similar to the expected result. If it did not, you re-
calculate your expected result and try again. The typical agrarian villager may
have been introduced to the concept, but likely will not have had the opportu-
nity to troubleshoot complex problems. Even if they are familiar with the scien-
tific method, they might not think to apply it to resolving real problems.

This method is very effective, although time consuming. It can be sped up by
making logical assumptions. For example, if a long-running access point
suddenly stops working after a storm, you might suspect a power supply re-
lated problem and thus skip most of the procedure. People charged with
supporting technology should be taught how to troubleshoot using this
method, as there will be times when the problem is neither known nor evi-
dent. Simple decision trees or flow charts can be made that test these vari-
ables, and try to eliminate the variables to isolate the problem. Of course,
these charts should not be followed blindly.

It is often easier to teach this method using a non technological problem first.
For example, have your student develop a problem resolution procedure on
something simple and familiar, like a battery powered television. Start by
sabotaging the television. Give them a battery that is not charged. Discon-
nect the aerial. Insert a broken fuse. Test the student, making it clear that
each problem will show specific symptoms, and point the way as to how to
proceed. Once they have fixed the television, have them apply this proce-
dure to a more complicated problem. In a network, you can change an IP
address, switch or damage cables, use the wrong SSID, or orient the an-
tenna in the wrong direction. It is important that they develop a methodology
and procedure to resolve these problems.


Proper troubleshooting technique
No troubleshooting methodology can completely cover all problems you will
encounter when working with wireless networks. But often, problems come
down to one of a few common mistakes. Here are a few simple points to keep
in mind that can get your troubleshooting effort working in the right direction.

• Don t panic. If you are troubleshooting a system, that means that it was
working at one time, probably very recently. Before jumping in and mak-
ing changes, survey the scene and assess exactly what is broken. If you
have historical logs or statistics to work from, all the better. Be sure to
collect information first, so you can make an informed decision before
making changes.
• Is it plugged in? This step is often overlooked until many other avenues
are explored. Plugs can be accidentally (or intentionally) unplugged very
easily. Is the lead connected to a good power source? Is the other end
connected to your device? Is the power light on? It may sound silly, but
you will feel even sillier if you spend a lot of time checking out an antenna
feed line only to realize that the AP was unplugged the entire time. Trust
me, it happens more often than most of us would care to admit.
• What was the last thing changed? If you are the only person with ac-
cess to the system, what is the last change you made? If others have ac-
cess to it, what is the last change they made and when? When was the
last time the system worked? Often, system changes have unintended
consequences that may not be immediately noticed. Roll back that change
and see what effect it has on the problem.
• Make a backup. This applies before you notice problems, as well as after.
If you make a complicated software change to a system, having a backup
means that you can quickly restore it to the previous settings and start
again. When troubleshooting very complex problems, having a conﬁgura-
tion that “sort-of” works can be much better than having a mess that
doesn t work at all (and that you can t easily restore from memory).
• The known good. This idea applies to hardware, as well as software. A
known good is any component that you can replace in a complex system to
verify that its counterpart is in good, working condition. For example, you
may carry a tested Ethernet cable in a tool kit. If you suspect problems with
a cable in the field, you can easily swap out the suspect cable with the
known good and see if things improve. This is much faster and less error-
prone than re-crimping a cable, and immediately tells you if the change fixes
the problem. Likewise, you may also pack a backup battery, antenna cable,
or a CD-ROM with a known good configuration for the system. When fixing
complicated problems, saving your work at a given point lets you return to it
as a known good, even if the problem is not yet completely solved.


• Change one variable at a time. When under pressure to get a failed sys-
tem back online, it is tempting to jump ahead and change many likely vari-
ables at once. If you do, and your changes seem to fix the problem, then you
will not understand exactly what led to the problem in the first place. Worse,
your changes may fix the original problem, but lead to more unintended con-
sequences that break other parts of the system. By changing your variables
one at a time, you can precisely understand what went wrong in the first
place, and be able to see the direct effects of the changes you make.
• Do no harm. If you don t fully understand how a system works, don t be
afraid to call in an expert. If you are not sure if a particular change will
damage another part of the system, then either find someone with more
experience or devise a way to test your change without doing damage.
Putting a penny in place of a fuse may solve the immediate problem, but it
may also burn down the building.

It is unlikely that the people who design your network will be on call twenty-
four hours per day to fix problems when they arise. Your troubleshooting
team will need to have good troubleshooting skills, but may not be competent
enough to configure a router from scratch or crimp a piece of LMR-400. It is
often much more efficient to have a number of backup components on-hand,
and train your team to be able to swap out the entire broken part. This could
mean having an access point or router pre-configured and sitting in a locked
cabinet, plainly labeled and stored with backup cables and power supplies.
Your team can swap out the failed component, and either send the broken
part to an expert for repair, or arrange to have another backup sent in. As-
suming that the backups are kept secure and are replaced when used, this
can save a lot of time for everyone.

Common network problems
Often, connectivity problems come from failed components, adverse weather,
or simple misconfiguration. Once your network is connected to the Internet
or opened up to the general public, considerable threats will come from the
network users themselves. These threats can range from the benign to the
outright malevolent, but all will have impact on your network if it is not prop-
erly configured. This section looks at some common problems found once
your network is used by actual human beings.

Locally hosted websites
If a university hosts its website locally, visitors to the website from outside the
campus and the rest of the world will compete with the university's staff for
Internet bandwidth. This includes automated access from search engines
that periodically spider your entire site. One solution to this problem is to use
split DNS and mirroring. The university mirrors a copy of its websites to a


server at, say, a European hosting company, and uses split DNS to direct all
users from outside the university network to the mirror site, while users on
the university network access the same site locally. Details about how to set
this up are provided in chapter three.

Internet

VSAT

Public
Web Server
Example 1

Internet

VSAT

Internal Mirrored Public
Web Server Web Server
Example 2
Figure 9.1: In Example 1, all website traffic coming from the Internet must traverse
the VSAT. In Example 2, the public web site is hosted on a fast European service,
while a copy is kept on an internal server for very fast local access. This improves the
VSAT connection and reduces load times for web site users.

Open proxies
A proxy server should be configured to accept only connections from the uni-
versity network, not from the rest of the Internet. This is because people
elsewhere will connect and use open proxies for a variety of reasons, such
as to avoid paying for international bandwidth. The way to configure this de-
pends on the proxy server you are using. For example, you can specify the
IP address range of the campus network in your squid.conf file as the only
network that can use Squid. Alternatively, if your proxy server lies behind a
border firewall, you can configure the firewall to only allow internal hosts to
connect to the proxy port.


Open relay hosts
An incorrectly configured mail server will be found by unscrupulous people
on the Internet, and be used as a relay host to send bulk email and spam.
They do this to hide the true source of the spam, and avoid getting caught.
To test for an open relay host, the following test should be carried out on your
mail server (or on the SMTP server that acts as a relay host on the perimeter
of the campus network). Use telnet to open a connection to port 25 of the
server in question (with some Windows versions of telnet, it may be neces-
sary to type 'set local_echo' before the text is visible):

telnet mail.uzz.ac.zz 25

Then, if an interactive command-line conversation can take place (for exam-
ple, as follows), the server is an open relay host:

MAIL FROM: spammer@waste.com
250 OK - mail from <spammer@waste.com>
RCPT TO: innocent@university.ac.zz
250 OK - rcpt to spammer@waste.com

Instead, the reply after the first MAIL FROM should be something like:

550 Relaying is prohibited.

An online tester is available at sites such as http://www.ordb.org/. There is
also information about the problem at this site. Since bulk emailers have
automated methods to find such open relay hosts, an institution that does not
protect its mail systems is almost guaranteed to be found and abused. Con-
figuring the mail server not to be an open relay consists of specifying the
networks and hosts that are allowed to relay mail through them in the MTA
(eg., Sendmail, Postfix, Exim, or Exchange). This will likely be the IP ad-
dress range of the campus network.

Peer-to-peer networking
Bandwidth abuse through peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing programs such as
Kazaa, Morpheus, BitTorrent, WinMX and BearShare can be prevented in the
following ways:

• Make it impossible to install new programs on campus computers. By
not giving regular users administrative access to PC workstations, it is pos-
sible to prevent the installation of programs such as Kazaa. Many institu-
tions also standardize on a desktop build, where they install the required
operating system on one PC. They then install all the necessary applica-
tions on it, and configure these in an optimal way. The PC is also config-
ured in a way that prevents users from installing new applications. A disk


image of this PC is then cloned to all other PCs using software such as
Partition Image (see http://www.partimage.org/) or Drive Image Pro (see
http://www.powerquest.com/).

From time to time, users may succeed in installing new software or other-
wise damaging the software on the computer (causing it to hang often, for
example). When this happens, an administrator can simply put the disk
image back, causing the operating system and all software on the com-
puter to be exactly as specified.
• Blocking these protocols is not a solution. This is because Kazaa and
other protocols are clever enough to bypass blocked ports. Kazaa defaults
to port 1214 for the initial connection, but if that is not available it will at-
tempt to use ports 1000 to 4000. If these are blocked, its uses port 80,
making it look like web traffic. For this reason, ISPs don't block it but "throt-
tle it", using bandwidth management tools.
• If rate-limiting is not an option, change the network layout. If the proxy
server and mail servers are configured with two network cards (as de-
scribed in chapter three) and these servers are not configured to forward
any packets, this would block all P2P traffic. It would also block all other
types of traffic, such as Microsoft NetMeeting, SSH, VPN software, and all
other services not specifically permitted by the proxy server. In low band-
width networks it may be decided that the simplicity of this design will out-
weigh the disadvantages. Such a decision may be necessary, but
shouldn t be taken lightly. Network administrators simply cannot predict
how users will make innovative use of a network. By preemptively blocking
all access, you will prevent users from making use of any services (even
low-bandwidth services) that your proxy does not support. While this may
be desirable in extremely low bandwidth circumstances, it should never be
considered as a good access policy in the general case.

Programs that install themselves (from the Internet)
There are programs that automatically install themselves and then keep on
using bandwidth - for example, the so-called Bonzi-Buddy, the Microsoft
Network, and some kinds of worms. Some programs are spyware, which
keep sending information about a user's browsing habits to a company
somewhere on the Internet. These programs are preventable to some ex-
tent by user education and locking down PCs to prevent administrative ac-
cess for normal users. In other cases, there are software solutions to find
and remove these problem programs, such as Spychecker
(http://www.spychecker.com/) or Ad-Aware (http://www.lavasoft.de/).


Windows updates
The latest Microsoft Windows operating systems assume that a computer
with a LAN connection has a good link to the Internet, and automatically
downloads security patches, bug fixes and feature enhancements from the
Microsoft Web site. This can consume massive amounts of bandwidth on an
expensive Internet link. The two possible approaches to this problem are:

• Disable Windows updates on all workstation PCs. The security updates
are very important for servers, but whether workstations in a protected pri-
vate network such as a campus network need them is debatable.
• Install a Software Update Server. This is a free program from Microsoft
that enables you to download all the updates from Microsoft overnight on to
a local server and distribute the updates to client workstations from there.
In this way, Windows updates need not use any bandwidth on the Internet
link during the day. Unfortunately, all client PCs need to be configured to
use the Software Update Server for this to have an effect. If you have a
flexible DNS server, you can also configure it to answer requests for
windowsupdate.microsoft.com and direct the updater to your update
server. This is only a good option for large networks, but can save untold
amounts of Internet bandwidth.

Blocking the Windows updates site on the proxy server is not a good solution
because the Windows update service (Automatic Updates) keeps retrying
more aggressively, and if all workstations do that, it places a heavy load on
the proxy server. The extract below is from the proxy log (Squid access log)
where this was done by blocking Microsoft's cabinet (.cab) files.

Much of the Squid log looks like this:

2003.4.2 13:24:17 192.168.1.21 http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/ident.cab
*DENIED* Banned extension .cab GET 0
*DENIED* Banned extension .cab HEAD 0
*DENIED* Banned extension .cab HEAD 0

While this may be tolerable for a few PC clients, the problem grows signifi-
cantly as hosts are added to the network. Rather than forcing the proxy


server to serve requests that will always fail, it makes more sense to redirect
the Software Update clients to a local update server.

Programs that assume a high bandwidth link
In addition to Windows updates, many other programs and services assume
that bandwidth is not a problem, and therefore consume bandwidth for reasons
the user might not predict. For example, anti-virus packages (such as Norton
AntiVirus) periodically update themselves automatically and directly from the
Internet. It is better if these updates are distributed from a local server.

Other programs, such as the RealNetworks video player, automatically down-
load updates and advertisements, as well as upload usage patterns back to a
site on the Internet. Innocuous looking applets (like Konfabulator and Dash-
board widgets) continually poll Internet hosts for updated information. These
can be low bandwidth requests (like weather or news updates), or very high
bandwidth requests (such as webcams). These applications may need to be
throttled or blocked altogether.

The latest versions of Windows and Mac OS X also have a time synchronization
service. This keeps the computer clock accurate by connecting to time servers
on the Internet. It is more efficient to install a local time server and distribute ac-
curate time from there, rather than to tie up the Internet link with these requests.

Windows traffic on the Internet link
Windows computers communicate with each other via NetBIOS and Server
Message Block (SMB). These protocols work on top of TCP/IP or other
transport protocols. It is a protocol that works by holding elections to deter-
mine which computer will be the master browser. The master browser is a
computer that keeps a list of all the computers, shares and printers that you
can see in Network Neighborhood or My Network Places. Information
about available shares are also broadcast at regular intervals.

The SMB protocol is designed for LANs and causes problems when the Win-
dows computer is connected to the Internet. Unless SMB traffic is filtered, it
will also tend to spread to the Internet link, wasting the organization's band-
width. The following steps might be taken to prevent this:

• Block outgoing SMB/NetBIOS traffic on the perimeter router or fire-
wall. This traffic will eat up Internet bandwidth, and worse, poses a poten-
tial security risk. Many Internet worms and penetration tools actively scan
for open SMB shares, and will exploit these connections to gain greater
access to your network.


• Install ZoneAlarm on all workstations (not the server). A free version
can be found at http://www.zonelabs.com/. This program allows the user
to determine which applications can make connections to the Internet and
which ones cannot. For example, Internet Explorer needs to connect to the
Internet, but Windows Explorer does not. ZoneAlarm can block Windows
Explorer from doing so.
• Reduce network shares. Ideally, only the file server should have any
shares. You can use a tool such as SoftPerfect Network Scanner (from
http://www.softperfect.com/) to easily identify all the shares in your network.

Worms and viruses
Worms and viruses can generate enormous amounts of traffic. The W32/
Opaserv worm, for example, is still prevalent, even though it is an old one. It
spreads through Windows shares and is detected by other people on the
Internet because it attempts to spread further. It is therefore essential that
anti-virus protection is installed on all PCs. Furthermore, user education
about executing attachments and responding to unsolicited email is essen-
tial. In fact, it should be a policy that no workstation or server should run un-
used services. A PC should not have shares unless it is a file server; and a
server should not run unnecessary services either. For example, Windows
and Unix servers typically run a web server service by default. This should be
disabled if that server has a different function; the fewer services a computer
runs, the less there is to exploit.

Email forwarding loops
Occasionally, a single user making a mistake can cause a problem. For exam-
ple, a user whose university account is configured to forward all mail to her
Yahoo account. The user goes on holiday. All emails sent to her in her absence
are still forwarded to her Yahoo account, which can grow to only 2 MB. When
the Yahoo account becomes full, it starts bouncing the emails back to the uni-
versity account, which immediately forwards it back to the Yahoo account. An
email loop is formed that might send hundreds of thousands of emails back
and forth, generating massive traffic and crashing mail servers.

There are features of mail server programs that can recognize loops. These
should be turned on by default. Administrators must also take care that they
do not turn this feature off by mistake, or install an SMTP forwarder that
modifies mail headers in such a way that the mail server does not recognize
the mail loop.


Large downloads
A user may start several simultaneous downloads, or download large files
such as 650MB ISO images. In this way, a single user can use up most of
the bandwidth. The solutions to this kind of problem lie in training, offline
downloading, and monitoring (including real-time monitoring, as outlined in
chapter six). Offline downloading can be implemented in at least two ways:

• At the University of Moratuwa, a system was implemented using URL redi-
rection. Users accessing ftp:// URLs are served a directory listing in which
each file has two links: one for normal downloading, and the other for
offline downloading. If the offline link is selected, the specified file is
queued for later download and the user notified by email when the down-
load is complete. The system keeps a cache of recently downloaded files,
and retrieves such files immediately when requested again. The download
queue is sorted by file size. Therefore, small files are downloaded first. As
some bandwidth is allocated to this system even during peak hours, users
requesting small files may receive them within minutes, sometimes even
faster than an online download.
• Another approach would be to create a web interface where users enter
the URL of the file they want to download. This is then downloaded over-
night using a cron job or scheduled task. This system would only work for
users who are not impatient, and are familiar with what file sizes would be
problematic for download during the working day.

Sending large files
When users need to transfer large files to collaborators elsewhere on the
Internet, they should be shown how to schedule the upload. In Windows, an
upload to a remote FTP server can be done using an FTP script file, which is
a text file containing FTP commands, similar to the following (saved as
c:ftpscript.txt):

open ftp.ed.ac.uk
gventer
mysecretword
delete data.zip
binary
put data.zip
quit

To execute, type this from the command prompt:

ftp -s:c:ftpscript.txt

On Windows NT, 2000 and XP computers, the command can be saved into a
file such as transfer.cmd, and scheduled to run at night using the Sched-


uled Tasks (Start Settings Control Panel Scheduled Tasks). In Unix,
the same can be achieved by using at or cron.

Users sending each other files
Users often need to send each other large files. It is a waste of bandwidth to
send these via the Internet if the recipient is local. A file share should be cre-
ated on the local Windows / Samba /web Novell server, where a user can put
the large file for others to access.

Alternatively, a web front-end can be written for a local web server to accept
a large file and place it in a download area. After uploading it to the web
server, the user receives a URL for the file. He can then give that URL to his
local or international collaborators, and when they access that URL they can
download it. This is what the University of Bristol has done with their FLUFF
system. The University offers a facility for the upload of large files (FLUFF)
available from http://www.bristol.ac.uk/fluff/. These files can then be ac-
cessed by anyone who has been given their location. The advantage of this
approach is that users can give external users access to their files, whereas
the file share method can work only for users within the campus network. A
system like this can easily be implemented as a CGI script using Python and
Apache.

10
Economic Sustainability

Achieving long-term sustainability is perhaps the most difficult goal when de-
signing and operating wireless networks and telecenters in developing coun-
tries. The prohibitive cost of Internet connectivity in many developing coun-
tries imposes a substantial operating expense that makes these models sen-
sitive to economic fluctuations and necessitates innovation to attain viability.
Substantial progress in the use of wireless networks for rural communica-
tions has been accomplished over the past few years, due in large part to
technological breakthroughs. Long-distance links have been constructed,
high bandwidth designs are possible and secure means to access networks
are available. In contrast, there have been fewer successes with the devel-
opment of sustainable business models for wireless networks and telecen-
ters, particularly for remote areas. Based on the authors experiences and
observations of existing networks, as well as knowledge from entrepreneurial
development best practices, this chapter will focus on documenting methods
for building sustainable wireless networks and telecenters.

In the past decade, there has been tremendous growth in Internet access
across the developing world. Most developing world cities now have wireless
or ADSL networks and fiber optic connections to the Internet, which is a sub-
stantial improvement. Nevertheless, outside urban areas, Internet access is
still a formidable challenge. There is little wired infrastructure beyond the
principal cities. Therefore, wireless remains one of the few choices for provid-
ing affordable Internet access. There are now proven models for rural access
using wireless. In Macedonia, the Macedonia Connects project has now con-
nected a majority of the country's schools to the Internet. This book was writ-
ten for those wishing to connect their communities. The models described
here are smaller in scale and use affordable designs. Our aim is to provide
examples of how wireless networks can be designed to expand sustainable

281

282 Chapter 10: Economic Sustainability

access where large telecommunications operators have not yet installed their
networks into areas that would otherwise not be economically feasible by
traditional models.

Two common misconceptions must be dispelled. First, many people assume
that there is one preferred business model that will work in every community
of the developing world, and the key to success is to find that one “eureka”
solution. In practice, this is not the case. Each community, town or village is
different. There is no prescribed model that meets the needs of all areas in
the developing world. Despite the fact that some places may be similar in
economic terms, the characteristics of a sustainable business model vary
from community to community. Although one model may work in one village,
another village nearby may not possess the same necessary qualities for this
model to be sustainable. In this circumstance, other innovative models must
be customized to fit the context of this particular community.

Another misconception is that sustainability has the same definition for all peo-
ple. Although this term generally means that a system is built to persist indefi-
nitely, this chapter focuses more on the discussion of the economic conditions
(financial and managerial) than other aspects of sustainability. Also, instead of
the horizon being indeterminate, it centers on a time period of five years – the
period in which these ICT infrastructure and wireless technologies are ex-
pected to be useful. Thus, the term sustainability will be used to encapsulate a
system designed to persist for approximately five or more years.

When determining and implementing the best model for a wireless network
or telecenter, several key factors help to ensure its success. This chapter is
not meant to be a guide for managing sustainable wireless networks. Rather,
this “how-to” guide seeks to present an approach that will enable you to find
the model that best fits your situation. The tools and information contained
within this chapter will help people starting wireless networks in the develop-
ing world to ask the right questions and gather the necessary data to define
the most appropriate components of their model. Keep in mind that determin-
ing the best model is not a sequential process where each step is followed
until completion. In fact, the process is ongoing and iterative. All of the steps
are integrally connected to each other, and often you will revisit steps several
times as you progress.

Create a Mission Statement
What do you want to accomplish by setting up your network? It seems like a
simple question. However, many wireless networks are installed without a clear
vision of what they are doing and what they hope to accomplish in the future.
The first step involves documenting this vision with the input of your entire
team or staff. What is the purpose of the wireless network? Who does the net-

Chapter 10: Economic Sustainability 283

work seek to serve? What does the network do to address the community s
needs and to create value? What are the principles that guide the network? A
good mission statement expresses the purpose of your network in a concise,
meaningful way while articulating your values and services. Above all, your
mission provides a vision of the aspirations for your wireless network.

It is important that every team member working to build the wireless network is
included in the process of developing your mission, which helps create further
buy-in. It will garner support and commitment not only from your staff, but also
from customers, partners and donors, which will further your overall objectives.
In the dynamic world of technology, the needs of customers and the best way
to satisfy those needs change rapidly; therefore, the development of your mis-
sion is an ongoing process. After defining the initial mission with your team,
you must conduct research to determine whether this first conception is
aligned with the realities of your environment. Based on an analysis of the ex-
ternal environment and your internal competencies, you must constantly mod-
ify the mission throughout the life-cycle of the wireless network.

Evaluate the Demand for Potential Offerings
The next step in deriving your business model involves assessing the com-
munity s demand for the network s products and services. First, identify the
individuals, groups and organizations in the community that have a need for
information and would beneﬁt from the wireless network s offerings. Potential
users could consist of a wide variety of individuals and organizations that
include, but are not limited to:

• Farmers associations and cooperatives
• Women s groups
• Schools and universities
• Businesses and local entrepreneurs
• Health clinics and hospitals
• Religious groups
• International and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
• Local and national government agencies
• Radio stations
• Organizations in the tourist industry

Once you establish a list of all the potential user groups of the network, you
must determine their needs for access to information and communication.
Often, people confuse services with needs. A farmer may need to gather in-


formation on market prices and climatic conditions to improve his crop yield
and sales. Perhaps the way in which he gets this information is through the
Internet; however, the farmer could also receive this information through
SMS over a mobile phone or through Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP).
It is important to differentiate between needs and services because there
may be various ways to satisfy the farmer s needs. Your wireless network
should look for the best way to fulfill the farmer s needs, thereby creating
value at the lowest cost for the user.

When assessing the needs of the community, it is important to figure out
where the network can bring the most value to its users. For instance, in the
small town of Douentza, Mali, a telecenter manager evaluated the potential
benefits of establishing a wireless network through discussions with several
local organizations. He interviewed one local NGO that discussed its need to
send monthly reports to its headquarters office in Bamako. At that time, there
was no Internet access in Douentza. In order to email a copy of the report,
the NGO sent one of its employees to Mopti once a month, resulting in trans-
portation and lodging costs, as well as the opportunity cost of having the em-
ployee out of the office for several days each month. When the telecenter
manager calculated the total monthly costs incurred by the NGO, he was
able to demonstrate the value of an Internet connection through cost savings
to the organization.

Assistance from key partners may also be necessary to secure sustainability
for your wireless network. During this phase, you should connect with poten-
tial partners and explore mutually beneficial collaborations.

You can evaluate the demand in your community by contacting your potential
customers and asking questions directly through surveys, focus groups, in-
terviews or town hall meetings. Conducting research through a review of sta-
tistical documentation, industry reports, censuses, magazines, newspapers
and other secondary data sources will also help to give you a better picture
of your local environment. The goal of this data collection is to obtain a thor-
ough understanding of the demand for information and communication in
your community so that the network being created responds to those needs.
Often, wireless networks that do not succeed in the developing world forget
this key step. Your entire network should be based on the demand in the
community. If you set up a wireless network in which the community does not
find value or cannot afford its services, it will ultimately fail.

Establish Appropriate Incentives
Often, there is little economic incentive for such subsistence-based economic
participants to access the Internet. In addition, the cost of acquiring a com-
puter, learning to use it, and getting an Internet connection far outweighs the


economic returns that it can provide. There has recently been some devel-
opment of applications that address this lack of incentive, such as market
information systems, quality standards imposed by importing countries, and
commodities exchanges. Internet access becomes an obvious advantage in
situations where knowing the day-to-day prices of products can make a sig-
nificant difference in income.

Establishing appropriate economic incentives is paramount to the success of
the network. The network must provide economic value to its users in a way
that outweighs its costs, or it must be cheap enough that its costs are mar-
ginal and affordable to its users. It is crucial to design a network with viable
economic uses and with costs that are less than the economic value pro-
vided by it. Additionally, to create a proper incentive structure, you must in-
volve the community in the creation of the network from the beginning of the
project, making sure that this initiative is organic and not imposed from the
outside. To begin, you should try to answer the following questions:

1. What economic value can this network generate for the local economy
and for whom?
2. How much perceivable economic value can be generated?
3. Can present impediments be overcome to allow the achievement of
these economic returns?
By answering these questions, the network will be able to clearly articulate its
value proposition for its users. For example, “By using this network you can
improve your margins on commodity sales by 2%,” or “Internet will allow you
to save $X in phone charges and transportation costs per month.” You must
figure out how your network can improve efficiencies, reduce costs, or in-
crease revenues for these customers.

For example, if providing market information for the local maize industry, the
network should be located near to where farmers bring their crop for sale to
merchants. Your network would then likely need to tie-into market information
systems, providing daily price sheets ($1 each), or terminals to sellers and
merchants ($2/hr). Your network might also provide the means for farmers to
read about new techniques and to buy new products. You might also provide
wireless connections to merchants and rent them thin-client terminals for
Internet access. If the market was small, you might be able to reduce costs
by limiting access to images and other bandwidth intensive services. Again,
knowing how much value your network will create for these merchants will
allow you to gauge how much they will be able to afford for your services.


Research the Regulatory Environment
for Wireless
The regulatory environment for wireless networks also affects the type of busi-
ness model that can be implemented. First, research whether any organization
has the right to use 2.4 GHz frequencies without a license. In most situations,
2.4 GHz is free to use worldwide; however, some countries restrict who can
operate a network or require expensive licenses to do so. Although wireless
networks are legal in the Ukraine, the government requires an expensive li-
cense to use 2.4 GHz frequencies, which renders this shared usage prohibi-
tive. Typically only well established Internet Service Providers in this country
have sufficient cash flow to pay the license fees. This restriction makes it diffi-
cult for a small community to share a wireless network with other potentially
interested parties or organizations. Other countries, such as the Republic of
Mali, are more permissive. Because there are no such restrictions on wireless
networks, the possibility to share Internet connectivity in small communities is
a viable solution. The lesson is to do your research at the onset, ensuring your
network will comply with the laws of the country and local community. Some
project managers have been forced to shut down their wireless networks
simply because they were unknowingly breaking the law.

You should also check into the legality of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
services. Most countries in the developing world have not yet defined
whether VoIP is permitted; in such countries, nothing would prevent you from
offering the VoIP service. However, in some countries there are complicated
rules surrounding VoIP. In Syria, VoIP is prohibited for all networks, not just
wireless. In Ukraine, VoIP is legal for international calls only.

Analyze the Competition
The next phase in the evaluation of your community involves an analysis of
the wireless network s competition. Competitors include organizations that
provide similar products and services (e.g., another wireless Internet service
provider or WISP), organizations viewed as substitutes or alternatives to the
products and services your network provides (e.g., a cybercafé), and organi-
zations defined as new entrants to the wireless market. Once you have iden-
tified your competitors, you should research them thoroughly. You can obtain
information about your competitors through the Internet, telephone calls, their
advertisements and marketing materials, surveys of their customers and vis-
its to their site. Create a file for each competitor. The competitive information
you gather can include a list of services (including price and quality informa-
tion), their target clients, customer service techniques, reputation, marketing,
etc. Be sure to collect anything that will help you determine how to position
your network in the community.


It is important to evaluate your competition for many reasons. First, it helps
you determine the level of market saturation. There have been several in-
stances where a subsidized telecenter was established by a donor organiza-
tion in a small village with limited demand, despite the fact that there was
already a locally owned cybercafé there. In one circumstance, the subsi-
dized center maintained low prices because it did not have to cover its costs.
This scenario eventually caused the locally owned center to go out of busi-
ness. After the funding stopped, the subsidized center went out of business
as well, due to low revenues and high costs. Knowing what already exists will
allow you to determine how your network can contribute value to the com-
munity. In addition, analyzing the competition can stimulate innovative ideas
for your service offerings. Is there something that you can do better than the
competitors to make your services more effectively fit the needs of the com-
munity? Finally, by analyzing your competitors from the customers point of
view and understanding their strengths and weaknesses, you can determine
your competitive advantages in the community. Competitive advantages are
those which cannot be easily replicated by the competition. For example, a
wireless network that can exclusively offer a faster Internet connection than a
competitor is a competitive advantage that facilitates client utilization.

Determine Initial and Recurring
Costs and Pricing
When you are planning to set up and operate your wireless network, you must
determine the resources needed to start your project and the recurring operat-
ing costs. Start-up costs include everything you must purchase to start your
wireless network. These expenses can range from the initial investment you
make in hardware, installations, and equipment for access points, hubs,
switches, cables, UPS, etc. to the costs to register your organization as a legal
entity. Recurring costs are what you must pay to continue to operate your wire-
less network, including the cost of Internet access, telephone, loans, electricity,
salaries, office rental fees, equipment maintenance and repairs, and regular
investments to replace malfunctioning or obsolete equipment.

Every piece of equipment will eventually break down or become outdated at
some point, and you should set aside extra money for this purpose. An ad-
visable and very common method to deal with this is to take the price of the
device and divide it by the period of time you estimate that it will last. This
process is called depreciation. Here is an example. An average computer is
supposed to last for two to five years. If the initial cost to purchase the com-
puter was $1,000 USD, and you will be able to use the computer for five
years, your annual depreciation will be $200 USD. In other words, you will
lose $16.67 USD every month so that you can eventually replace this com-
puter. To make your project sustainable, it is of fundamental importance that


you save the money to compensate for the depreciation of equipment each
month. Keep these savings until you ﬁnally have to spend them for equip-
ment replacement. Some countries have tax laws that determine the period
of depreciation for different types of devices. In any case, you should try to
be very realistic about the life-cycle of all the implemented gear and plan for
their depreciation carefully.

Try to find out all your costs in advance and make realistic estimations on your
expenses. The following grid (continued on the next page) shows you a way to
classify and list all of your costs. It is a good tool to structure the different costs,
and it will help you to distinguish between initial costs and recurring costs.

It is important to research all your start-up costs in advance, and make realis-
tic estimations on your recurring expenses. It is always better to over-budget
for expenses than to under-budget. With every wireless project, there are
always unforeseen costs, especially during the ﬁrst year of operations as you
learn how to better manage your network.

Categories of Costs

Initial / start-up costs Recurring costs

• Handling costs / salaries
• Check ups (analyses) and for employees or
consultancies freelancer, including
• Development costs for yourself
programming, testing, • Equipment maintenance
Labor
integration etc. and support costs for
costs
• Installation costs software, hardware and
ancillary equipment
• Recruiting costs
• Security personnel
• Training costs (introduction)
• Training costs (refreshers)


Initial / start-up costs Recurring costs

• Operating costs for
• Acquisition and production hardware and operating
costs (for hardware like systems (Internet access,
PCs, VSAT, radio link telephone, etc.)
equipment and software)
• Rent or leasing rates
• Ancillary equipment (e.g.,
• Depreciation of hardware
switches, cables and
and equipment
cabling, generator, UPS,
etc.) • License fees
• Data protection and • Consumables and office
security supplies (e.g., data media,
paper, binds, clips)
• Start-up inventory (chairs,
Material tables, lighting, curtains, • Operational costs to
(non-labor) tiles and carpeting) maintain data protection
costs and security
• Premises costs (new
building, modification, air • Insurance premiums
conditioning, electrical
• Costs for energy and to
wiring and boxes, security
ensure power supply
grills)
• Loan payments, capital
• Legal costs, such as costs for paying back your
business registration
setup costs
• Initial license costs (VSAT)
• Costs for advertising
• Initial marketing costs
• Local fees
(flyers, stickers, posters,
opening party) • Legal and accounting
services

To improve your chances of sustainability, it is generally best to maintain the
lowest cost structure for your network. In other words, keep your expenses
as low as possible. Take time to thoroughly research all of your suppliers,
particularly the ISPs, and shop around for the best deals on quality service.
Once again, be certain that what you purchase from suppliers corresponds
with the demand in the community. Before installing an expensive VSAT, en-
sure there is a sufficient number of individuals and organizations in your
community willing and able to pay for using it. Depending upon demand for
information access and ability to pay, an alternative method of connectivity
may be more appropriate. Do not be afraid to think outside the box and be
creative when determining the best solution.


Keeping your costs down should not be at the cost of quality. Because low-
quality equipment is more likely to malfunction, you could be spending more
on maintenance in the long run. The amount of money you will spend to
maintain your ICT infrastructure is hard to guess. The larger and more com-
plicated your infrastructure becomes, the more financial and labor resources
you must allocate for its maintenance.

Many times this relation is not linear but exponential. If you have a quality
problem with your equipment once it is rolled out, it can cost you an enor-
mous amount of money to fix it. Concurrently, your sales will decrease be-
cause the equipment is not up and running. There is an interesting example
of a major wireless internet service provider (WISP) who had more than
3,000 access points in operation for a while. However, the WISP never man-
aged to break even because it had to spend too much money to maintain all
the access points. In addition, the company underestimated the short life-
cycle of such devices. ICT hardware tends to get cheaper and better as time
goes on. As soon as the company had invested time and money to install the
version of expensive first generation 802.11b access points, the new “g”
standard was created. New competitors designed better and cheaper access
points and offered faster Internet access for less money. Finally the first
WISP was forced to close down the company, although it was initially the
market leader. Look at the following table to get a better picture on the fast
development of wireless standards and equipment:

Protocol Release Date Typical Data Rate

802.11 1997 < 1 Mbps

802.11b 1999 5 Mbps

802.11g 2003 20 Mbps

802.11a 1999, but rare until 2005 23 Mbps

802.11y June 2008 (estimated) 23 Mbps

802.11n June 2009 (estimated) 75 Mbps

Keep in mind the rapid advancement and changes in technology and think
about how and when it may be time for you to reinvest in newer and cheaper
(or better) devices to keep your infrastructure competitive and up-to-date. As
mentioned before, it is highly important that you save enough to be able to do
so, when necessary.


Once you have identified and mapped out your costs, you should also de-
termine what and how to charge for your services. This is a complicated and
time-consuming process to do correctly. These key tips will assist when mak-
ing pricing decisions:

• Calculate the prices you charge so that you cover all costs to provide the
service, including all recurring expenses
• Examine the prices of your competitors
• Evaluate what your customers are willing and able to pay for your services,
and make sure your prices correspond with these

It is absolutely essential to make a financial plan before you start. You need
to list all of your initial and recurring costs and make some calculations to find
out if your project can be sustainable.

Secure the Financing
Once you have determined your initial and recurring costs and created your
financial plan, you know how much financing you will need to run a success-
ful wireless network. The next step is to research and secure the appropriate
amount of money to start up and run your wireless network.

The most traditional method of receiving funding for wireless networks in the
developing world is through grants given by donors. A donor is an organiza-
tion that contributes funding and other types of donations to an organization
or consortium of organizations to help them manage projects or support
causes. Because this funding is provided in the form of grants or other dona-
tions, it is not expected to be repaid by the organizations implementing the
wireless projects or by the project s beneficiaries. Such donors include large
international organizations like the United Nations (UN) and various special-
ized UN agencies like the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Government agencies that specialize in international development, such as
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the United
Kingdom s Department for International Development (DFID), and the Cana-
dian International Development Agency (CIDA), are also considered donors.
Large foundations like the Gates Foundation and the Soros Foundation Net-
work and private companies are other types of donors.

Typically, receiving funding involves a competitive or a non-competitive proc-
ess. The non-competitive process is more infrequent, so this chapter will fo-
cus on the competitive process at a very high level. Most donors have com-
plicated procedures surrounding the distribution of funding. The authors in
this book are by no means trying to oversimplify this in depth system of rules


and regulations. The authors intend only to convey a general understanding
of this process for communities attempting to establish wireless networks in
the developing world. During the competitive bid process, the donor creates
a request for proposal (RFP) or a request for application (RFA), which
solicits various non-governmental organizations, private companies and their
partners to submit proposals outlining their plans for projects within the con-
straints of the donors objectives and guidelines. In response to this RFP or
RFA, NGOs and other organizations compete through the submittal of their
proposals, which are then evaluated by the donors based on specific estab-
lished criteria. Finally, the donor organization selects the most appropriate
and highest ranking proposal to fund the project. Sometimes donors also
supply funding to support an organization s operations, but this type of fund-
ing is more unusual than the competitive bid process.

Another way of accessing the necessary funds to start and maintain a wire-
less network is through microfinance, or the provision of loans, savings and
other basic financial services to the world s poorest people. Pioneered in the
1970 s by organizations like ACCION International and Grameen Bank, mi-
crocredit, a type of microfinance, enables poor individuals and entrepreneurs
to receive loans in small amounts of money to start up small enterprises. De-
spite the fact that these individuals lack many of the traditional qualifications
needed to obtain loans like verifiable credit, collateral or steady employment,
microcredit programs have been highly successful in many developing coun-
tries. Typically, the process involves an individual or a group completing and
submitting a loan application in the hopes of receiving a loan, and the lender,
the individual or organization that provides the loan, giving money on condi-
tion that it is returned with interest.

The use of microcredit to fund wireless networks does pose one constraint.
Usually, microcredit involves very small sums of money. Unfortunately, be-
cause a large amount of capital is needed to purchase the initial equipment
for wireless network set up, sometimes a microcredit loan is not sufficient.
However, there have been many other successful applications of microcredit
that have brought technology and its value to the developing world. An ex-
ample includes the story of village phone operators. These entrepreneurs
use their microcredit loans to purchase mobile phones and phone credits.
They then rent the use of their mobile phones to community members on a
per-call basis and earn enough money to repay their debt and make a profit
for themselves and their families.

Another mechanism for getting funding to start a wireless network is angel
funding. Angel investors are normally wealthy individuals that provide capital
for business start-up in exchange for a high rate of return on their investment.
Because the ventures in which they invest are start ups and, therefore, often
high risk, angel investors tend to expect different things in addition to their
return. Many expect a board position and maybe a role in the organization.


Some angels want to have a stake in the company, while others prefer
shares in the company that can be easily redeemable at face value, thus
providing a clear exit for the investor. To protect their investments, angels
frequently ask the businesses not to make certain key decisions without their
approval. Because of the high risk involved in developing markets, it is often
challenging to find angel investors to help setup a wireless network, but not
impossible. The best way to find potential investors is through your social
network and through research online.

Evaluate the Strengths and Weaknesses
of the Internal Situation
A network is only as good as the people who work and operate it. The team
you put in place can mean the difference between success and failure. That
is why it is important to reflect about your team s qualifications and skills, in-
cluding those of staff and volunteers, in comparison to the competencies
needed for a wireless project. First, make a list of all the competencies
needed to run a wireless project successfully. Capacity areas should include
technology, human resources, accounting, marketing, sales, negotiation, le-
gal, and operations, among others. Afterwards, identify local resources to
fulfill these skills. Map your team s skills sets to the competencies needed,
and identify key gaps.

One tool often used to assist with this self-evaluation is an analysis of
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, called SWOT. To conduct
this analysis, specify your internal strengths and weaknesses, and elaborate
upon the external opportunities and threats in your community. It is important
to be realistic and honest about what you do well and what you are lacking.
Be sure to distinguish between where your organization is at the beginning of
this endeavor from where it could be in the future. Your strengths and weak-
nesses allow you to evaluate your capacities internally and better understand
what your organization can do, as well as its limits. By understanding your
strengths and weaknesses and comparing them to those of your competitors,
you can determine your competitive advantages in the market. You can also
note the areas where you can improve. Opportunities and threats are exter-
nal, which enable you to analyze real world conditions and how these condi-
tions influence your network.

The diagram below will help you in creating your own SWOT analysis for
your organization. Be sure to respond to the questions asked and list your
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in the spaces designated.


Strengths Weaknesses

• What do you do well? • What could you improve?
• What unique resources can you • Where do you have fewer re-
draw on? sources than others?
• What do others see as your • What are others likely to see as
strengths? weaknesses?
• •
• •
• •
• •

Opportunities Threats

• What good opportunities are • What trends could harm you?
open to you?
• What is your competition doing?
• What trends could you take ad-
• What threats do your weaknesses
vantage of?
expose you to?
• How can you turn your strengths
•
into opportunities?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Putting it All Together
Once you have gathered all of the information, you are ready to put everything
together and decide upon the best model for the wireless network in your
community. Based on the results of your external and internal analyses, you
must refine your mission and service offerings. All of the factors that you re-
searched in the preceding steps come into play when determining your overall
strategy. It is essential to employ a model that capitalizes on opportunities and
works within the constraints of the local environment. To do this, you must of-
ten find innovative solutions to attain sustainability. By exploring several exam-
ples and discussing the components of the models implemented in those
instances, you will better understand how to arrive at an appropriate model.


In the distant jungles of the Democratic Republic of Congo, there is a rural
hospital in a village called Vanga in the province of Bandundu. It is so remote
that patients travel for weeks to get there often through a combination of
travel by foot and by river. This village, founded by Baptist missionaries in
1904, has served as a hospital for many years. Although it is extremely re-
mote, it is renowned for being an excellent facility and has had the support of
German and American missionaries who have kept this facility in operation.
In 2004, a project sponsored by USAID established a telecenter in this village
to help improve education in this isolated community; this Internet facility was
also heavily used by the educated class in the community – the hospital's
staff. The center had been a great boon to the community, offering access to
the world's knowledge and even providing consultation with distant col-
leagues in Switzerland, France and Canada. The center required near total
subsidization to operate and cover its costs, and funding was to end by 2006.
Although the center added great value to the community, it did have some
shortcomings, primarily technical, economic, and political issues that limited
its sustainability. A study was commissioned to consider options for its future.
After reviewing the center s cost structure, it was determined that it needed to
cut its costs and look for new ways to increase its revenues. The largest ex-
penses were electricity and Internet access; therefore, creative models
needed to be constructed to reduce the telecenter s costs and provide ac-
cess in a way that was sustainable.

Figure 10.1: Shared Internet over wireless

In this instance, a traditional VSAT was used for connectivity. However, this
model provided a unique way of accommodating local community groups
limited ability to pay for Internet services. Various organizations in the com-


munity share Internet access through a wireless network; they also share the
costs associated with that connection. This model functions well due to spe-
cific conditions – namely an awareness and understanding of the value of the
Internet among key community members, the necessary resources to sup-
port Internet access, and a regulatory system that permits wireless sharing.
In Vanga, several organizations, including a hospital, a pharmacy, several
missionary groups, a community resource center, and some non-profit or-
ganizations, have a need for Internet access and the means to pay for it. This
arrangement enables the network of organizations to have a higher quality
connection at a lower cost. Additionally, one organization in the village has
the capacity and willingness to manage several aspects of the network s op-
erations, including the billing and payment collection, technical maintenance
and general business operations of the entire network. Therefore, this model
works well in Vanga because it has been tailored to meet community demand
and leverage local economic resources.

Figure 10.2: DakNet's roaming access point

Another example of a model adapted to fit the local context is that of First
Mile Solutions DakNet. This model has been deployed in villages in India,
Cambodia, Rwanda, and Paraguay. By taking into account the limited buying
power of villagers, this model addresses their communication needs in an
innovative way. In the DakNet model, there is a franchise that exists in the
country, and local entrepreneurs are recruited and trained to operate kiosks
equipped with Wi-Fi antennas. Using pre-paid cards, villagers are able to
asynchronously send and receive emails, texts, and voice mails, conduct
web searches, and participate in e-commerce. Afterwards, these communica-
tions are stored in the local kiosk s server. When a bus or motorcycle with a
mobile access point drives past a kiosk, the vehicle automatically receives


the kiosk s stored data and delivers any incoming data. Once the vehicle
reaches a hub with Internet connectivity, it processes all requests, relaying
emails, messages, and shared ﬁles.

DakNet integrates both mobile access and franchise models to bring value to
people in remote villages. For such a model to be sustainable, several key
conditions need to be present. First, a franchise organization must exist to pro-
vide financial and institutional support, including an initial investment, working
capital for certain recurring costs, advice on start-up practices, management
training, standardized processes, reporting mechanisms, and marketing tools.
Additionally, this model requires a highly motivated and dynamic individual in
the village, with the appropriate skills to manage a business and willingness to
accept certain requirements of the franchise organization. Because these en-
trepreneurs are often asked to commit their own resources to the start-up
costs, they need to have sufficient access to financial resources. Finally, to
ensure this model will sustain itself, there should be sufficient demand for in-
formation and communication and few competitors in the community.

Conclusion
No single business model will enable wireless networks to be sustainable in
all environments of the developing world; different models must be used and
adapted as the circumstances dictate. Every community has unique charac-
teristics, and sufﬁcient analysis must be conducted at the onset of a project
to determine the most appropriate model. This analysis should consider sev-
eral key factors in the local environment, including community demand, com-
petition, costs, economic resources, etc. Although appropriate planning and
execution will maximize the chances of making your network sustainable,
there are no guarantees of success. However, by using the methods detailed
in this chapter, you will help to ensure that your network brings value to the
community in a way that corresponds with the users needs.

11
Case Studies

No matter how much planning goes into building a link or node location, you
will inevitably have to jump in and actually install something. This is the mo-
ment of truth that demonstrates just how accurate your estimates and predic-
tions prove to be.

It is a rare day when everything goes precisely as planned. Even after you
install your 1st, 10th, or 100th node, you will still find that things do not al-
ways work out as you might have intended. This chapter describes some of
our more memorable network projects. Whether you are about to embark on
your first wireless project or you are an old hand at this, it is reassuring to
remember that there is always more to learn.

General advice
The economies of developing countries are very different from the devel-
oped world, and thus a process or solution designed for a more developed
country may not be suitable in West Africa, or Southern Asia. Specifically,
the cost of locally produced materials and the cost of labour will be negligi-
ble, whereas imported goods can be much more expensive when com-
pared to its cost in the developed world. For example, one can manufacture
and install a tower for a tenth of the cost of a tower in the United States, but
the price of an antenna might be double. Solutions that capitalize on local
competitive advantages, namely cheap labour and locally found materials,
will be the easiest to replicate.

Finding the right equipment is one of the most difficult tasks in developing
markets. Because transportation, communication and economic systems are
not developed, the right materials or equipment can be difficult and often im-
299

300 Chapter 11: Case Studies

possible to find. A fuse, for example, is difficult to find, thus finding wire that
has a burn-up at a certain amperage and can substitute is a great advantage.
Finding local substitutes for materials also encourages local entrepreneur-
ship, ownership, and can save money.

Equipment enclosures
Cheap plastics are everywhere in the developing world, but they are made of
poor materials and are thin, thus mostly unsuitable for enclosing equipment.
PVC tubing is far more resilient and is made to be waterproof. In West Africa,
the most common PVC is found in plumbing, sized from 90mm to 220mm.
Access points such as the Routerboard 500 and 200 can fit into such tubing,
and with end-caps that are torched-on, they can make very robust waterproof
enclosures. They also have the added benefit of being aerodynamic and un-
interesting to passers-by. The resulting space left around the equipment as-
sures adequate air circulation. Also, it is often best to leave an exhaust hole
at the bottom of the PVC enclosure. The author did find that leaving open
holes can become a problem. In one instance ants decided to nest 25 meters
above ground inside the PVC holding the access point. Using a wire mesh
cover made from locally available screen material is advised to secure the
exhaust hole from infestations.

Antenna masts
Recovering used materials has become an important industry for the poorest
countries. From old cars to televisions, any material that has value will be
stripped, sold, or re-used. For example, you will see vehicles torn apart piece
by piece and day by day. The resulting metal is sorted and then tossed into a
truck to be sold. Local metal workers will already be familiar with how to
make television masts from scrap metal. A few quick adaptations and these
same masts can be re-purposed for wireless networks.

The typical mast is the 5 meter pole, comprised of a single 30mm diameter
pipe which is then planted into cement. It's best to construct the mast in two
parts, with a removable mast that fits into a base which is slightly larger in
diameter. Alternately, the mast may be made with arms that can be securely
cemented into a wall. This project is easy, but requires the use of a ladder to
complete and therefore some caution is suggested.

This type of mast can be augmented by several meters with the use of guy
lines. To sturdy the pole, plant three lines 120 degrees apart, forming an
angle of at least 33 degrees with the tower.

Chapter 11: Case Studies 301

Above all: involve the local community
Community involvement is imperative in assuring the success and sustain-
ability of a project. Involving the community in a project can be the greatest
challenge, but if the community is not involved the technology will not serve
their needs, nor will it be accepted. Moreover, a community might be afraid
and could subvert an initiative. Regardless of the complexity of the undertak-
ing, a successful project needs support and buy-in from those it will serve.

An effective strategy in gaining support is to find a respected champion
whose motives are palatable. Find the person, or persons whom are most
likely to be interested in the project. Often, you will need to involve such
champions as advisors, or as members of a steering committee. These peo-
ple will already have the trust of the community, will know who to approach,
and can speak the language of the community. Take your time and be selec-
tive in finding the right people for your project. No other decision will affect
your project more than having effective, trusted local people on your team.

In addition, take note of key players in an institution, or community. Identify
those people whom are likely to be opponents and proponents of your pro-
ject. As early as possible, attempt to earn the support of the potential propo-
nents and to diffuse the opponents. This is a difficult task and one that re-
quires intimate knowledge of the institution or community. If the project does
not have a local ally, the project must take time to acquire this knowledge
and trust from the community.

Be careful in choosing your allies. A "town-hall" meeting is often useful to see
local politics, alliances, and feuds in play. Thereafter, it is easier to decide on
whom to ally, champion and whom to diffuse. Try to not build unwarranted
enthusiasm. It is important to be honest, frank, and not to make promises
that you cannot keep.

In largely illiterate communities, focus on digital to analog services such as
Internet for radio stations, printing on-line articles and photos, and other non-
textual applications. Do not try to introduce a technology to a community
without understanding which applications will truly will serve the community.
Often the community will have little idea how new technologies will help their
problems. Simply providing new features is useless without an understand-
ing of how the community will benefit.

When gathering information, verify the facts that you are given. If you want to
know the financial status of a company/organization, ask to see an electricity bill,
or phone bill. Have they been paying their bills? At times, potential beneficiaries
will compromise their own values in hopes of winning funds or equipment.
Most often, local partners who trust you will be very frank, honest, and helpful.


Another common pitfall is what I call "divorced parents" syndrome, where
NGOs, donors, and partners are not told of each others involvement with the
beneficiary. Savvy beneficiaries can earn handsome rewards by letting
NGOs and donors lavish them with equipment, training and funds. It is impor-
tant to know which other organizations are involved so you can understand
how their activities might impact your own. For example, I once designed a
project for a rural school in Mali. My team installed an open source system
with used computers and spent several days training people how to use it.
The project was deemed a success, but shortly after the installation, another
donor arrived with brand-new Pentium 4 computers running Windows XP.
The students quickly abandoned the older computers and lined-up to use the
new computers. It would have been better to negotiate with the school in ad-
vance, to know their commitment to the project. If they had been frank, the
computers that are now sitting unused could have been deployed to another
school where they would be used.

In many rural communities in under-developed economies, law and policies
are weak, and contracts can be effectively meaningless. Often, other assur-
ances must be found. This is where pre-paid services are ideal, as they do
not require a legal contract. Commitment is assured by the investment of
funds before service is given.

Buy-in also requires that those involved invest in the project themselves. A
project should ask for reciprocal involvement from the community.

Above all, the “no-go” option should always be evaluated. If a local ally and
community buy-in cannot be had, the project should consider choosing a dif-
ferent community or beneficiary. There must be a negotiation; equipment,
money, and training cannot be gifts. The community must be involved and
they too must contribute.

Ian Howard

Case study: Crossing the divide with a
simple bridge in Timbuktu
Networks ultimately connect people together, and therefore always involve a
political component. The cost of Internet in less developed economies is high
and the ability to pay is low, which adds to the political challenges. Attempt-
ing to superimpose a network where human networks are not fully function-
ing is nearly impossible in the long term. Trying to do so can leave a project
on unstable social ground, threatening its existence. This is where the low
cost and mobility of a wireless network can be advantageous.


The author's team was asked by funders to determine how to connect a rural
radio station with a very small (2 computer) telecentre to the Internet in Tim-
buktu, the desert capital of Mali. Timbuktu is widely known as an outpost in
the most remote area of the world. At this site, the team decided to imple-
ment a model which has been called the parasitic wireless model. This
model takes a wireless “feed” that is spliced from an existing network, and
extends that network to a client site using a simple bridged network. This
model was chosen because it requires no significant investment by the sup-
porting organization. While it added a source of revenue for the telecentre, it
did not add a significant operational cost. This solution meant that the client
site could get cheap Internet, albeit not as fast or as reliable as a dedicated
solution. Because of opposed usage patterns between an office and a tele-
centre there was no perceptible slowing of the network for either party.
Though in an ideal situation it would be best to encourage more development
of the small telecentre into an ISP, neither the telecentre nor the market were
deemed ready. As is often the case, there were serious concerns about
whether this telecentre could become self-sustaining once its funders de-
parted. Thus, this solution minimized the initial investment while achieving
two goals: first, it extended the Internet to the target beneficiary, a radio sta-
tion, at an affordable cost. Second, it added a small additional revenue
source for the telecentre while not increasing its operational costs, or adding
complexity to the system.

The people
Timbuktu is remote, though having a world renowned name. Being a symbol
of remoteness, many projects have wanted to “stake a flag” in the sands of
this desert city. Thus, there are a number of information and communications
technologies (ICT) activities in the area. At last count there were 8 satellite
connections into Timbuktu, most of which service special interests except for
the two carriers, SOTELMA and Ikatel. They currently use VSAT to link their
telephone networks to the rest of the country. This telecentre used an X.25
connection to one of these telcos, which then relayed the connection back to
Bamako. Relative to other remote cities in the country, Timbuktu has a fair
number of trained IT staff, three existing telecentres, plus the newly installed
telecentre at the radio station. The city is to some degree over saturated with
Internet, precluding any private, commercial interests from being sustainable.

Design Choices
In this installation the client site is only 1 km away directly by line of sight.
Two modified Linksys access points, flashed with OpenWRT and set to
bridge mode, were installed. One was installed on the wall of the telecentre,
and the other was installed 5 meters up the radio station's mast. The only
configuration parameters required on both devices were the ssid and the
channel. Simple 14 dBi panel antennas (from http://hyperlinktech.com/)


were used. At the Internet side, the access point and antenna were fastened
using cement plugs and screws onto the side of the building, facing the client
site. At the client site, an existing antenna mast was used. The access point
and antenna were mounted using pipe rings.

To disconnect the client, the telecentre simply unplugs the bridge on their
side. An additional site will eventually be installed, and it too will have its own
bridge at the telecentre so that staff can physically disconnect the client if
they have not paid. Though crude, this solution is effective and reduces risk
that the staff would make a mistake while making changes to the configura-
tion of the system. Having a bridge dedicated to one connection also simpli-
fied installation at the central site. as the installation team was able to choose
the best spot for connecting the client sites. Though it is not optimal to
bridge a network (rather than route network traffic), when technology knowl-
edge is low and one wants to install a very simple system this can be a rea-
sonable solution for small networks. The bridge makes systems installed at
the remote site (the radio station) appear as though they are simply con-
nected to the local network.

Financial model
The financial model here is simple. The telecentre charges a monthly fee,
about $30 per connected computer to the radio station. This was many times
cheaper than the alternative. The telecentre is located in the court of the
Mayor's office, so the principle client of the telecentre is the Mayor s staff.
This was important because the radio station did not want to compete for
clientele with the telecentre and the radio station's systems were primarily
intended for the radio station staff. This quick bridge reduced costs, meaning
that this selective client base could support the cost of the Internet without
competing with the telecentre, its supplier. The telecentre also has the ability
to easily disconnect the radio station should they not pay. This model also
allowed sharing of network resources. For example, the radio station has a
new laser printer, while the telecentre has a color printer. Because the client
systems are on the same network, clients can print at either site.

Training
To support this network, very little training was required. The telecentre staff
were shown how to install the equipment and basic trouble shooting, such as
rebooting (power cycling) the access points, and how to replace the unit
should one fail. This allows the author's team to simply ship a replacement
and avoid the two day trek to Timbuktu.


Summary
The installation was considered an interim measure. It was meant to serve
as a stop-gap measure while moving forward with a more complete solution.
While it can be considered a success, it has not yet led to building more
physical infrastructure. It has brought ICTs closer to a radio solution, and re-
enforced local client/supplier relationships.

As it stands, Internet access is still an expensive undertaking in Timbuktu.
Local politics and competing subsidized initiatives are underway, but this
simple solution has proven to be an ideal use case. It took the team several
months of analysis and critical thought to arrive here, but it seems the sim-
plest solution provided the most benefit.

Ian Howard

Case study: Finding solid ground in Gao
One day's drive east from Timbuktu, in Eastern Mali, is Gao. This rural city,
which seems more more like a big village, sits up the the river Niger just be-
fore it dips South crossing into Niger and onto Nigeria. The city slopes into
the river gently, and has few buildings taller than two stories. In 2004, a tele-
centre was installed in Gao. The project's goal was to provide information to
the community in the hope that a better informed community would yield a
healthier and more educated citizenry.

The centre provides information via CD-ROMs, films and radio, but the cor-
nucopic source of information for the centre is the Internet. It is a standard
telecentre, with 8 computers, an all-in-one printer, scanner, fax, a telephone
and a digital camera. A small two room building was built to house the tele-
centre. It is located a bit outside of downtown, which is not an ideal location
for attracting customers, but the site was chosen because of its sympathetic
host. The site received funding for all construction needed, and equipment
and initial training was supplied as well. The telecentre was expected to be
self-sustaining after one year.

Several months after its opening, the telecentre was attracting few custom-
ers. It used a modem to dial-up to connect to an Internet provider in the capi-
tal. This connection was too slow and unreliable, and so the funder spon-
sored the installation of a VSAT system. There are a number of VSAT sys-
tems now available to the region; most of these services have just recently
become available. Previously only C-band (which cover a larger area than
Ku-band) systems were available. Recently, fiber has been laid in almost
every subway tunnel and canal throughout Europe, and thus it has sup-
planted the more expensive satellite services. As a result, providers are now


redirecting their VSAT systems to new markets, including middle and West-
ern Africa, and South Asia. This has led to a number of projects which use
satellite systems for an Internet connection.

After the VSAT was installed, the connection provided 128 kbps down and
64 kbps up, and cost about $400 per month. The site was having trouble
earning enough revenue to pay for this high monthly cost, so the telecentre
asked for help. A private contractor was hired, who had been trained by the
author to install a wireless system. This system would split the connection
between three clients: a second beneﬁciary, a radio station, and the telecen-
tre, each paying $140. This collectively covered the costs of the VSAT, and
the extra revenue from the telecentre and the radio station would cover sup-
port and administration of the system.

The people
Though capable and willing, the author s team did not do the actual installa-
tion. Instead, we encouraged the telecentre to hire the local contractor to do
it. We were able to reassure the client by agreeing to train and support the
contractor in the fulﬁllment of this installation. The premise of this decision
was to discourage a reliance on a short-term NGO, and rather to build trust
and relationships between domestic service providers and their clients. This
design proved to be fruitful. This approach took much more time from the
author's team, perhaps twice as much, but this investment has already be-
gun to pay-off. Networks are still being installed and the author and his team
are now home in Europe and North America.

Design choices
Initially, it was conceived that a backbone connection would be made to the
radio station, which already had a 25 meter tower. That tower would be used
to relay to the other clients, avoiding the need to install towers at the client
sites, as this tower was well above any obstacles in the city. To do this, three
approaches were discussed: installing an access point in repeater mode,
using the WDS protocol, or using a mesh routing protocol. A repeater was not
desirable as it would introduce latency (due to the one-armed repeater prob-
lem) to an already slow connection. VSAT connections need to send packets
up to the satellite and back down, often introducing up to 3000 ms in delay
for a round trip. To avoid this problem, it was decided to use one radio to
connect to clients, and a second radio for to the dedicated backbone connec-
tion. For simplicity it was decided to make that link a simple bridge, so that
the access point at the radio station would appear to be on the same physical
LAN as the telecentre.

In testing this approach functioned, though in the real world, its performance
was dismal. After many different changes, including replacing the access


points, the technician decided that there must be a software or hardware bug
affecting this design. The installer then decided to place the access point at
the telecentre directly using a small 3 meter mast, and to not use a relay site
at the radio station. The client sites also required small masts in this design.
All sites were able to connect, though the connections were at times too fee-
ble, and introduced massive packet loss.

Later, during the dust season, these connections became more erratic and
even less stable. The client sites were 2 to 5 km away, using 802.11b. The
team theorized that the towers on either side were too short, cutting off too
much of the Fresnel zone. After discussing many theories, the team also re-
alized the problem with the performance at the radio station: the radio fre-
quency 90.0 MHz was about the same as the frequency of the high-speed
(100BT) Ethernet connection. While transmitting, the FM signal (at 500 watts)
was completely consuming the signal on the Ethernet cable. Thus, shielded
cable would be required, or the frequency of the Ethernet link would need to
be changed. The masts were then raised, and at the radio station the speed
of the Ethernet was changed to 10 Mbps. This changed the frequency on the
wire to 20 MHz, and so avoided interference from the FM transmission.
These changes resolved both problems, increasing the strength and reliabil-
ity of the network. The advantage of using mesh or WDS here would be that
client sites could connect to either access point, either directly to the telecen-
tre to the radio station. Eventually, removing the reliance on the radio station
as a repeater likely made the installation more stable in the longer-term.

Financial model
The satellite system used at this site cost approximately $400 per month. For
many IT for Development projects this expensive monthly cost is difﬁcult to
manage. Typically these projects can purchase equipment and pay for the
establishment of a wireless network, but most are not able to pay for the cost
of the network after a short period of time (including the recurring Internet
costs and operational costs). It is necessary to ﬁnd a model where the
monthly costs for a network can be met by those who use. For most commu-
nity telecenters or radio stations, this is simply too expensive. Often, the only
feasible plan is to share the costs with other users. To make the Internet
more affordable, this site used wireless to share the Internet to the commu-
nity, allowing a greater number of organizations to access the Internet while
reducing the cost per client.

Typically in Mali, a rural community has only a few organizations or companies
that could afford an Internet connection. Where there are few clients, and the
Internet connection cost is high, the model developed by his team included
anchor clients: clients whom are solid and are low-risk. For this region, for-
eign NGOs (Non Governmental Organizations), the United Nations Agencies
and large commercial enterprises are among the very few whom qualify.


Among the clients selected for this project were three anchor clients, who
collectively paid the entire monthly cost of the satellite connection. A second
beneficiary, a community radio station, was also connected. Any revenue
earned from the beneficiaries contributed to a windfall, or deposit for future
costs, but was not counted upon due to the small margins that both of these
community services operated on. Those clients could be disconnected and
could resume their service once they can afford it again.

Training needed: who, what, for how long
The contractor taught the telecentre technician the basics of supporting the
network, which was fairly rudimentary. Any non-routine work, such as adding
a new client, was contracted out. Therefore it was not imperative to teach
the telecentre staff how to support the system in its entirety.

Lessons learned
By sharing the connection, the telecentre is now self-sustaining, and in addi-
tion, three other sites have Internet access. Though it takes more time and
perhaps more money, it is valuable to find the right local talent and to en-
courage them to build relationships with clients. A local implementor will be
able to provide the follow-up support needed to maintain and expand a net-
work. This activity is building local expertise, and demand, which will allow
subsequent ICT projects to build on this base.

Ian Howard

Case Study: Fantsuam Foundation's
Community Wireless Network
Kafanchan is a community of 83,000 people located 200 km northeast of
Abuja, in central Nigeria. Kafanchan used to be known as a busy and thriving
town as it was the host of one of the main junctions of the national railway.
When the railway industry was booming, almost 80% of Kafanchan's popula-
tions relied on it in one way or another. Following the complete breakdown of
the Nigerian railway system, the population of Kafanchan has been forced to
go back to its original source of income, which is agriculture.

Kafanchan is a poorly connected area in terms of fixed telephony and Inter-
net connectivity. Today, no fixed telephony (PSTN) is available in the area
and GSM only just arrived in 2005. However, the GSM coverage is just as
poor as the quality of the service. At the moment, SMS services are the most
reliable communication service because voice conversations tend to cut off in
the middle and suffer heavy noise.


Poor access to electricity brings further challenges to the people of Kafan-
chan. The national electric power company of Nigeria, generally known as
NEPA (National Electric Power Authority), is more commonly known to Nige-
rians as "Never Expect Power Always". In 2005, NEPA changed its name to
Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN).

Kafanchan is receiving power from NEPA on an average of 3 hours per day.
For the remaining 21 hours, the population relies on expensive diesel gen-
erators or kerosene for illumination and cooking. When NEPA is available on
the grid, it provides an unregulated voltage in the range of 100-120 V in a
system designed for 240 V. This voltage must be regulated to 240 V before
most loads can be connected. Only light bulbs can be fed straight to the grid
power since they can handle the low voltage without damage.

Project participants
Given the challenging background of Kafanchan, how could anyone come up
with the idea of establishing the first rural Wireless ISP in Nigeria there?
Fantsuam Foundation did and they made it happen.

Fantsuam Foundation is a local, non-governmental organization that has
been working together with the community of Kafanchan since 1996 to fight
poverty and disadvantage through integrated development programs. Fant-
suam's focus lies on micro finance, ICT services and social development in
rural communities of Nigeria. Becoming the first rural wireless ISP in Nigeria
was part of their mission to be a recognized leader in the provision of rural
development initiatives, as well as the foremost rural knowledge economy
driver in Nigeria.

The Wireless ISP of Fantsuam Foundation, also know as Zittnet, is funded
by IDRC, the International Development Research Centre of Canada. IT +46,
a Swedish based consultancy company focusing on ICTs for development,
has worked together with the Zittnet team to provide technical support for
wireless communications, bandwidth management, solar energy, power
backup systems and VoIP deployments.

Objectives
The main objective of Zittnet is to improve access to communications in the
area of Kafanchan by implementing a community wireless network. The net-
work provides intranet and Internet access to local partners in the commu-
nity. The community network is formed by community-based organizations
such as educational institutions, faith-based institutions, health services,
small enterprises and individuals.


Power Backup System
In order to provide a reliable service to the community, Zittnet needed to be
equipped with a stable power backup system that would make the network
run independently of the NEPA.

A hybrid power system was designed for Fantsuam, consisting of a deep-
cycle battery bank and 2 kW (peak) solar panels. The system can charge
from three different sources: a diesel generator, a solar array, and from NEPA
when electricity is available. The network operation center (NOC) of the or-
ganization runs completely from solar energy. The rest of the Fantsuam's
premises runs from NEPA or the generator via the battery bank, which pro-
vides uninterrupted voltage stability. The NOC load has been separated from
the rest of the load of Fantsuam to ensure a reliable power source to the
critical infrastructure in the NOC, even when the battery bank is running low
on power.

Figure 11.1: 24 solar panels with a nominal power of 80 W have been mounted to the
roof of the NOC to provide power to the system 24/7.

Simulations with the best existing solar data reveal that Kaduna State, where
Kafanchan is located, receives at least 4 sun peak hours during its worst
months which stretch from June to August (the rainy season).

Each of the solar panels (Suntech 80 W peak) provides a maximum current
of 5 A (when the solar radiation is highest during the day). In the worst
months of the year, the system is expected to produce not less than 6 KWh/
day.


The solar system has been designed to provide 12 and 24 V DC output in
order to match the input voltage of all low power servers and workstations for
NOC infrastructure and training classrooms.

The solar panels used are Suntech STP080S-12/Bb-1 with the following
speciﬁcations:

• Open-circuit Voltage (VOC): 21.6 V

• Optimum operating voltage (VMP): 17.2 V

• Short-circuit current (ISC): 5 A

• Optimum operating current (IMP): 4.65 A

• Maximum power at STC (PMAX): 80 W (Peak)

The minimum 6 KWh/day that feeds the NOC is used to power the following
equipment:

Device Hours/Day Units Power (W) Wh

Access points 24 3 15 1080

Low power servers 24 4 10 960

LCD screens 2 4 20 160

Laptops 10 2 75 1500

Lamps 8 4 15 480

VSAT modem 24 1 60 1440

Total 5620

The power consumption for servers and LCD screens is based on Inveneo's
Low Power Computing Station, http://www.inveneo.org/?q=Computingstation.

The total estimated power consumption of the NOC is 5.6 kWh/day which is
less than the daily power generated from the solar panels in the worst month.


Figure 11.2: The NOC is built by locally made laterite brick stones, produced and laid
by youths in Kafanchan.

Network Operating Center (NOC)
A new Network Operating Center was established to host the power backup sys-
tem and server room facilities. The NOC was designed to provide a place safe
from dust, with good cooling capabilities for the batteries and the inverters. The
NOC uses natural methods and is made from locally available materials.

The building is comprised of four rooms: a battery storage room, a server
room, a working space and a room for equipment storage.

The battery storage room hosts seventy 200 Ah deep cycle batteries, as well
as ﬁve inverters (one of them pure sine wave), two solar regulators, power
stabilizers and DC and AC disconnects. The batteries are stacked vertically
on a metal shelf structure for better cooling.

The server space accommodates a rack unit for servers and a fan. The room
has no regular windows, to avoid dust and overheating. The server room and
battery room face south to improve natural cooling and to help keep the room
at an appropriate temperature.


The server room and the battery space require effective low cost/low energy
cooling as they need to operate 24x7. To achieve this goal, natural cooling
techniques have been introduced in the NOC design: small fans and extrac-
tors and thick walls of bricks (double width) in the direction of the sunset.

The south side of the building hosts 24 solar panels in a shadow-free area on
its metal roof. The roof was designed with an inclination of 20 degrees to
host the panels and limit corrosion and dust. Extra efforts have been made to
keep the panels easily reachable for cleaning and maintenance. The roof has
also been strengthened in order to carry the extra load of 150-200 kg.

The NOC building is constructed of locally produced laterite mud bricks. The
material is cheap since it is frequently used and comes from the top layer of
soil. The bricks are produced locally by hand using a low-tech pressing tech-
nique. The NOC is unique for its kind in Kaduna State.

Figure 11.3: Omolayo Samuel, one of the staff of Zittnet, does not fear the height of
the 45m tall tower as she is aligning the antennas hosted in the top of the tower.

Physical infrastructure: A communication mast
Most potential clients to Zittnet are located between 1 km and 10 km from the
premises of Fantsuam. In order to reach these clients, Fantsuam established a
communication mast on their premises. In October 2006, a 45m (150 foot) tall self-


standing mast was installed at Fantsuam Foundation. The mast was equipped
with grounding and lighting protection as well as a mandatory signal light.

A metal ring was buried at the base of the tower at a depth of 4 feet. All three
legs of the mast were then connected to the grounding circuit. A lightning rod
was mounted at the highest point of the mast to protect the equipment
against lighting strikes. The rod is made of pure copper and is connected to
the earth ring at the base of the mast using copper tape.

The signal light mounted at the top of the mast is a requirement from the Civil
Aviation Authorities. The light is equipped with a photocell which enables
automated switching based on the level of ambient light. In this way, the light
comes on at night and goes off during the day.

Wireless backbone infrastructure
The wireless backbone infrastructure is built using SmartBridges multi-band
access points and client units from the Nexus PRO™ TOTAL series. The
units are designed for service providers and enterprises to establish high
performance point-to-multipoint outdoor wireless links. They come with an
integrated multi-band sectoral antenna that can operate both in 2.4 GHz and
5.1-5.8 GHz frequencies. The Nexus PRO™ TOTAL series offers QoS for
trafﬁc prioritization and bandwidth management per client using the IEEE
802.11e compliant WMM (WiFi Multimedia) extensions.

Figure 11.4: The network topology of Zittnet in October 2007.


Currently, the topology of the network is a star topology with two access
points in the communication mast at Fantsuam's premises. One access point
hosts a 90 degree sectoral antenna (blue dotted lines) and the other access
point provides omnidirectional coverage to the surroundings (red dotted
rings). Clients that are located within the area between the dotted lines are
connected to the sectoral antenna, while the remaining clients are connected
to the omnidirectional antenna.

Plans are underway to expand the wireless backbone by setting up two wire-
less repeaters. One repeater will be located in Kafanchan city using an exist-
ing NITEL tower to enhance the wireless coverage in the city center. The
second repeater will be established in the Kagoro Hills, a small mountain
group with a relative altitude to Kafanchan of about 500m, which is located
about 7 km from Kafanchan. This repeater will provide coverage to many
surrounding towns and may even enable a long-distance link to Abuja.

Zittnet connected its ﬁrst client in early August 2007. Two months later, no
less than eight clients are connected to Zittnet. These clients include:

• The general hospital
• New Era Hospital
• Jagindi Street Clinic (health clinic)
• Zenith Bank (for private use)
• Isaiah Balat (Internet café)
• New World Hotel
• Throne Room GuestHouse
• Fulke

Problems encountered
A few problem areas that have been constantly present throughout the pro-
ject are as follows.

Low buildings
Most client premises are single-story buildings with a height of no more than
3 meters. Many houses have very weak roof structures which makes it im-
possible to mount equipment on the roof, as physical access is not possible.
The low buildings force us to mount the equipment at a fairly low height, as
clients can not afford to invest in small (10 m) masts to host the equipment.
Most installations make use of water tanks or a simple 3 meter metal pole
attached to the wall of the premise.


When the equipment is mounted low, the first Fresnel zone is not cleared and
lower throughput is experienced. Although the landscape in Kafanchan is very
flat, vegetation in the form of thick mango trees easily block the line-of-sight.

Lightning strikes
Heavy thunder storms are frequent during the rainy season in Kafanchan. In
September 2007, a nearby lightning strike damaged equipment mounted on
a mast, as well as its power supply. At the moment, the access point and its
PoE injector are grounded to the tower itself. Further means need to be in-
vestigated to prevent damage to equipment caused by nearby lightning. The
Zittnet team is currently working on improving the surge protection by adding
extra coaxial surge arrestors. Furthermore, the shield of the UTP cable con-
necting the access point with the NOC will be grounded using grounding
blocks and fasteners.

Low Quality Equipment
Unfortunately, a lack of quality products on the market is a widespread prob-
lem across the whole African continent. As most sub-Sahara countries lack
policies for quality assurance of imported goods, the market is flooded by
"cheap" and very low quality articles. Since quality products are hard to find,
you often find yourself buying locally available merchandise that breaks even
before it is put into operation. As no sort of warranty exists for these minor
purchases, this ends up being very expensive. This problem is almost always
present in common accessories such as power sockets, power bars, RJ45
connectors, CAT5 cabling, and other low-tech equipment.

Business Model
The only alternative for Internet access in Kafanchan is via satellite. During
2006, Fantsuam had a subscription of 128/64 kbps dedicated bandwidth at a
cost of $1800 USD/month. This huge monthly cost of connectivity has been a
big burden for Fantsuam and a constant stress of being unable to meet the
monthly bill.

As an alternative to the high risk "flat fee" model, Fantsuam has implemented
a system called HookMeUP provided by Koochi Communications. The sys-
tem offers flexible Pay-As-You-Go charges over broadband VSAT Internet
connections to countries across sub-Sahara Africa.

This kind of access model is typically found in airports, hotels or large shop-
ping malls in western countries where end-users buy vouchers online and log
in using an access code.


The HookMeUP system offers a 512/256 kbps dedicated VSAT connection to
Fantsuam (from their ground station in the UK). Fantsuam buys vouchers
from Koochi Communications and resells them to its local clients in Kafan-
chan. In this way, Fantsuam is no longer stuck with a fixed monthly cost but
has only to pay Koochi for the bandwidth they actually have consumed. The
risk of buying expensive international bandwidth has now been transferred to
the Internet provider instead of the end user, at a cost of a higher price for
the end user.

Fantsuam foundation now acts as a reseller of vouchers from Koochi and a
supplier of wireless infrastructure to the end users. The Wireless Community
Network now provides the Fantsuam Foundation with five sources of income:

1. Installation of client premises equipment (one occasion per client)
2. Leasing of wireless equipment (monthly cost per client)
3. Reselling wireless equipment (one occasion per client)
4. Installation of wireless hotspot at client's premise (one occasion per client)
5. Reselling of vouchers (continuously)

The voucher system is based on three parameters: access time, data limit
and validity time. Whichever parameter runs out first will consume the
voucher.

Access Data limit Validity Price USD / h USD /
time (MB) time (USD) 700 MB

30 min 5 1 day 0.80 1.60 112.00

60 min 10 5 days 1.28 1.28 89.60

12 hours 60 14 days 10.40 0.87 121.33

24 hours 150 30 days 26.00 1.08 121.33

1 month 500 1 month 71.50 0.10 100.10

3 months 1600 3 months 208.00 0.10 91.00

6 months 3500 6 months 416.00 0.10 83.20

12 months 7500 12 months 728.00 0.08 67.95


The greatest advantage of this system is that Fantsuam Foundation no
longer has the burden of a huge monthly bill for international bandwidth. Hav-
ing a flat-fee model means that you are forced to sell a certain amount of
bandwidth every month. With the Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG) model, Fantsuam's
income from reselling vouchers depends on how much bandwidth their cli-
ents consume. The client pays in advance (pre-paid model) with the result
that Fantsuam will never end up in huge debt with the provider.

The pre-paid model works well in Africa since people are familiar with this
model from mobile operators. It is even used by electricity companies in
some counties. The pre-paid model is appreciated by many as it helps them
to keep track of their expenditures. One of the main limitations of the PAYG
model is the lack of flexibility and transparency. The current PAYG system
provides very little feedback to the user about consumed time or volume.
Only when the user logs off will he/she be informed about how many minutes
are left to spend.

However, the business model seems to fit the local reality of Kafanchan and
many other rural communities in Africa quite well. Although there is room for
improvement, the advantage of avoiding debts is far greater than the disad-
vantages. With time, when the number of clients have increased and they
can rely on a substantial monthly income from the wireless network, it might
be beneficial to go back to the flat-fee model again.

Clients
The clients are free to use the Internet access for any purpose. For example,
Isaiah Balat is reselling vouchers (that he bought from Fantsuam) to his cli-
ents. His Internet café hosts 10 computers that all are connected to Zittnet.
The clients purchase vouchers from the owner with a margin of 25% over the
price offered by Fantsuam. In return, clients that do not have access to a
computer connected to Zittnet can access the network though the PC's at
Isaiah Balat's café.

The New World Hotel is another client that aims to create a similar business
model but on a larger scale. They will provide wireless Internet access to all
of their rooms and offer access to Zittnet's uplink by reselling vouchers.

Other clients, like the General Hospital and the Jagindi Street Clinic, are us-
ing the Internet access for professional and private use without reselling ac-
cess to its clients.

--Louise Berthilson


Case study: The quest for affordable
Internet in rural Mali
For several years the international development community has promoted
the idea of closing the digital divide. This invisible chasm that has formed
separating access to the wealth of information and communications tech-
nologies (ICT) between the developed and the developing world. Access to
information and communications tools has been shown to have a dramatic
impact on quality of life. For many donors fatigued by decades of supporting
traditional development activities, the installation of a telecentre in the devel-
oping world seems like a realizable and worthwhile effort. Because the infra-
structure does not exist, this is much more expensive and difficult to do in the
developing world than it is in the West. Moreover, few models have been
shown to sustain these activities. To help mitigate some of the cost of bring-
ing the Internet to rural areas of the developed world, the author's team has
promoted the use of wireless systems to share the cost of an Internet con-
nection. In November of 2004, an affiliated project asked the author's team to
pilot such a wireless system at a recently installed telecentre in rural Mali, 8
hours South-West by four-by-four from Bamako, the capital.

This rural city, located on the margin of a man-made reservoir, holds water
for the Manitali dam that powers a third of the country. This location is fortu-
nate as hydroelectric power is much more stable and available than diesel
generated power. While diesel generated power is far less stable, some rural
communities are lucky to have any electricity at all.

The city is also endowed to be in one of the most fertile regions of the coun-
try, in its cotton belt, Mali's main cash crop. It was believed that this site
would be the least difficult of the rural areas in Mali to make a self-sustaining
telecentre. Like many experiments, this pilot was fraught with challenges.

Technologically it was a simple task. In 24 hours the team installed an
802.11b wireless network that shares the telecenter's VSAT Internet connec-
tion with 5 other local services: the Mayor, the Governor, the health service,
the district's Mayor's council (CC) and the community advisory service
(CCC).

These clients had been selected during a reconnaissance two months prior.
During that visit the team had interviewed potential clients and determined
which clients could be connected without complicated or expensive installa-
tions. The telecentre itself is housed at the community radio station. Radio
stations tend to be great sites to host wireless networks in rural Mali as they
are often well placed, have electricity, security and people who understand at
least the basics of radio transmissions. They are also natural hubs for a vil-


lage. Providing Internet to a radio station provides better information to its
listeners. And for a culture which is principally oral, radio happens to be the
most effect means to provide information.

From the list of clients above, you will note that the clients were all govern-
ment or para-governmental. This proved to be a difficult mix, as there is con-
siderable animosity and resentment between the various levels of govern-
ment, and there were continuing disputes regarding taxes and other fiscal
matters. Fortunately the director of the radio station, the network's champion,
was very dynamic and was able to wade through most of these politics,
though not all.

Design choices
The technical team determined that the access point would be installed at 20
meters up the radio station tower, just below the FM radio dipoles, and not so
high as to interfere with coverage to client sites below in the bowl-like de-
pression where most were found. The team then focused on how to connect
each client site to this site. An 8 dBi omni (from Hyperlinktech,
http://hyperlinktech.com/) would suffice, providing coverage to all client
sites. The 8 dBi antenna that was chosen has a 15 degree vertical beam-
width, assuring that the two clients less than a kilometer away could still re-
ceive a strong signal. Some antennae have very narrow beam width and thus
"overshoot" sites that are close. Panel antennae were considered, though at
least two would be required and either a second radio or a channel splitter. It
was deemed unnecessary for this installation. The following calculation
shows how to calculate the angle between the client site's antenna and the
base station's antenna, using standard trigonometry.

tan(x) = difference in elevation
+ height of base station antenna
- height of CPE antenna
/ distance between the sites

tan(x) = 5m + 20m - 3m / 400m
x = tan-1 (22m / 400m)
x =~ 3 degrees

In addition to the equipment in the telecentre (4 computers, a laser printer, 16
port switch), the radio station itself has one Linux workstation installed by the
author's project for audio editing. A small switch was installed in the radio
station, an Ethernet cable was run through plastic tubing buried at 5 cm
across to the telecentre, across the yard.

From the main switch, two cables run up to a Mikrotik RB220, access point.
The RB220 has two Ethernet ports, one that connects to the VSAT through a
cross-over cable, and the second that connects to the radio station's central


switch. The RB 220 is housed in a D-I-Y PVC enclosure and an 8 dBi omni
(Hyperlink Technologies) is mounted directly to the top of the PVC cap.

The RB220 runs a derivative of Linux, Mikrotik version 2.8.27. It controls the
network, providing DHCP, firewall, and DNS-caching services, while routing
traffic to the VSAT using NAT. The Mikrotik comes with a powerful command
line and a relatively friendly and comprehensive graphical interface. It is a
small x86 based computer, designed for use as an access point or embed-
ded computer. These access points are POE capable, have two Ethernet
ports, a mini-pci port, two PCMCIA slots, a CF reader (which is used for its
NVRAM), are temperature tolerant and support a variety of x86 operating
systems. Despite that the Mikrotik software requires licensing, there was al-
ready a substantial user base in Mali. The system has a powerful and friendly
graphical interface that was superior to other products. Due to the above fac-
tors the team agreed to use these systems, including the Mikrotik software to
control these networks. The total cost of the RB220, with License Level 5,
Atheros mini-pci a/b/g and POE was $461. You can find these parts at Mik-
rotik online at http://www.mikrotik.com/routers.php#linx1part0.

The network was designed to accommodate expansion by segregating the
various sub-networks of each client; 24 bit private subnets were alloted. The
AP has a virtual interface on each subnet and does all routing between, also
allowing fire-walling at the IP layer. Note: this does not provide a firewall at
the network layer, thus, using a network sniffer like tcpdump one can see all
traffic on the wireless link.

To limit access to subscribers, the network uses MAC level access control.
There was little perceived security risk to the network. For this first phase, a
more thorough security system was left to be implemented in the future, when
time could be found to find an easier interface for controlling access. Users
were encouraged to use secure protocols, such as https, pops, imaps etc.

The affiliate project had installed a C-band VSAT (DVB-S) system. These
satellite systems are normally very reliable and are often used by ISPs. It is a
large unit, in this case the dish was 2.2 meters in diameter and expensive,
costing approximately $12,000 including installation. It is also expensive to
operate. A 128 kbps down and 64 kbps up Internet connection costs ap-
proximately $700 per month. This system has several advantages compared
to a Ku system though, including: greater resilience to bad weather, lower
contention rates (number of competing users on the same service) and it is
more efficient at transferring data.

The installation of this VSAT was not ideal. Since the system ran Windows,
users were able to quickly change a few settings, including adding a pass-
word to the default account. The system had no UPS or battery back up, so
once a power outage occurred the system would reboot and sit waiting for a


password, which had since been forgotten. To make this situation worse,
because the VSAT software was not configured as an automatic background
service it did not automatically launch and establish the link. Though the C-
band systems are typically reliable, this installation caused needless outages
which could have been resolved with the use of a UPS, proper configuration
of the VSAT software as a service, and by limiting physical access to the
modem. Like all owners of new equipment, the radio station wanted to dis-
play it, hence it was not hidden from view. Preferably a space with glass
doors would have kept the unit secure while keeping it visible.

The wireless system was fairly simple. All of the client sites selected were
within 2 km of the radio station. Each site had a part of the building that could
physically see the radio station. At the client site, the team chose to use
commercial, client grade CPEs: Based on price, the Powernoc 802.11b CPE
bridge, small SuperPass 7 dBi patch antennas and home-made Power Over
Ethernet (POE) adaptors. To facilitate installation, the CPE and the patch
antenna were mounted on a small piece of wood that could be installed on
the outside wall of the building facing the radio station.

In some cases the piece of wood was an angled block to optimize the posi-
tion of the antenna. Inside, a POE made from a repurposed television signal
amplifier (12V) was used to power the units. At the client sites there were not
local networks, so the team also had to install cable and hubs to provide
Internet for each computer. In some cases it was necessary to install Ether-
net adapters and their drivers (this was not determined during the assess-
ment). It was decided that because the client's networks were simple, that it
would be easiest to bridge their networks. Should it be required, the IP archi-
tecture could allow future partitioning and the CPE equipment supported STA
mode. We used a PowerNOC CPE bridge that cost $249.

Local staff were involved during the installation of the wireless network.
They learned everything from wiring to antenna placement. An intensive
training program followed the installation. It lasted several weeks, and was
meant to teach the staff the day to day tasks, as well as basic network
troubleshooting.

A young university graduate who had returned to the community was chosen
to support the system, except for the cable installation, which the radio sta-
tion technician quickly learned. Wiring Ethernet networks is very similar to
coaxial cable repairs and installations which the radio technician already per-
formed regularly. The young graduate also required little training. The team
spent most of its time helping him learn how to support the basics of the sys-
tem and the telecentre. Soon after the telecentre opened, students were
lined up for the computer training, which offered 20 hours of training and
Internet use per month for only $40, a bargain compared to the $2 an hour


for Internet access. Providing this training was a significant revenue and was
a task that the young computer savvy graduate was well suited for.

Unfortunately, and somewhat unsurprisingly, the young graduate left for the
capital, Bamako, after receiving an offer for a government job. This left the
telecentre effectively marooned. Their most technically savvy member, and
the only one who was trained in how to support the system, had left. Most of
the knowledge needed to operate the telecentre and network left with him.
After much deliberation, the team determined that it was best not to train an-
other tech savvy youth, but rather to focus on the permanent local staff, de-
spite their limited technical experience. This took much more time. Our train-
ers have had to return for a total of 150 hours of training. Several people
were taught each function, and the telecentre support tasks were divided
among the staff.

Training did not stop there. Once the community services were connected,
they too needed access. It seemed that although they were participating,
the principals, including the mayor, were not using the systems themselves.
The team realized the importance of assuring that the decision makers
used the system, and provided training for them and their staff. This did
remove some of the mystique of the network and got the city's decision
makers involved.

Following training, the program monitored the site and began to provide in-
put, evaluating ways that this model could be improved. Lessons learned
here were applied to other sites.

Financial Model
The community telecentre was already established as a non-profit, and was
mandated to be self-sustaining through the sale of its services. The wireless
system was included as a supplementary source of revenue because early
financial projections for the telecentre indicated that they would fall short of
paying for the VSAT connection.

Based on the survey, and in consultation with the radio station that manages
the telecentre, several clients were selected. The radio station negotiated
contracts with some support from its funding partner. For this first phase, cli-
ents were selected based on ease of installation and expressed ability to pay.
Clients were asked to pay a subscription fee, as described later.

Deciding how much to charge was a major activity which required consultation
and expertise that the community did not have in financial projections. The
equipment was paid for by the grant, to help offset the costs to the community,
but clients were still required to pay a subscription fee, which served to as-
sure their commitment. This was equivalent to one month of the service fee.


To determine the monthly cost for an equal slice of bandwidth we started with
the following formula:

VSAT + salaries + expenses (electricity, supplies) =
telecentre revenue + wireless client revenue

We had estimated that the telecentre should earn about $200 to $300 per
month in revenue. Total expenses were estimated to be $1050 per month,
and were broken down as: $700 for the VSAT, $100 for salaries, $150 for
electricity, and about $100 for supplies. About $750 in revenue from the wire-
less clients was required to balance this equation. This amounted to roughly
$150 from each client. This was just tolerable by the clients, and looked fea-
sible, but required fair weather, and had no room for complications.

Because this was becoming complicated, we brought in business geeks, who
modified the formula as such:

Monthly expenses + amortization + safety funds = total
revenue

The business experts were quick to point out the need of amortization of the
equipment, or one could say "re-investment funds" as well as safety funds, to
assure that the network can continue if a client defaults, or if some equip-
ment breaks. This added about $150 per month for amortization (equipment
valued at about $3,000, amortized over 24 months) and the value of one cli-
ent for default payments, at $100. Add another 10% to account for currency
devaluation ($80), and that equals an expense of $1380 per month. In trying
to implement this model, it was finally determined that amortization is a con-
cept that was too difficult to convey to the community, and that they would
not consider that clients might default on payment. Thus, both formulae were
used, the first by the telecentre and the second for our internal analysis.

As was soon discovered, regular payments are not part of the culture in rural
Mali. In an agrarian society everything is seasonal, and so too is income.
This means that the community's income fluctuates wildly. Moreover, as
many public institutions were involved, they had long budget cycles with little
flexibility. Although they theoretically had the budget to pay for their service, it
would take many months for the payments to be made. Other fiscal compli-
cations arose as well. For example, the mayor signed on and used the back-
taxes owed by the radio to pay for its subscription. This of course did not
contribute to cash flow. Unfortunately, the VSAT providers have little flexibil-
ity or patience, as they have limited bandwidth and only have room for those
that can pay.

Cash flow management became a primary concern. First, the revenue fore-
seen in financial projections showed that even with an optimistic outlook,
they would not only have trouble earning enough revenue on time to pay the


fee, but getting the money to the Bamako-based bank also presented a prob-
lem. Roads near the village can be dangerous, due to the number of smug-
glers from Guinea and wayward rebels from the Ivory Coast. As projected,
the telecentre was not able to pay for its service and its service was sus-
pended, thereby suspending payment from their clients as well.

Before the project was able to find solutions to these problems, the cost of
the VSAT already began to dig the telecentre into debt. After several months,
due to technical problems, as well as concerns raised in this analysis, the
large C-band VSAT was replaced with a cheaper Ku band system. Although
cheaper, it still sufficed for the size of the network. This system was only
$450, which by ignoring amortization and safety margins is affordable by the
network. Unfortunately, due to default payments, the network was not able to
pay for the VSAT connection after the initial subsidized period.

Conclusions
Building a wireless network is relatively easy, but making it work is much
more of a business problem than a technical problem. A payment model that
considers re-investment and risk is a necessity, or eventually the network will
fail. In this case, the payment model was not appropriate as it did not con-
form to fiscal cycles of the clients, nor did it conform to social expectations. A
proper risk analysis would have concluded that a $700 (or even a $450)
monthly payment left too narrow a margin between revenue and expenses to
compensate for fiscal shortcomings. High demand and education needs lim-
ited the expansion of the network.

Following training the network operated for 8 months without significant techni-
cal problems. Then, a major power surge caused by a lightning strike de-
stroyed much of the equipment at the station, including the access point and
VSAT. As a result, the telecentre was still off-line at the time that this book was
written. By that time this formula was finally deemed an unsuitable solution.

Ian Howard

Case study: Commercial deployments in
East Africa
Describing commercial wireless deployments in Tanzania and Kenya, this
chapter highlights technical solutions providing solid, 99.5% availability Inter-
net and data connectivity in developing countries. In contrast to projects de-
voted to ubiquitous access, we focused on delivering services to organiza-
tions, typically those with critical international communications needs. I will


describe two radically different commercial approaches to wireless data con-
nectivity, summarizing key lessons learned over ten years in East Africa.

Tanzania
In 1995, with Bill Sangiwa, I founded CyberTwiga, one of the first ISPs in Af-
rica. Commercial services, limited to dialup email traffic carried over a
9.6 kbps SITA link (costing over $4000/month!), began in mid-1996. Frus-
trated by erratic PSTN services, and buoyed by a successful deployment of a
3-node point-multipoint (PMP) network for the Tanzania Harbours authority,
we negotiated with a local cellular company to place a PMP base station on
their central mast. Connecting a handful of corporations to this WiLan pro-
prietary 2.4 GHz system in late 1998, we validated the market and our tech-
nical capacity to provide wireless services.

As competitors haphazardly deployed 2.4 GHz networks, two facts emerged:
a healthy market for wireless services existed, but a rising RF noise floor in
2.4 GHz would diminish network quality. Our merger with the cellular carrier,
in mid-2000, included plans for a nationwide wireless network built on the
existing cellular infrastructure (towers and transmission links) and proprietary
RF spectrum allocations.

Infrastructure was in place (cellular towers, transmission links, etc.) so wire-
less data network design and deployment were straightforward. Dar es Sa-
laam is very flat, and because the cellular partner operated an analog net-
work, towers were very tall. A sister company in the UK, Tele2, had com-
menced operations with Breezecom (now Alvarion) equipment in
3.8/3.9 GHz, so we followed their lead.

By late 2000, we had established coverage in several cities, using fractional
E1 transmission circuits for backhaul. In most cases the small size of the
cities connected justified the use of a single omnidirectional PMP base sta-
tion; only in the commercial capital, Dar es Salaam, were 3-sector base sta-
tions installed. Bandwidth limits were configured directly on the customer
radio; clients were normally issued a single public IP address. Leaf routers
at each base station sent traffic to static IP addresses at client locations, and
prevented broadcast traffic from suffocating the network. Market pressures
kept prices down to about $100/month for 64 kbps, but at that time (mid/late
2000) ISPs could operate with impressive, very profitable, contention ratios.
Hungry applications such as peer-peer file sharing, voice, and ERPs simply
did not exist in East Africa. With grossly high PSTN international charges,
organizations rapidly shifted from fax to email traffic, even though their wire-
less equipment purchase costs ranged from $2000-3000.

Technical capabilities were developed in-house, requiring staff training over-
seas in subjects such as SNMP and UNIX. Beyond enhancing the company


skills set, these training opportunities generated staff loyalty. We had to com-
pete in a very limited IT labor market with international gold mining compa-
nies, the UN, and other international agencies.

To insure quality at customer sites, a top local radio and telecoms contractor
executed installations, tightly tracking progress with job cards. High tempera-
tures, harsh equatorial sunlight, drenching rain, and lightning were among
the environmental insults tossed at outside plant components; RF cabling
integrity was vital.

Customers often lacked competent IT staff, burdening our employees with
the task of configuring many species of network hardware and topology.

Infrastructure and regulatory obstacles often impeded operations. The cellu-
lar company tightly controlled towers, so that if there was a technical issue at
a base station hours or days could pass before we gained access. Despite
backup generators and UPS systems at every site, electrical power was al-
ways problematic. For the cellular company, electrical mains supplies at
base stations were less critical. Cellular subscribers simply associated with a
different base station; our fixed wireless data subscribers went offline.

On the regulatory side, a major disruption occurred when the telecoms
authority decided that our operation was responsible for disrupting C-band
satellite operations for the entire country and ordered us to shut down our
network.

Despite hard data demonstrating that we were not at fault, the regulator con-
ducted a highly publicized seizure of our equipment. Of course the interfer-
ence persisted, and later was determined to emanate from a Russian radar
ship, involved in tracking space activities. We quietly negotiated with the
regulator, and ultimately were rewarded with 2 x 42 MHz of proprietary spec-
trum in the 3.4/3.5 GHz bands. Customers were switched over to dialup in
the month or so it took to reconfigure base stations and install new CPE.

Ultimately the network grew to about 100 nodes providing good, although not
great, connectivity to 7 cities over 3000+km of transmission links. Only the
merger with the cellular operator made this network feasible—the scale of
the Internet/data business alone would not have justified building a data net-
work of these dimensions and making the investments needed for proprietary
frequencies. Unfortunately, the cellular operator took the decision to close
the Internet business in mid-2002.

Nairobi
In early 2003 I was approached by a Kenyan company, AccessKenya, with
strong UK business and technical backup to design and deploy a wireless


network in Nairobi and environs. Benefiting from superb networking and
business professionals, improved wireless hardware, progress in internet-
working, and bigger market we designed a high availability network in line
with regulatory constraints.

Two regulatory factors drove our network design. At the time in Kenya, Inter-
net services were licensed separately from public data network operators,
and a single company could not hold both licenses. Carrying traffic of multi-
ple, competing ISPs or corporate users, the network had to operate with total
neutrality. Also, “proprietary” frequencies, namely 3.4/3.5 GHz, were not ex-
clusively licensed to a single provider, and we were concerned about inter-
ference and the technical ability/political will of the regulator to enforce. Also,
spectrum in 3.4/3.5 GHz was expensive, costing about USD1000 per MHz
per year per base station. Restated, a base station using 2 x 12 MHz at-
tracted license fees of over $10,000 year. Since Nairobi is a hilly place with
lots of tall trees and valleys, wireless broadband networks demanded many
base stations. The licensing overheads simply were not sensible. In con-
trast, 5.7/5.8 GHz frequencies were subject only to an annual fee, about USD
120, per deployed radio.

To meet the first regulatory requirement we chose to provide services using
point-point VPN tunnels, not via a network of static IP routes. An ISP would
deliver a public IP address to our network at their NOC. Our network con-
ducted a public-private IP conversion, and traffic transited our network in pri-
vate IP space. At the customer site, a private-public IP conversion delivered
the globally routable address (or range) to the customer network.

Security and encryption added to network neutrality, and flexibility, as unique
sales properties of our network. Bandwidth was limited at the VPN tunnel
level. Based on the operating experience of our sister UK company, Virtu-
alIT, we selected Netscreen (now subsumed under Juniper Networks) as the
vendor for VPN firewall routers.

Our criteria for wireless broadband equipment eliminated big pipes and
feature-rich, high performance gear. Form factor, reliability, and ease of in-
stallation and management were more important than throughput. All inter-
national Internet connections to Kenya in 2003, and at this writing, are car-
ried by satellite. With costs 100X greater than global fiber, satellite connec-
tivity put a financial ceiling on the amount of bandwidth purchased by end-
users. We judged that the bulk of our user population required capacity on
the order of 128 to 256 kbps. We selected Motorola s recently introduced
Canopy platform in line with our business and network model.

Broadband Access, Ltd., went live in July 2003, launching the “Blue” network.
We started small, with a single base station. We wanted demand to drive our


network expansion, rather than relying on a strategy of building big pipes and
hoping we could fill them.

Canopy, and third-party enhancements such as omnidirectional base sta-
tions, permitted us to grow our network as traffic grew, softening initial capi-
tal expenditures. We knew the tradeoff was that as the network expanded,
we would have to sectorize traffic and realign client radios. The gentle learn-
ing curve of a small network paid big dividends later. Technical staff became
comfortable with customer support issues in a simple network environment,
rather than have to deal with them on top of a complex RF and logical
framework. Technical staff attended two-day Motorola training sessions.

A typical PMP design, with base stations linked to a central facility via a Can-
opy high-speed microwave backbone, the network was deployed on building
rooftops, not antenna towers. All leases stipulated 24x7 access for staff,
mains power and, critically, protected the exclusivity of our radio frequencies.
We did not want to restrict landlords from offering roof space to competitors,
rather to simply guarantee that our own services would not be interrupted.

Rooftop deployments provided many advantages. Unlimited physical ac-
cess, unconstrained by night or rain, helped meet the goal of 99.5% network
availability. Big buildings also housed many big clients, and it was possible
to connect them directly into our core microwave network. Rooftop sites did
have the downside of more human traffic—workers maintaining equipment
(a/c) or patching leaks would occasionally damage cabling. As a result all
base stations were set up with two sets of cabling for all network elements, a
primary and a spare.

Site surveys confirmed radio path availability and client requirements. Sur-
vey staff logged GPS positions for each client, and carried a laser range-
finder to determine height of obstacles. Following receipt of payment for
hardware, contractors under the supervision of a technical staffer performed
installations. Canopy has the advantage that the CPE and base station ele-
ments are light, so that most installations do not need extensive civil works or
guying. Cabling Canopy units was also simple, with outdoor UTP connecting
radios directly to customer networks. Proper planning enabled completion of
many installations in less than an hour, and contractor crews did not need
any advanced training or tools.

As we compiled hundreds of customer GPS positions we began to work
closely with a local survey company to overlay these sites on topographical
maps. These became a key planning tool for base station placement.

Note that the point-point VPN tunnel architecture, with its separate physical
and logical layers, required clients to purchase both wireless broadband and
VPN hardware. In order to tightly control quality, we categorically refused to


permit clients to supply their own hardware—they had to buy from us in order
to have service and hardware guarantees. Every client had the same hard-
ware package. Typical installations cost on the order of USD 2500, but that
compares to the $500-600 monthly charges for 64 to 128 kbps of bandwidth.
A benefit of the VPN tunnel approach was that we could prevent a client s
traffic from passing over the logical network (i.e. if their network was hit by a
worm or if they didn t pay a bill) while the radio layer remained intact and
manageable.

As it grew from one base station to ten, and service was expanded to Mom-
basa, the network RF design evolved and wherever possible network ele-
ments (routers) were configured with fallover or hot swap redundancy. Major
investments in inverters and dual conversion UPS equipment at each base
station were required to keep the network stable in the face of an erratic
power grid. After a number of customer issues (dropped VPN connections)
were ascribed to power blackouts, we simply included a small UPS as part of
the equipment package.

Adding a portable spectrum analyzer to our initial capital investment was
costly, but hugely justified as we operated the network. Tracing rogue opera-
tors, confirming the operating characteristics of equipment, and verifying RF
coverage enhanced our performance.

Fanatical attention to monitoring permitted us to uptweak network perform-
ance, and gather valuable historical data. Graphed via MRTG or Cacti (as
described in chapter six), parameters such as jitter, RSSI, and traffic warned
of rogue operators, potential deterioration of cable/connectors, and presence
of worms in client networks. It was not uncommon for clients to claim that
service to their site had been interrupted for hours/days and demand a credit.
Historical monitoring verified or invalidated these claims.

The Blue network combined a number of lessons from Tanzania with im-
proved RF and networking technologies.

Lessons learned
For the next few years satellite circuits will provide all international Internet
connectivity in East Africa. Several groups have floated proposals for sub-
marine fiber connectivity, which will energize telecommunications when it
happens. Compared to regions with fiber connectivity, bandwidth costs in
East Africa will remain very high.

Wireless broadband networks for delivery of Internet services therefore do
not need to focus on throughput. Instead, emphasis should be placed on
reliability, redundancy, and flexibility.


Reliability for our wireless networks was our key selling point. On the net-
work side this translated into sizable investments in infrastructure substitu-
tion, such as backup power, and attention to details such as crimping and
cabling. The most ordinary reasons for a single customer to lose connectivity
were cabling or crimping issues. Radio failures were essentially unheard of.
A key competitive advantage of our customer installation process is that we
pushed contractors to adhere to tight specifications. It was common for well-
managed customer sites to remain connected for hundreds of days with zero
unscheduled downtime. We controlled as much of our infrastructure as pos-
sible (i.e building rooftops).

As attractive as potential alliances with cellular providers seem, in our experi-
ence they raise more problems than they solve. In East Africa, Internet busi-
nesses generate a fraction of the revenue of mobile telephony, and so are mar-
ginal to the cellular companies. Trying to run a network on top of infrastructure
that doesn t belong to you and is, from the point of view of the cellular provider,
a goodwill gesture, will make it impossible to meet service commitments.

Implementing fully redundant networks, with fail-over or hotswap capability is
an expensive proposition in Africa. Nonetheless the core routers and VPN
hardware at our central point of presence were fully redundant, configured for
seamless fail-over, and routinely tested. For base stations we took the deci-
sion not to install dual routers, but kept spare routers in stock. We judged
that the 2-3 hours of downtime in the worst case (failure at 1AM Sunday
morning in the rain) would be acceptable to clients. Similarly weekend staff
members had access to an emergency cupboard containing spare customer
premises equipment, such as radios and power supplies.

Flexibility was engineered into both the logical and RF designs of the net-
work. The point-to-point VPN tunnel architecture rolled out in Nairobi was
extraordinarily flexible in service of client or network needs. Client connec-
tions could be set to burst during off-peak hours to enable offsite backup, as
a single example. We could also sell multiple links to separate destinations,
increasing the return on our network investments while opening up new serv-
ices (such remote monitoring of CCTV cameras) to clients.

On the RF side we had enough spectrum to plan for expansion, as well as
cook up an alternative radio network design in case of interference. With the
growing number of base stations, probably 80% of our customer sites had
two possible base station radios in sight so that if a base station were de-
stroyed we could restore service rapidly.

Separating the logical and RF layers of the Blue network introduced an addi-
tional level of complexity and cost. Consider the long-term reality that radio
technologies will advance more rapidly than internetworking techniques.
Separating the networks, in theory, gives us the flexibility to replace the exist-


ing RF network without upsetting the logical network. Or we may install a
different radio network in line with evolving technologies (Wimax) or client
needs, while maintaining the logical network.

Finally, one must surrender to the obvious point that the exquisite networks
we deployed would be utterly useless without unrelenting commitment to
customer service. That is, after all, what we got paid for.

More information
• Broadband Access, Ltd.: http://www.blue.co.ke/
• AccessKenya, Ltd.: http://www.accesskenya.com/
• VirtualIT: http://www.virtualit.biz/

--Adam Messer, Ph.D

Case study: Dharamsala Community
Wireless Mesh Network
The Dharamsala Wireless-Mesh Community Network came to life in Febru-
ary 2005, following the deregulation of WiFi for outdoor use in India. By the
end of February 2005, the mesh had already connected 8 campuses.

Extensive testing during February of 2005 showed that the hard mountainous
terrain is most suitable for mesh networking, as conventional point-to-
multipoint networks, cannot overcome the line-of-sight limitations presented
by the mountains. mesh topology also offered much larger area coverage,
while the “self healing” nature of mesh routing, proved to be essential in
places where electricity supply is very erratic at best.

The mesh backbone includes over 30 nodes, all sharing a single radio channel.
Broadband Internet services are provided to all mesh members. The total up-
stream Internet bandwidth available is 6 Mbps. There are over 2,000 computers
connected to the mesh, The broadband internet connection is putting the mesh
under great load. At present, the system seems to handle the load without any
increase in latency or packet-loss. It is clear that scalability will become an issue
if we continue to use a single radio channel. To solve this problem, new mesh
routers with multiple radio channel support are being developed and tested in
Dharamsala, with an emphasis on products that meet our technical require-
ments and our economically viable. The initial results are very promising.

The mesh network is based on recurring deployments of a hardware device,
which is designed and built locally – known as the Himalayan-Mesh-Router


(http://drupal.airjaldi.com/node/9). The same mesh-routers are installed at
every location, with only different antennas, depending on the geographical
locations and needs. We use a wide range of antennas, from 8 - 11 dBi om-
nidirectional, to 12 - 24 dBi directional antennas and occasionally some high-
gain (and cost) sector antennas.

The mesh is primarily used for:

• Internet access
• File-sharing applications
• Off-site backups
• Playback of high quality video from remote archives.

A central VoIP, software-based PBX is installed (Asterisk) and it provides ad-
vanced telephony services to members. The Asterisk PBX is also interfacing
the PSTN telephone network. However, due to legal issues it is presently
used only for incoming calls into the mesh. Subscribers use a large variety of
software-phones, as well as numerous ATAs (Analog Telephone Adaptors)
and full-featured IP phones.

Figure 11.5: Dharamsala installer working on a tower
The encrypted mesh back-bone does not allow access to roaming mobile
devices (notebooks and PDAs), so we have placed multiple 802.11b access-
points at many of the same locations where mesh-routers are installed. The
mesh provides the backbone infrastructure while these APs provide access
to mobile roaming devices, where needed.

Access to the mesh back-bone is only possible by mesh-routers. Simple
wireless clients lack the intelligence needed to “speak” the mesh routing pro-
tocols and strict access policies. The mesh channel is therefore encrypted
(WPA), and also “hidden” to prevent mobile devices from ﬁnding it or attempt-
ing to access it. Allowing access to the mesh only by mesh-routers allows for
strict access control policies and limitations to be enforced at the CPE (Client
Premises Equipment) which is a crucial element needed to achieve end-to-
end security, trafﬁc-shaping, and quality-of-service.


Power consumption of the mesh-Router is less than 4 Watts. This makes
them ideal for using with solar panels. Many of the Dharamsala Mesh routers
are powered solely by small solar panels. The use of solar power in combina-
tion with small antennas and low power routers is ideally suitable for disaster
areas, as it very likely to survive when all other communication infrastructure
is damaged.

--AirJaldi, http://airjaldi.com/

Case study: Networking Mérida State
The city of Mérida lies at the foot of the highest mountain in Venezuela, on
a plateau at about 1600 m. It is the capital of the state of Mérida, and home
to a two- centuries-old university, with some 35,000 students. The Univer-
sity of Los Andes (ULA) deployed the first academic computer network in
1989 which, despite economic limitations, has grown to encompass 26 km
of fiber optic cable over which both a TDM and an ATM (asynchronous
transfer mode) network are overlaid. In 2006, over the same fiber optic
cable, a 50 km Gigabit Ethernet network has been deployed.

Figure 11.6: Mérida is one of the three mountainous states of Venezuela, where the
Andes reach 5000 m.

Nevertheless, many places in the city and the surrounding villages are out of
reach of the ﬁber optic ring. The university operates a communication server
with telephone lines to provide remote access to its network, but local calls
are charged by the minute and many villages lack phone lines altogether.


For these reasons, efforts to develop wireless access to the university's
network, called RedULA, were undertaken from the very beginning. The
first attempts took advantage of the existing packet network operated by
radio amateurs. As early as 1987, amateurs had a gateway with an HF
(High Frequency) station working at 300 bps for contacts overseas, as
well as several VHF (Very High Frequency) stations linked at 1200 bps
that crisscrossed the country.

While the rugged mountains of the region are a big obstacle for laying cables
and building roads, they can be helpful in deploying a radio network. This
task is aided by the existence of a cable car system, reputedly the highest in
the world, which links the city to a 4765 m peak.

Figure 11.7: On its way to the peak, the cable car passes by an intermediate station
called La Aguada, which is 3450 m high and has an astounding view of the city of
Mérida and other villages at distances up to 50 km.

Packet radio
Local amateurs operate a packet radio network. Initially it worked at 1200
bps, using VHF amateur FM voice radios connected to a personal computer
by means of a terminal node controller (TNC). The TNC is the interface
between the analog radio and the digital signals handled by the PC.

The TNC keys the Push To Talk circuits in the radio to change from transmit
to receive, performs modulation/demodulation and the assembly/disassembly
of packets using a variation of the X.25 protocol known as AX.25. Gateways
between VHF and HF radios were built by attaching two modems to the
same TNC and computer. Typically, a gateway would connect the local VHF
packet network to stations overseas by means of HF stations that could span
thousands of kilometers, albeit at a speed of only 300 bps. A national packet


radio network was also built, which relayed on digipeaters (digital repeaters,
essentially a TNC connected to two radios with antennas pointing in different
directions), to extend the network from Mérida to Caracas by means of just
two such repeater stations. The digipeaters operated at 1200 bps and al-
lowed for the sharing of programs and some text files among amateurs.

Phil Karn, a radio amateur with a strong background in computer networks,
wrote the KA9Q program that implements TCP/IP over AX.25. Using this
program, named after the call sign of its developer, amateurs all over the
world were soon able to connect to the Internet using different kinds of ra-
dios. KA9Q keeps the functions of the TNC to a bare minimum, harnessing
the power of the attached PC for most processing functions. This approach
allows for much greater flexibility and easy upgrades. In Mérida, we were
soon able to upgrade our network to 9600 bps by use of more advanced mo-
dems, and several radio amateurs were now able to access the Internet
through the RedULA wired network. The limit on the radio bandwidth avail-
able on the VHF band puts a cap on the highest attainable speed. To in-
crease that speed, one must move to higher frequency carriers.

Amateurs are allowed to use 100 kHz wide channels using UHF (Ultra-High
Frequency) signals. Digital radios coupled with 19.2 kbps modems doubled
the transmission bandwidth. A project was developed using this technology to
link the House of Science in the city of El Vigia, to Mérida and the Internet.
UHF antennas were built at LabCom, the communications laboratory of ULA.

Figure 11.8: A UHF antenna for packet radio developed at ULA, LabCom.
Although El Vigia is only 100 km from Mérida by road, the mountainous ter-
rain called for the use of two repeaters. One is located at La Aguada, at 3600
m altitude, and the other at Tusta, at 2000 m. The project was financed by
FUNDACITE MERIDA, a government institution that promotes science and
technology in the state. FUNDACITE also operates a pool of 56 kbps tele-
phone modems to provide Internet access for institutions and individuals.
The need for two repeater stations underscores the limitations imposed by
using higher frequency carriers, which require line of sight to establish a reli-


able transmission. In the much lower VHF band, signals are easily reflected
and can reach beyond hills.

Sometimes it is possible to reflect signals using a passive repeater, which is
made by connecting two directional antennas back to back with a coaxial
cable, without any radio. This scheme was tested to connect my residence to
LabCom. The distance is only 11 km, but there is a hill in between that blocks
radio signals. A connection was made by using a passive repeater to reflect
off La Aguada, with the two antennas of the repeater pointing 40 degrees
apart. While this was very exciting and certainly much cheaper than access
through the telephone modems, a faster medium would obviously be needed
for a wireless backbone to connect remote villages.

We therefore explored the use of 56 kbps modems developed by Dale
Heatherington. These modems are housed in a PI2 card built by Ottawa
amateurs, and connected directly to a PC using Linux as the network operat-
ing system. While this system functions very well, the emergence of the
World Wide Web with its plethora of images and other bandwidth-hogging
files made it clear that if we were to satisfy the needs of schools and hospi-
tals we had to deploy a higher bandwidth solution, at least on the backbone.
This meant the use of even higher carrier frequencies in the microwave
range, which entailed high costs.

Fortunately, an alternative technology widely used in military applications
was becoming available for civilian uses at affordable prices. Called spread
spectrum, it first found a use in civilian applications as a short-reach wire-
less local area network, but soon proved to be very useful in places where
the electromagnetic spectrum is not overcrowded, allowing the bridging of
distances of several kilometers.

Spread spectrum
Spread spectrum uses low power signals with its spectrum expanded on
purpose to span all the allocated bandwidth, while at the same time allowing
a number of users to share the medium by using different codes for each
subscriber.

There are two ways to accomplish this: Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) and Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).

• In DSSS the information to be transmitted is digitally multiplied by a higher
frequency sequence, thereby augmenting the transmission bandwidth. Al-
though this might seem to be a waste of bandwidth, the recovery system is
so efficient that it can decode very weak signals, allowing for the simulta-
neous use of the same spectrum by several stations.


• In FHSS, the transmitter is constantly changing its carrier frequency inside
the allotted bandwidth according to a specified code. The receiver must
know this code in order to track the carrier frequency.

Both techniques exchange transmission power for bandwidth, allowing many
stations to share a certain portion of the spectrum. During the First Latin
American Networking School (EsLaRed '92), held in Mérida in 1992, we were
able to demonstrate this technique. We established some trial networks mak-
ing use of external antennas built at the LabCom, allowing transmission at
several kilometers. In 1993, the Venezuelan Ministry of Telecommunications
opened up four bands for use with DSSS:

• 400 - 512 MHz
• 806 - 960 MHz
• 2.4 - 2.4835 GHz
• 5.725 - 5.850 GHz

In any of the above bands, maximum transmitter power was restricted to 1 Watt
and the maximum antenna gain to 6 dBi, for a total EIRP (effective isotropic radi-
ated power) of 36 dBm. This ruling paved the way for the deployment of a DSSS
network with a nominal bandwidth of 2 Mbps in the 900 MHz band. This tech-
nology satisfied the needs caused by the surge in World Wide Web activity.

The network started at LabCom, where the connection to RedULA was avail-
able. LabCom housed an inhouse-built Yagi antenna pointed towards a corner
reflector at Aguada. This provided a 90 degree beamwidth, illuminating most of
the city of Mérida. Several subscriber sites, all sharing the nominal 2 Mbps
bandwidth, were soon exchanging files, including images and video clips. Some
subscriber sites that required longer cables between the antenna and the spread
spectrum radio were accommodated by the use of bidirectional amplifiers.

These encouraging results were reported to a group set up at the Interna-
tional Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in Trieste, Italy, in 1995. This
group was aimed at providing connectivity between the Computer Center,
Physical Sciences Building, and the Technology Building at the University of
Ile-Ife in Nigeria. Later that year, the network was set up by ICTP staff with
funding from the United Nations University and has been running satisfacto-
rily ever since, proving to be a much more cost-effective solution than the
fiber optic network originally planned would have been.

Back in Mérida, as the number of sites increased, the observed throughput per
user declined. We started looking at the 2.4 GHz band to provide additional
capacity. This band can carry three simultaneously independent 2 Mbps
streams, but the effective range is lower than what can be achieved in the 900
MHz band. We were very busy planning the extension of the backbone using


2.4 GHz when we found out about a start-up company that was offering a new
solution that promised longer distances, dramatically higher throughput, and
the possibility of frequency reuse with narrowband microwaves.

Broadband delivery system
After visiting the Nashua, New Hampshire, facilities of Spike Technologies,
we were convinced that their proprietary antenna and radio system was the
best solution for the requirements of our state network, for the following
reasons:

Their broadband delivery system employs a special sectored antenna (Figure
11.9), with 20 dBi gain on each of up to 22 independent sectors. Each sector
transmits and receives on independent channels at 10 Mbps full duplex, for an
aggregate throughput of 440 Mbps. Frequency reuse on interleaved sectors
makes for a spectrally efficient system.

Figure 11.9: Spike Technologies' full duplex, high density sectoral system.

The narrowband digital radios can operate anywhere from 1 to 10 GHz, with
a coverage of up to 50 km. The radios work with a variety of cable TV mo-
dems, delivering a standard 10Base-T LAN connection to the subscriber. At
the base station, the sectors are interconnected with a high-speed switch that
has a very small latency (see Figure 11.10), allowing applications such as
streaming video at up to 30 frames per second. Each sector acts as an inde-
pendent Ethernet LAN.


Cabling to
transceivers Network
Management
Software
High speed modem

High speed modem

High speed modem

High speed modem

High speed modem
sector #1

sector #2

sector #3

sector #4

sector #5

Switch Internet

Video Servers File Servers
• Conferencing • Data Telephony
• VOD • Mail Servers
• Broadcast • Web pages

Figure 11.10: Spike Technologies' system interconnections.

At the subscriber site, a similar radio and modem provide a 10BaseT connec-
tion to the local Ethernet.

Outside
Equipment

RF Cable

Transceiver

Intermediate
Frequency Cable

Modem PC
10baseT
connection

Figure 11.11: The subscriber end of the link.

With funding from Fundacite, a trial system was soon installed in Mérida, with
the base station located just above the cable car station of La Aguada at an
altitude of 3600 m.


Figure 11.12: Installation above Mérida at La Aguada, at 3600 meters.

Initially only 5 sectors were installed, with a beamwidth of 16 degrees each.
The first subscriber site was at Fundacite´s premises, where a satellite system
provides Internet access. Sector two served the Governor's Palace. Sector
three served FUNDEM, a relief organization of the local government. Sector
four served a penitentiary near the town of Lagunillas, about 35 km from Mé-
rida. The fifth sector transmitted to a mountaintop repeater close to the village
of La Trampa, 40 km from La Aguada. From La Trampa, another 41 km link
extended the network to the House of Science in the town of Tovar.

On January 31, 1998, a videoconference between the penitentiary and the Jus-
tice Palace in Mérida proved that, aside from Internet access, the system could
also support streaming video. In this case it was used for the arraignment of
prisoners, thus avoiding the inconveniences and risks of their transportation.

The success of the trial prompted the state government to allocate the funding
for a complete system to give high-speed Internet access to the state health
system, educational system, libraries, community centers, and several gov-
ernmental agencies. In January 1999 we had 3 hospitals, 6 educational institu-
tions, 4 research institutions, 2 newspapers, 1 TV station, 1 public library, and
20 social and governmental institutions sharing information and accessing the
Internet. Plans call for 400 sites to be connected within this year at full duplex
10 Mbps speed, and funding has already been allocated for this purpose.

Figure 11.13 shows a map of the state of Mérida. The dark lines show the
initial backbone, while the light lines show the extension.


Figure 11.13: The Mérida State network

Among the many activities supported by the network, it is worthwhile to men-
tion the following:

• Educational: Schools have found an endless supply of material of the
highest quality for pupils and teachers, especially in the areas of geogra-
phy, languages, and sciences, and as a tool to communicate with other
groups that share common interests. Libraries have rooms with computers
accessible to the general public with full Internet capabilities. Newspaper
and TV stations have an amazing source of information to make available
to their audience.
• Health: The university hospital has a direct link to the intensive care unit,
where a staff of specialist physicians is always on duty. These doctors are
available to be queried by their colleagues in remote villages to discuss
speciﬁc cases. A group of researchers at the university is developing sev-
eral telemedicine applications based on the network.


• Research: The astronomic observatory of Llano del Hato, located on a
mountain at 3600 m and 8 degrees off the equator will soon be linked, al-
lowing astronomers from all over the world access to the images collected
there. Field researchers in many villages will enjoy Internet access.
• Government: Most government agencies are already connected and start-
ing to put information online for the citizens. We expect this to have a pro-
found impact on the relationship of citizens with the government. Relief
agencies and law enforcement agencies make heavy use of the network.
• Entertainment and Productivity: For people living outside the city, the
opportunities offered by the Net have a significant impact on the quality of
their lives. We hope that this will help to reverse the trend of migrating out
of the countryside, alleviating the overcrowding of the urban areas. Farm-
ers have access to information about the commanding prices of their crops
and supplies, as well as improved agricultural practices.

SUPERCOMM '98, held in Atlanta in June, cited the Mérida broadband deliv-
ery network as winner of the SUPERQuest award in category 8-Remote Ac-
cess as the best in that particular field of nominees.

Training
Since our earliest efforts to establish a computer network, we realized that
training was of paramount importance for the people involved in the network
construction, management, and maintenance. Given our very limited budget,
we decided that we had to pool our resources with those of other people who
also required training. In 1990 the ICTP organized the First International
School on computer network analysis and management, which was attended
by Professor Jose Silva and Professor Luis Nunez from our university. Upon
returning to Mérida, they proposed that we should somehow emulate this
activity in our university. To this end, taking advantage of my sabbatical, I
spent three months at Bellcore in Morristown, New Jersey, and three more
months at the ICTP helping in the preparation of the Second Networking
School in 1992, where I was joined by my colleague Professor Edmundo Vi-
tale. I spent the rest of my sabbatical at SURANET in College Park, Mary-
land, under the guidance of Dr. Glenn Ricart, who introduced me to Dr. Saul
Hahn of the Organization of American States, who offered financial support
for a training activity in Latin America. These experiences allowed us to
launch the First Latin American Networking School (EsLaRed'92) in Mérida,
attended by 45 participants from 8 countries in the region, with instructors
from Europe, the United States, and Latin America. This hands-on training
lasted three weeks, and wireless technologies were emphasized.

EsLaRed'95 gathered again in Mérida with 110 participants and 20 instruc-
tors. EsLaRed'97 had 120 participants, and it was endorsed by the Internet
Society, which also sponsored a Spanish and Portuguese first Networking


Workshop for Latin America and the Caribbean, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1998
with EsLaRed responsible for the training content. Now ten years later, Es-
LaRed continues to expand its training efforts throughout South America.

Concluding remarks
The Internet has an even more profound impact in developing countries
than elsewhere, owing to the high cost of international phone calls, faxes,
magazines, and books. This is obviously exacerbated by the lower average
income of people. Some dwellers in remote villages that do not have tele-
phones are experiencing a transition from the 19th to the 21st century
thanks to wireless networking. It is hoped that this will contribute to the im-
provement of lifestyles in the fields of health, education, entertainment, and
productivity, as well as create a more equitable relationship between citi-
zens and government.

References
• Karn, Phil, "The KA9Q Internet (TCP/IP) Package: A Progress Report,"
Sixth ARRL Computer Networking Conference, Redondo Beach, CA, 29
August 1987.
• Heatherington, D., "A 56 kilobaud RF modem," Sixth ARRL Computer Net-
working Conference, Redondo Beach, CA, 29 August 1987.
• Conatel, Comision Nacional de Comunicaciones, Ministerio de Transporte
y Comunicaciones, "NORMAS PARA LA OPERACION DE SISTEMAS DE
TELECOMUNICACIONES CON TECNOLOGIA DE BANDA ESPARCIDA
(SPREAD SPECTRUM)," Caracas, 17 November 1993.
• International Centre For Theoretical Physics, "Programme of Training and
System Development on Networking and Radiocommunications," Trieste,
Italy, 1996, http://www.ictp.trieste.it/
• Escuela Latinoamericana de Redes, http://www.eslared.org.ve/

--Ermanno Pietrosemoli


Case study: Chilesincables.org
Recent wireless data transmission technologies allow the creation of high
speed, geographically separated networks at a relatively low cost. If these
networks are built around the idea of removing restrictions to data access,
we call them free networks. Such networks can bring great benefits to every
user, independent of the their political, economic, or social conditions. This
kind of network is a direct response to the often restrictive commercial model
ruling over much of our modern western society.

In order for free networks to flourish, wireless technologies must be adapted
and put to the best possible use. This is carried out by groups of hackers
who do the research, investigation, development and implementation of pro-
jects, as well as permit free access to the knowledge gained.

Chilesincables.org endeavors to promote and organize wireless free net-
works in Chile in a professional way. We do this by providing education
about the related legal and technical aspects of wireless networking; en-
couraging the adaptation of new technologies through adequate research;
and stimulating the adaptation of these technologies to meet the specific
needs of Chilean communities and society.

Description of technology
We employ a variety of wireless technologies, including IEEE 802.11a/b/g.
We are also investigating recent innovations in the field, such as WiMAX. In
most cases, the equipment has been modified in order to be accept external
locally built antennas which meet local telecommunications regulations.

Even though a majority of wireless hardware available on the market will suit
our goals, we encourage utilization and exploration of a few vendors that al-
low for better control and adaptation to our needs (without necessarily in-
creasing the prices). These include Wi-Fi cards with chipsets offered by Athe-
ros, Prism, Orinoco, and Ralink, as well as some models of access points
manufactured by Linksys, Netgear, and Motorola. The hacker community has
developed firmware that provides new functionality on this equipment.

For the network backbone itself, we employ Open Source operating systems,
including GNU/Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and Minix. This fits our needs in
the areas of routing as well as implementation of services such as proxies,
web and FTP servers, etc. In addition, they share our project s philosophy of
being free technology with open source code.


Uses and applications
The networks implemented so far allow the following tasks:

• Transfer of data via FTP or web servers
• VoIP services
• Audio and video streaming
• Instant messaging
• Exploration and implementation of new services such as LDAP, name reso-
lution, new security methods, etc.
• Services provided by the clients. The users are free to use the net s infra-
structure in order to create their own services.

Administration and maintenance
The operational unit of the network is the node. Each node allows clients to
associate to the network and obtain basic network services. In addition,
each node must be associated to at least another node, by convention.
This allows the network to grow and to make more services available to
every client.

A node is maintained by an administrator who is a member of the community
committed to the following tasks:

• Maintenance of an adequate uptime (over 90%).
• Providing basic services (typically web access).
• Keeping the clients updated about the node s services (for example, how to
get access to the network). This is generally provided by a captive portal.

The general administration of the network (speciﬁcally, tasks related to de-
ployment of new nodes, selection of sites, network s topology, etc.) is carried
out by the board of the community, or by technicians trained for this purpose.

Chilesincables.org is currently in the process of acquiring legal organization
status, a step that will allow the regulation of its internal administrative proce-
dures and the formalization of the community in our society.


Training and capacity building
Chilesincables.org considers training of its members and clients to be of vital
importance for the following reasons:

• The radio spectrum must be kept as clear as possible in order to guarantee
adequate quality of wireless connections. Therefore, training in radio com-
munications techniques is essential.
• The employment of materials and methods approved by the current regula-
tions is a requirement for the normal development of the activities.
• In order to comply with Internet standards, all of our network administrators
are trained in TCP/IP networking.
• To ensure continuity in network operations, knowledge of networking tech-
nology must be transferred to the users.

To support these principles, Chilesincables.org undertakes the following
activities:

• Antenna Workshop. Attendees are trained in the construction of anten-
nas, and introduced to basic concepts of radio communication.
• Operating Systems Workshop. Training on the implementation of routers
and other devices based on GNU/Linux or other software such as
m0n0wall or pfsense. Basic networking concepts are also taught.
• Promotion and Advertising. Events for different communities that pursue
our same goals are promoted. These include college workshops, lectures,
free software gatherings, etc.
• Updating of Materials. Chilesincables.org maintains a number of free-
access documents and materials made available to people interested in a
speciﬁc activity.

The pictures on the following pages present a brief account of the activities in
our community.


Figure 11.14: Omnidirectional slotted antenna workshop. In this session, attendants
learned about building antennas and related theory.

Figure 11.15: One of our staff members lecturing on the implementation of a
m0nowall-based router in the administration of a node.


Figure 11.16: Detail of mini tower with samples of antennas, cables and pigtails.


Figure 11.17: Wireless station and parabolic antenna used for the transmission of
Santiago-2006 FLISOL via streaming video.

Figure 11.18: Location of the other end of the link.


Figure 11.19: Schematic representing Santiago-2006 FLISOL video streaming
transmission, using free software. The wireless transmission speed achieved was
36 Mbps at 1 km.


Figure 11.20: Quiani node. This is one of the world’s highest nodes. Its located at an
elevation of 4000 m, about 2000 km north of the country’s capital.

Figure 11.21: Node in southern Santiago, consisting of a 15 m tower, a Trevor
Marshall 16+16 antenna, and 30 clients. The node is connected to a downtown node
more than 12 km away.


Figure 11.22: Panoramic view of a node from the top of the tower.

Figure 11.23: Downtown node connected to the Santiago southern node. Note the
parabolic antenna for backhaul and the slotted antenna to connect the clients.


Figure 11.24: Implementation of node over a water tower in Batuco, Metropolitan
Region, providing backhaul to Cabrati telecenter.

Figure 11.25: Workshop on Yagi antennas organized by our community. Participants
are building their own antennas.


Credits
Our community is made up of a group of committed volunteer associates
among which are worthy of notice:

Felipe Cortez (Pulpo), Felipe Benavides (Colcad), Mario Wagenknecht
(Kaneda), Daniel Ortiz (Zaterio), Cesar Urquejo (Xeuron), Oscar Vasquez
(Machine), Jose San Martin (Packet), Carlos Campano (Campano), Christian
Vasquez (Crossfading), Andres Peralta (Cantenario), Ariel Orellana (Ariel),
Miguel Bizama (Picunche), Eric Azua (Mr. Floppy), David Paco (Dpaco),
Marcelo Jara (Alaska).

--Chilesincables.org

Case study: Long Distance 802.11
Thanks to a favorable topography, Venezuela already has some long range
WLAN links, like the 70 km long operated by Fundacite Mérida between Pico
Espejo and Canagua.

To test the limits of this technology, it is necessary to find a path with an unob-
structed line of sight and a clearance of at least 60% of the first Fresnel zone.

While looking at the terrain in Venezuela, in search of a stretch with high ele-
vation at the ends and low ground in between, I first focused in the Guayana
region. Although plenty of high grounds are to be found, in particular the fa-
mous "tepuys" (tall mesas with steep walls), there were always obstacles in
the middle ground.

My attention shifted to the Andes, whose steep slopes (rising abruptly from
the plains) proved adequate to the task. For several years, I have been trav-
eling through sparsely populated areas due to my passion for mountain bik-
ing. In the back of my head, I kept a record of the suitability of different spots
for long distance communications.

Pico del Aguila is a very favorable place. It has an altitude of 4200 m and is
about a two hour drive from my home town of Mérida. For the other end, I
finally located the town of El Baúl, in Cojedes State. Using the free software
Radio Mobile (available at http://www.cplus.org/rmw/english1.html), I found
that there was no obstruction of the first Fresnel zone (spanning 280 km)
between Pico del Aguila and El Baúl.


Action Plan
Once satisfied with the existence of a suitable trajectory, we looked at the
equipment needed to achieve the goal. We have been using Orinoco cards
for a number of years. Sporting an output power of 15 dBm and receive
threshold of -84 dBm, they are robust and trustworthy. The free space loss at
282 km is 149 dB. So, we would need 30 dBi antennas at both ends and
even that would leave very little margin for other losses.

On the other hand, the popular Linksys WRT54G wireless router runs
Linux. The Open Source community has written several firmware versions
for it that allow for a complete customization of every transmission parame-
ter. In particular, OpenWRT firmware allows for the adjustment of the ac-
knowledgment time of the MAC layer, as well as the output power. Another
firmware, DD-WRT, has a GUI interface and a very convenient site survey
utility. Furthermore, the Linksys can be located closer to the antenna than a
laptop. So, we decided to go with a pair of these boxes. One was config-
ured as an AP (access point) and the other as a client. The WRT54G can
operate at 100 mW output power with good linearity, and can even be
pushed up to 200 mW. But at this value, non linearity is very severe and
spurious signals are generated, which should be avoided. Although this is
consumer grade equipment and quite inexpensive, after years of using it,
we felt confident that it could serve our purpose. Of course, we kept a
spare set handy just in case.

By setting the output power to 100 mW (20 dBm), we could obtain a 5dB
advantage compared with the Orinoco card. Therefore, we settled for a pair
of WRT54Gs.

Pico del Águila site survey
On January 15, 2006, I went to Pico Águila to check out the site that Radio
Mobile had reported as suitable. The azimuth towards El Baúl is 86°, but
since the magnetic declination is 8° 16 , our antenna should be pointed to a
magnetic bearing of 94°.

Unfortunately, when I looked towards 94°, I found the line of sight obstructed
by an obstacle that had not been shown by the software, due to the limited
resolution of the digital elevation maps that are freely available.

I rode my mountain bike for several hours examining the surrounding area
looking for a clear path towards the East. Several promising spots were iden-
tified, and for each of them I took photos and recorded the coordinates with a
GPS for later processing with the Radio Mobile software. This led me to re-
fine my path selection, resulting in the one depicted in Figure 11.26 using
Google Earth:


Figure 11.26: View of the 280 km link. Maracaibo’s Lake is to the West, and the
Peninsula of Paraguaná is to the North.

The radio proﬁle obtained with Radio Mobile is shown in Figure 11.27:

Figure 11.27: Map and proﬁle of the proposed path between Pico Aguila, and
Morrocoy hill, near the town of El Baúl.


The details of the wireless link are displayed in Figure 11.28:

Figure 11.28: Propagation details of the 280 km link.

In order to achieve a reasonable margin of some 12 dB for the link, we
needed antennas with at least 30 dBi gain at each end.

Antennas
High gain antennas for the 2.4 GHz band are not available in Venezuela. The
importation costs are considerable, so we decided instead to recycle para-
bolic reflectors (formerly used for satellite service) and replaced the feed with
one designed for 2.4 GHz. We proved the concept with an 80 cm dish. The
gain was way too low, so we tried an offset fed 2.4 m reflector. This offered
ample gain, albeit with some difficulties in the aiming of the 3.5° beam. The
22.5° offset meant that the dish appeared to be pointing downwards when it
was horizontally aligned.

Several tests were performed using various cantennas and a 12 dBi Yagi as a
feed. We pointed the antenna at a base station of the university wireless net-
work that was located 11 km away on a 3500 m mountain. The test site sits at
2000 m and therefore the elevation angle is 8°. Because of the offset feed, we
pointed the dish 14° downward, as can be seen in the following picture:


Figure 11.29: 2.4 m offset fed reflector with a 12 dBi antenna at its focus, looking
14° down. The actual elevation is 8° up.

We were able to establish a link with the base station at Aguada, but our efforts
to measure the gain of the setup using Netstumbler were not successful. There
was too much fluctuation on the received power values of live traffic.

For a meaningful measurement of the gain, we needed a signal generator
and spectrum analyzer. These instruments were also required for the field
trip in order to align the antennas properly.

While waiting for the required equipment, we looked for an antenna to be used at
the other end, and also a pointing system better suited to the narrow radio beam.

In February 2006, I traveled to Trieste to partake in the annual wireless train-
ing event that I have been attending since 1996. While there, I mentioned the
project to my colleague Carlo Fonda, who was immediately thrilled and eager
to participate.

The collaboration between the Latin American Networking School (Es-
LaRed) and the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Phys-
ics (ICTP) goes back to 1992, when the first Networking School was held in
Mérida with ICTP support. Since then, members of both institutions have col-
laborated in several activities. Some of these include an annual training
school on wireless networking (organized by ICTP) and another on computer


networks (organized by EsLaRed) that are hosted in several countries
throughout Latin America. Accordingly, it was not difﬁcult to persuade Dr.
Sandro Radicella, the head of the Aeronomy and Radio Propagation Labora-
tory at ICTP, to support Carlo Fonda s trip in early April to Venezuela in order
to participate in the experiment.

Back at home, I found a 2.75 m parabolic central fed mesh antenna at a
neighbors house. Mr. Ismael Santos graciously lent his antenna for the ex-
periment.

Figure 11.30 shows the disassembly of the mesh reﬂector.

Figure 11.30: Carlo and Ermanno disassembling the satellite dish supplied by
Mr. Ismael Santos.

We exchanged the feed for a 2.4 GHz one, and aimed the antenna at a sig-
nal generator that was located on top of a ladder some 30 m away. With a
spectrum analyzer, we measured the maximum of the signal and located the
focus. We also pinpointed the boresight for both the central fed and the offset
antennas. This is shown in Figure 11.31:


Figure 11.31: Finding the focus of the antennas with the 2.4 GHz feed

We also compared the power of the received signal with the output of a
commercial 24 dBi antenna. This showed a difference of 8 dB, which led us
to believe that the overall gain of our antenna was about 32 dBi. Of course,
there is some uncertainty about this value. We were receiving reﬂected sig-
nals, but the value agreed with the calculation from the antenna dimension.

El Baúl Site Survey
Once we were satisfied with the proper functioning and aim of both anten-
nas, we decided to do a site survey at the other end of the El Baúl link.
Carlo Fonda, Gaya Fior and Ermanno Pietrosemoli reached the site on
April 8th. The following day, we found a hill (south of the town) with two
telecom towers from two cell phone operators and one belonging to the
mayor of El Baúl. The hill of Morrocoy is some 75 m above the surrounding
area, about 125 m above sea level. It provides an unobstructed view to-
wards El Aguila. There is a dirt road to the top, a must for our purpose,
given the weight of the antenna.


Performing the experiment
On Wednesday April 12th, Javier Triviño and Ermanno Pietrosemoli traveled
towards Baúl with the offset antenna loaded on top of a four-wheel drive
truck. Early the morning of April 13th, we installed the antenna and pointed it
at a compass bearing of 276°, given that the declination is 8° and therefore
the true Azimuth is 268°.

At the same time, the other team (composed by Carlo Fonda and Gaya Fior
from ICTP, with assistance of Franco Bellarosa, Lourdes Pietrosemoli and
José Triviño) rode to the previously surveyed area at Pico del Aguila in a
Bronco truck that carried the 2.7 m mesh antenna.

Figure 11.32: Pico del Águila and surrounds map with Bronco truck.

Poor weather is common at altitudes of 4100 m above sea level. The Aguila team
was able to install and point the mesh antenna before the fog and sleet began.
Figure 11.33 shows the antenna and the rope used for aiming the 3° radio beam.

Power for the signal generator was supplied from the truck by means of a 12
VDC to 120 VAC inverter. At 11 A.M in El Baúl, we were able to observe a
-82 dBm signal at the agreed upon 2450 MHz frequency using the spectrum
analyzer. To be sure we had found the proper source, we asked Carlo to
switch off the signal. Indeed, the trace on the spectrum analyzer showed only
noise. This confirmed that we were really seeing the signal that originated
some 280 km away.

After turning the signal generator on again, we performed a fine tuning in
elevation and azimuth at both ends. Once we were satisfied that we had at-
tained the maximum received signal, Carlo removed the signal generator and
replaced it with a Linksys WRT54G wireless router configured as an access
point. Javier substituted the spectrum analyzer on our end for another
WRT54G configured as a client.


Figure 11.33: Aiming the antenna at el Águila.

At once, we started receiving "beacons" but ping packets did not get through.

This was expected, since the propagation time of the radio wave over a 300 km
link is 1 ms. It takes at least 2 ms for an acknowledgment to reach the transmitter.

Fortunately, the OpenWRT firmware allows for adjusting the ACK timing. After Carlo
adjusted for the 3 orders of magnitude increase in delay above what the standard
Wi-Fi link expects, we began receiving packets with a delay of about 5 ms.

Figure 11.34: El Baúl antenna installation. Actual elevation was 1° upward, since the
antenna has an offset of 22.5°.


We proceeded to transfer several PDF files between Carlo s and Javier s
laptops. The results are shown in Figure 11.35.

Figure 11.35: Screenshot of Javier’s laptop showing details of PDF file transfer from
Carlo’s laptop 280 km away, using two WRT54G wireless routers, no amplifiers.

Note the ping time of a few milliseconds.

Figure 11.36: Javier Triviño (right) and Ermanno Pietrosemoli beaming from the
El Baúl antenna


Figure 11.37: Carlo Fonda at the Aguila Site

Mérida, Venezuela, 17 April 2006.
One year after performing this experiment, we found the time and resources
to repeat it. We used commercial 30 dBi antennas, and also a couple of wire-
less routers which had been modiﬁed by the TIER group led by Dr. Eric
Brewer of Berkeley University.

The purpose of the modiﬁcation of the standard WiFi MAC is to make it suit-
able for long distance applications by replacing the CSMA Media Access
Control with TDMA. The latter is better suited for long distance point-to-point
links since it does not require the reception of ACKs. This eliminates the
need to wait for the 2 ms round trip propagation time on a 300 km path.

On April 28th, 2007, a team formed by Javier Triviño, José Torres and Fran-
cisco Torres installed one of the antennas at El Aguila site. The other team,
formed by Leonardo González V., Leonardo González G., Alejandro
González and Ermanno Pietrosemoli, installed the other antenna at El Baúl.

A solid link was quickly established using the Linksys WRT54G routers.
This allowed for video transmission at a measured throughput of 65 kbps.
With the TDMA routers, the measured throughput was 3 Mbps in each di-
rection. This produced the total of 6 Mbps as predicted by the simulations
done at Berkeley.


Can we do better?
Thrilled by these results, which pave the way for really inexpensive long dis-
tance broadband links, the second team moved to another location previ-
ously identified at 382 km from El Aguila, in a place called Platillón. Platillón
is 1500 m above sea level and there is an unobstructed first Fresnel zone
towards El Aguila (located at 4200 m above sea level). The proposed path is
shown in Figure 11.38:

Figure 11.38: Map and profile of the 380 km path.

Again, the link was quickly established with the Linksys and the TIER sup-
plied routers. The Linksys link showed approximately 1% packet loss, with an
average round trip time of 12 ms. The TIER equipment showed no packet
loss, with propagation times below 1 ms. This allowed for video transmission,
but the link was not stable. We noticed considerable signal fluctuations that
often interrupted the communication.

However, when the received signal was about -78 dBm, the measured
throughput was a total of 6 Mbps bidirectional with the TIER routers imple-
menting TDMA.


Figure 11.39: The team at el Aguila, José Torres (left), Javier Triviño (center) and Fran-
cisco Torres (right)

Although further tests must be conducted to ascertain the limits for stable
throughput, we are conﬁdent that Wi-Fi has a great potential for long distance
broadband communication. It is particularly well suited for rural areas were
the spectrum is still not crowded and interference is not a problem, provided
there is good radio line of sight.

Acknowledgments
We wish to express our gratitude to Mr. Ismael Santos for lending the mesh
antenna to be installed at El Aguila and to Eng. Andrés Pietrosemoli for sup-
plying the special scaffolding joints used for the installation and transporta-
tion of the antennas.

We'd also like to thank the Abdus Salam International Centre of Theoretical
Physics for supporting Carlo Fonda s trip from Italy to Venezuela.


Figure 11.40: The team at Platillon. From left to right: Leonardo González V.,
Leonardo González G., Ermanno Pietrosemoli and Alejandro González .

The 2006 experiment was performed by Ermanno Pietrosemoli, Javier
Triviño from EsLaRed, Carlo Fonda, and Gaya Fior from ICTP. With the help
of Franco Bellarosa, Lourdes Pietrosemoli, and José Triviño.

For the 2007 experiments, Dr. Eric Brewer from Berkeley University provided
the wireless routers with the modiﬁed MAC for long distance, as well as en-
thusiastic support through his collaborator, Sonesh Surana. RedULA, CPTM,
Dirección de Servicios ULA Universidad de los Andes and Fundacite Mérida
contributed to this trial.

This work was funded by ICA-IDRC.


References
• Fundación Escuela Latinoamericana de Redes, Latin American Networking
School, http://www.eslared.org.ve/
• Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics,
http://wireless.ictp.it/
• OpenWRT Open Source ﬁrmware for Linksys, http://openwrt.org/
• Fundacite Mérida, http://www.funmrd.gov.ve/
--Ermanno Pietrosemoli

Appendix A: Resources
We recommend these resources for learning more about the various aspects
of wireless networking. For more links and resources, see our website at
http://wndw.net/.

Antennas and antenna design
• Cushcraft technical papers on antenna design and radio propagation,
http://www.cushcraft.com/comm/support/technical-papers.htm
• Free antenna designs, http://www.freeantennas.com/
• Hyperlink Tech, http://hyperlinktech.com/
• Pasadena Networks LLC, http://www.wlanparts.com/
• SuperPass, http://www.superpass.com/
• Unofficial NEC2 code archives, http://www.nec2.org/
• Unofficial NEC2 radio modeling tool home page,
http://www.nittany-scientific.com/nec/
• USB WiFi dish designs, http://www.usbwifi.orcon.net.nz/

Network troubleshooting tools
• Bing throughput measurement tool,
http://fgouget.free.fr/bing/index-en.shtml
• Cacti network monitoring package, http://www.cacti.net/
• DSL Reports bandwidth speed tests, http://www.dslreports.com/stest
• EaKiu spectrum analysis tool, http://www.cookwareinc.com/EaKiu/
• EtherApe network traffic monitor, http://etherape.sourceforge.net/
• Flowc open source NetFlow collector, http://netacad.kiev.ua/flowc/.
• Iperf network performance testing tool, http://dast.nlanr.net/Projects/Iperf/
• iptraf network diagnostic tool, http://iptraf.seul.org/

371

372 Appendix A: Resources

• MRTG network monitoring and graphing tool,
http://people.ee.ethz.ch/~oetiker/webtools/mrtg/
• My TraceRoute network diagnostic tool, http://www.bitwizard.nl/mtr/
• Nagios network monitoring and event notification tool,
http://www.nagios.org/
• NetFlow, the Cisco protocol for collecting IP traffic information,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflow
• ngrep network security utility for finding patterns in data flows,
http://ngrep.sourceforge.net/
• Network monitoring implementation guides and tutorials,
http://wiki.debian.org/Network_Monitoring
• Ntop network monitoring tool, http://www.ntop.org/
• RRDtool round robin database graphing utility,
http://people.ee.ethz.ch/~oetiker/webtools/rrdtool/
• SmokePing network latency and packet loss monitor,
http://people.ee.ethz.ch/~oetiker/webtools/smokeping/
• SoftPerfect network analysis tools, http://www.softperfect.com/
• Squid transparent http proxy HOWTO,
http://tldp.org/HOWTO/TransparentProxy.html
• ttcp network performance testing tool, http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/pub/ttcp/
• Wireshark network protocol analyzer, http://www.wireshark.org/

Security
• AntiProxy http proxy circumvention tools and information,
http://www.antiproxy.com/
• Anti-spyware tools, http://www.spychecker.com/
• Driftnet network monitoring utility, http://www.ex-parrot.com/~chris/driftnet/
• Etherpeg network monitoring utility, http://www.etherpeg.org/
• Introduction to OpenVPN, http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7949
• Lavasoft Ad-Aware spyware removal tool, http://www.lavasoft.de/
• Linux security and admin software,
http://www.linux.org/apps/all/Networking/Security_/_Admin.html
• OpenSSH secure shell and tunneling tool, http://openssh.org/
• OpenVPN encrypted tunnel setup guide, http://openvpn.net/howto.html


• Privoxy filtering web proxy, http://www.privoxy.org/
• PuTTY SSH client for Windows, http://www.putty.nl/
• Sawmill log analyzer, http://www.sawmill.net/
• Security of the WEP algorithm,
http://www.isaac.cs.berkeley.edu/isaac/wep-faq.html
• Stunnel Universal SSL Wrapper, http://www.stunnel.org/
• TOR onion router, http://www.torproject.org/
• Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4,
http://www.crypto.com/papers/others/rc4_ksaproc.ps
• Windows SCP client, http://winscp.net/
• Your 802.11 Wireless Network has No Clothes,
http://www.cs.umd.edu/~waa/wireless.pdf
• ZoneAlarm personal firewall for Windows, http://www.zonelabs.com/

Bandwidth optimization
• Cache heirarchies with Squid,
http://squid-docs.sourceforge.net/latest/html/c2075.html
• dnsmasq caching DNS and DHCP server,
http://www.thekelleys.org.uk/dnsmasq/doc.html
• Enhancing International World Wide Web Access in Mozambique Through
the Use of Mirroring and Caching Proxies,
http://www.isoc.org/inet97/ans97/cloet.htm
• Fluff file distribution utility, http://www.bristol.ac.uk/fluff/
• Linux Advanced Routing and Traffic Control HOWTO, http://lartc.org/
• Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server,
http://www.microsoft.com/isaserver/
• Microsoft ISA Server Firewall and Cache resource site,
http://www.isaserver.org/
• Optimising Internet Bandwidth in Developing Country Higher Education,
http://www.inasp.info/pubs/bandwidth/index.html
• Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center s guide to Enabling High Performance
Data Transfers, http://www.psc.edu/networking/perf_tune.html
• Planet Malaysia blog on bandwidth management,
http://planetmy.com/blog/?p=148


• RFC 3135: Performance Enhancing Proxies Intended to Mitigate Link-
Related Degradations, http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3135
• Squid web proxy cache, http://squid-cache.org/

Mesh networking
• Champaign-Urbana Community Wireless Network software,
http://cuwireless.net/download
• Freifunk OLSR mesh firmware for the Linksys WRT54G,
http://www.freifunk.net/wiki/FreifunkFirmware
• MIT Roofnet Project, http://pdos.csail.mit.edu/roofnet/doku.php
• OLSR mesh networking daemon, http://www.olsr.org/
• Real-time OLSR topology viewer,
http://meshcube.org/nylon/utils/olsr-topology-view.pl
• AirJialdi Mesh Router, http://drupal.airjaldi.com/node/9

Wireless operating systems and drivers
• DD-WRT wireless router OS, http://www.dd-wrt.com/
• HostAP wireless driver for the Prism 2.5 chipset, http://hostap.epitest.fi/
• m0n0wall wireless router OS, http://m0n0.ch/wall/
• MadWiFi wireless driver for the Atheros chipset, http://madwifi.org/
• Metrix Pyramid wireless router OS, http://pyramid.metrix.net/
• OpenWRT wireless router OS for Linksys access points, http://openwrt.org/
• Tomato wireless router OS for Linksys access points,
http://www.polarcloud.com/tomato

Wireless tools
• Chillispot captive portal, http://www.chillispot.info/
• Interactive Wireless Network Design Analysis Utilities,
http://www.qsl.net/n9zia/wireless/page09.html
• KisMAC wireless monitor for Mac OS X, http://kismac.macpirate.ch/
• Kismet wireless network monitoring tool, http://www.kismetwireless.net/
• MacStumbler wireless network detection tool for Mac OS X,
http://www.macstumbler.com/


• NetStumbler wireless network detection tool for Windows and Pocket PC,
http://www.netstumbler.com/
• NoCatSplash captive portal, http://nocat.net/download/NoCatSplash/
• PHPMyPrePaid prepaid ticketing system,
http://sourceforge.net/projects/phpmyprepaid/
• RadioMobile radio performance modeling tool, http://www.cplus.org/rmw/
• Terabeam wireless link calculation tools,
http://www.terabeam.com/support/calculations/index.php
• Wellenreiter wireless network detection tool for Linux,
http://www.wellenreiter.net/
• WiFiDog captive portal, http://www.wiﬁdog.org/
• Wireless Network Link Analysis tool by GBPRR,
http://my.athenet.net/~multiplx/cgi-bin/wireless.main.cgi

General wireless related information
• DefCon long distance WiFi shootout, http://www.wiﬁ-shootout.com/
• Homebrew wireless hardware designs, http://www.w1ghz.org/
• Linksys wireless access point information, http://linksysinfo.org/
• Linksys WRT54G resource guide,
http://seattlewireless.net/index.cgi/LinksysWrt54g
• NoCat community wireless group, http://nocat.net/
• Ronja optical data link hardware, http://ronja.twibright.com/
• SeattleWireless community wireless group, http://seattlewireless.net/
• SeattleWireless Hardware comparison page,
http://www.seattlewireless.net/HardwareComparison
• Stephen Foskett's Power Over Ethernet (PoE) Calculator,
http://www.gweep.net/~sfoskett/tech/poecalc.html

Networking services
• Access Kenya ISP, http://www.accesskenya.com/
• Broadband Access Ltd. wireless broadband carrier, http://www.blue.co.ke/
• Virtual IT outsourcing, http://www.virtualit.biz/
• wire.less.dk consultancy and services, http://wire.less.dk/


Training and education
• Association for Progressive Communications wireless connectivity projects,
http://www.apc.org/wireless/
• International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications,
http://www.inasp.info/
• Makere University, Uganda, http://www.makerere.ac.ug/
• Radio Communications Unit of the Abdus Salam International Center for
Theoretical Physics, http://wireless.ictp.trieste.it/
• World Summits on Free Information Infrastructures, http://www.wsfii.org/

Miscellaneous links
• Cygwin Linux-like environment for Windows, http://www.cygwin.com/
• Graphvis graph visualization tool, http://www.graphviz.org/
• ICTP bandwidth simulator, http://wireless.ictp.trieste.it/simulator/
• ImageMagick image manipulation tools and libraries,
http://www.imagemagick.org/
• NodeDB war driving map database, http://www.nodedb.com/
• Open Relay DataBase, http://www.ordb.org/
• Partition Image disk utility for Linux, http://www.partimage.org/
• RFC 1918: Address Allocation for Private Internets,
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1918
• Rusty Russell's Linux Networking Concepts,
http://www.netfilter.org/documentation/HOWTO/
networking-concepts-HOWTO.html
• Ubuntu Linux, http://www.ubuntu.com/
• VoIP-4D Primer, http://www.it46.se/voip4d/voip4d.php
• wget web utility for Windows, http://xoomer.virgilio.it/hherold/
• WiFiMaps war driving map database, http://www.wifimaps.com/
• WiSpy spectrum analysis tool, http://www.metageek.net/


Books
• 802.11 Networks: The Deﬁnitive Guide, 2nd Edition. Matthew Gast,
O Reilly Media. ISBN #0-596-10052-3
• 802.11 Wireless Network Site Surveying and Installation. Bruce Alexander,
Cisco Press. ISBN #1-587-05164-8
• The ARRL Antenna Book, 20th Edition. R. Dean Straw (Editor), American
Radio Relay League. ISBN #0-87259-904-3
• The ARRL UHF/Microwave Experimenter’s Manual. American Radio Relay
League. ISBN #0-87259-312-6
• Building Wireless Community Networks, 2nd Edition. Rob Flickenger,
O Reilly Media. ISBN #0-596-00502-4
• How To Accelerate Your Internet, A free book about bandwidth optimiza-
tion. http://bwmo.net/. ISBN #978-0-9778093-1-8
• Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks. Jack Unger, Cisco
Press. ISBN #1-587-05069-2
• TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1. W. Richard Stevens, Addison-Wesley. ISBN
#0-201-63346-9
• Wireless Hacks, 2nd Edition. Rob Flickenger and Roger Weeks, O Reilly
Media. ISBN #0-596-10144-9

Appendix B: Channel
Allocations
The following tables list the channel numbers and center frequencies used
for 802.11a and 802.11b/g. Note that while all of these frequencies are in the
unlicensed ISM and U-NII bands, not all channels are available in all coun-
tries. Many regions impose restrictions on output power and indoor / outdoor
use on some channels. These regulations are rapidly changing, so always
check your local regulations before transmitting.

Note that these tables show the center frequency for each channel. Chan-
nels are 22MHz wide in 802.11b/g, and 20MHz wide in 802.11a.

802.11b / g

Channel Center Frequency Channel Center Frequency
# (GHz) # (GHz)

1 2.412 8 2.447

2 2.417 9 2.452

3 2.422 10 2.457

4 2.427 11 2.462

5 2.432 12 2.467

6 2.437 13 2.472

7 2.442 14 2.484

379

380 Appendix B: Channel Allocations

802.11a

Channel Center Frequency
# (GHz)

34 5.170

36 5.180

38 5.190

40 5.200

42 5.210

44 5.220

46 5.230

48 5.240

52 5.260

56 5.280

60 5.300

64 5.320

149 5.745

153 5.765

157 5.785

161 5.805

2400 MHz
Free Space Path Loss 5300 MHz

140
130
120

Path Loss (dB)
110
100
5 km 10 km 15 km 20 km 25 km 30 km
1 mi 5 mi 10 mi 15 mi 20 mi

Distance

381
Appendix C: Path Loss

Appendix D: Cable Sizes
Wire gauge, diameter, current capacity, and resistance at 20°C. These
values can vary from cable to cable. When in doubt, consult the
manufacturer's speciﬁcations.

AWG Gauge Diameter (mm) Ohms / Meter Max Amperes

0000 11.68 0.000161 302

000 10.40 0.000203 239

00 9.27 0.000256 190

0 8.25 0.000322 150

1 7.35 0.000406 119

2 6.54 0.000513 94

3 5.83 0.000646 75

4 5.19 0.000815 60

5 4.62 0.001028 47

6 4.11 0.001296 37

7 3.67 0.001634 30

8 3.26 0.002060 24

9 2.91 0.002598 19

10 2.59 0.003276 15

382

Appendix E: Solar
Dimensioning
Use these tables to collect the necessary data to estimate the required size
of your solar energy system.

General Data
Site Name

Site Latitude (°)

Irradiation Data
Gdm(0), in kWh / m2 per day)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Worst Irradiation Month

Reliability and System Operational Voltage

Days of Autonomy (N)

Nominal Voltage (VNEquip)

383

384 Appendix E: Solar Dimensioning

Component Characteristics

Solar Panels

Voltage @ Maximum Power (Vpmax)

Current @ Maximum Power (Ipmax)

Panel Type/Model and Power (Wp)

Batteries

Nominal Capacity @ 100 H (CNBat)

Nominal Voltage (VNBat)

Maximum Depth of Discharge (DoDMAX)
or Usable Capacity (CUBat)

Regulator

Nominal Voltage (VNReg)

Maximum Current (ImaxReg)

DC/AC Inverter (if needed)

Nominal Voltage (VNConv)

Instantaneous Power (PIConv)

Performance @ 70% Load


Loads

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (DC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

# of x Nominal x Usage = Energy
Description
Units Power Hours / Day (Wh/day)

ETOTAL DC

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (AC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

# of x Nominal x Usage = Energy
Description
Units Power Hours / Day (Wh/day)

ETOTAL AC (before converter)

ETOTAL AC (after converter) = ETOTAL AC / 70%

386 Appendix E: Solar Dimensioning

Finding the Worst Month

Site Name

Site Latitude (°)

Nominal Voltage of the Installation VN

(Month) J F M A M J J A S O N D

Inclination ß

Gdm (ß) (kWh/m2 day)

ETOTAL (DC) (Wh/day)

ETOTAL (AC) (Wh/day)

ETOTAL (AC + DC)=

Im (A) = ETOTAL (Wh/day)
1kW/m2/ (Gdm(ß) x VN)

Worst Month Summary

Worst Month

Im (A)

ImMAX (A) = 1.21 x Im

ETOTAL (AC + DC)


Final Calculations

Panels

Panels in Series (NPS) NPS = VN / VPmax =

Panels in Parallel (NPP) NPP = ImMAX / IPmax =

Total Number of Panels NTOT = NPS x NPP =

Batteries

Necessary Capacity ETOTAL(WORST MONTH) /
(CNEC) VN x N

Nominal Capacity
CNEC / DoDMAX
(CNOM)

Number of Batteries
VN / VNBAT
in Series (NBS)

Cables

Panels > Batteries >
Main Line
Batteries Converter

Voltage Drop (Va - Vb)

Thickness (Section)
r x L x ImMAX / (Va - Vb)

For cable thickness computation, r = 0.01286 mm2/m (for copper) and L is
the length in meters.

Glossary

0-9
802.11. While 802.11 is a wireless Address Resolution Protocol
protocol in its own right, 802.11 is (ARP). A protocol widely used on
often used to refer to a family of wire- Ethernet networks to translate IP
less networking protocols used addresses into MAC addresses.
mainly for local area networking.
Three popular variants include address space. A group of IP ad-
802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11a. See dresses that all reside within the
also: Wi-Fi. same logical subnet.

advertised window. The portion of
a TCP header that speciﬁes how
A many additional bytes of data the
receiver is prepared to accept.
AC see Alternating Current
Alternating Current (AC). An elec-
trical current which varies over time
access point (AP). A device that
in a cyclic manner. AC current is
creates a wireless network that is
typically used for lighting and appli-
usually connected to a wired
ances. See also: Direct Current
Ethernet network. See also: CPE,
master mode
amortization. An accounting tech-
nique used to manage the expected
accumulator. Another name for a
cost of replacement and obsoles-
battery. cence of equipment over time.
ad-hoc mode. A radio mode used
ampliﬁer. A device used to increase
by 802.11 devices that allows the
the transmitted power of a wireless
creation of a network without an ac-
device.
cess point. Mesh networks often
use radios in ad-hoc mode. See
amplitude. The distance from the
also: managed mode, master
center of a wave to the extreme of
mode, monitor mode
one of its peaks.

389

390 Glossary

anchor clients. Business clients of coordinates, logarithmic polar
a subscription system who are reli- coordinates
able and can be considered low-risk.
AP see Access Point
AND logic. A logical operation that
only evaluates as true if all of the application layer. The topmost
items being compared also evaluate layer in the OSI and TCP/IP network
as true. See also: OR logic. models.

anonymizing proxy. A network serv- Argus see Audit Record Generation
ice that hides the source or destina- and Utilization System
tion of communications. Anonymizing
proxies can be used to protect peo- ARP see Address Resolution
ple's privacy and to reduce an or- Protocol
ganization's exposure to legal liability
for the actions of its users. associated. An 802.11 radio is as-
sociated to an access point when it is
anonymity. In computer networks, ready to communicate with the net-
communications that cannot be work. This means that it is tuned to
linked to a unique individual are the proper channel, in range of the
said to be anonymous. The trade- AP, using the correct SSID and other
off of anonymity versus account- authentication parameters, etc.
ability in communications is an on-
going debate online, and rules at. A Unix facility that allows timed,
about anonymous communications one-shot execution of programs.
vary widely around the world. See See also: cron
also: authenticated
attenuation. The reduction of avail-
antenna diversity. A technique able radio power as it is absorbed
used to overcome multipath interfer- along a path, such as through trees,
ence by using two or more physi- walls, buildings, or other objects. See
cally separated receiving antennas. also: free space loss, scattering

antenna gain. The amount of Audit Record Generation and
power concentrated in the direction Utilization System (Argus). An
of strongest radiation of an antenna, open source network monitoring tool
usually expressed in dBi. Antenna used for tracking ﬂows between
gain is reciprocal, which means that hosts. Argus is available from
the effect of gain is present when http://www.qosient.com/argus .
transmitting as well as receiving.
authenticated. A network user that
antenna pattern. A graph that de- has proven their identity to a service
scribes the relative strength of a or device (such as an access point)
radiated ﬁeld in various directions beyond a shadow of a doubt, usually
from an antenna. See also: rectan- by some means of cryptography.
gular plot, polar plot, linear polar See also: anonymity

Glossary 391

azimuth. The angle that measures connectors are typically found on
deviation with respect to the south in 10base2 coaxial Ethernet.
the northern hemisphere, and with
respect to the north in the southern bridge. A network device that con-
hemisphere. See also: inclination nects two networks together at the
data link layer. Bridges do not
route packets at the network layer.
B They simply repeat packets between
two link-local networks. See also:
bandwidth. A measure of fre- router and transparent bridging
quency ranges, typically used for firewall.
digital communications. The word
bandwidth is also commonly used bridge-utils. A Linux software
interchangeably with capacity to package that is required for creat-
refer to the theoretical maximum ing 802.1d Ethernet bridges.
data rate of a digital communica- http://bridge.sourceforge.net/
tions line. See also: capacity,
channel, throughput Broadband Global Access Net-
work (BGAN). One of several stan-
battery. A device used to store en- dards used for satellite Internet ac-
ergy in a photovoltaic system. See cess. See also: Digital Video
also: solar panel, regulator, load, Broadcast (DVB-S) and Very Small
converter, inverter Aperture Terminal (VSAT).

beamwidth. The angular distance broadcast address. On IP net-
between the points on either side of works, the broadcast IP address is
the main lobe of an antenna, where used to send data to all hosts in the
the received power is half that of the local subnet. On Ethernet networks,
main lobe. The beamwidth of an the broadcast MAC address is used
antenna is usually stated for both to send data to all machines in the
the horizontal and vertical planes. same collision domain.

benchmarking. Testing the maxi- bypass diodes. A feature found on
mum performance of a service or some solar panels that prevents the
device. Benchmarking a network formation of hot-spots on shaded
connection typically involves flood- cells, but reduces the maximum
ing the link with traffic and measur- voltage of the panel.
ing the actual observed throughput,

C
both on transmit and receive.

BGAN see Broadband Global Ac-
cess Network CA see Certificate Authority

BNC connector. A coaxial cable Cacti (http://www.cacti.net/). A
connector that uses a "quick- popular web-based monitoring tool
connect" style bayonet lug. BNC written in PHP.

392 Glossary

capacity. The theoretical maximum can be specified as /24 in CIDR no-
amount of traffic provided by a digi- tation.
tal communications line. Often used
interchangeably with bandwidth. circular polarization. An electro-
magnetic field where the electric
captive portal. A mechanism used field vector appears to be rotating
to transparently redirect web brows- with circular motion about the direc-
ers to a new location. Captive portion of propagation, making one full
tals are often used for authentication turn for each RF cycle. See also:
or for interrupting a user's online horizontal polarization, vertical
session (for example, to display an polarization
Acceptable Use Policy).
Class A, B, and C networks. For
cell. Solar panels are made up of some time, IP address space was
several individual cells, which are allocated in blocks of three different
electrically connected to provide a sizes. These were Class A (about
particular value of current and volt- 16 million addresses), Class B
age. Batteries are also made up of (about 65 thousand addresses), and
individual cells connected in series, Class C (255 addresses). While
each of which contributes about 2 CIDR has replaced class-based al-
volts to the battery. location, these classes are often still
referred to and used internally in
Certificate Authority. A trusted en- organizations using private address
tity that issues signed cryptographic space. See also: CIDR notation.
keys. See also: Public Key Infra-
structure, SSL Classless Inter-Domain Routing.
CIDR was developed to improve
channel capacity. The maximum routing efficiency on the Internet
amount of information that can be backbone by enabling route aggrega-
sent using a given bandwidth. See tion and network masks of arbitrary
also: bandwidth, throughput, size. CIDR replaces the old class-
data rate based addressing scheme. See
also: Class A, B, and C networks.
channel. A well defined range of
frequencies used for communica- client. An 802.11 radio card in
tions. 802.11 channels use 22 MHz managed mode. Wireless clients
of bandwidth, but are only separated will join a network created by an
by 5 MHz. See also: Appendix B. access point, and automatically
change the channel to match it. See
CIDR see Classless Inter-Domain also: access point, mesh
Routing
closed network. An access point
CIDR notation. A method used to that does not broadcast its SSID,
define a network mask by specifying often used as a security measure.
the number of bits present. For ex-
ample, the netmask 255.255.255.0

Glossary 393

coax. A round (coaxial) cable with a controls. In NEC2, controls deﬁne
center wire surrounded by a dielec- the RF source in an antenna model.
tric, outer conductor, and tough insu- See also: structure
lating jacket. Antenna cables are
usually made of coax. Coax is short converter. A device used to convert
for "of common axis". DC signals into a different DC or AC
voltage. See also: inverter
collision. On an Ethernet network, a
collision occurs when two devices CPE see Customer Premises
connected to the same physical Equipment
segment attempt to transmit at the
same time. When collisions are de- cron. A Unix facility that allows
tected, devices delay retransmission timed and repeated execution of
for a brief, randomly selected period. programs. See also: at

conductor. A material that easily Customer Premises Equipment.
allows electric or thermal energy to Network equipment (such as a
flow through without much resis- router or bridge) that is installed at
tance. See also: dielectric, insulator a customer's location.

connectionless protocol. A network
protocol (such as UDP) that requires
no session initiation or maintenance.
D
Connectionless protocols typically data link layer. The second layer in
require less overhead than session both the OSI and TCP/IP network
oriented protocols, but do not usually models. Communications at this
offer data protection or packet reas- layer happen directly between
sembly. See also: session oriented nodes. On Ethernet networks, this
protocol. is also sometimes called the MAC
layer.
consistent platform. Maintenance
costs can be reduced by using a data rate. The speed at which
consistent platform, with the same 802.11 radios exchange symbols,
hardware, software, and ﬁrmware which is always higher than the
for many components in a network. available throughput. For example,
the nominal data rate of 802.11g is
constructive interference. When 54 Mbps, while the maximum
two identical waves merge and are throughput is about 20 Mbps). See
in phase, the amplitude of the result- also: throughput
ing wave is twice that of either of the
components. This is called construc- dB see decibel
tive interference. See also: destruc-
tive interference DC see Direct Current

DC/AC Converter. A device that
converts DC power into AC power,

394 Glossary

suitable for use with many appli- DHCP see Dynamic Host Configu-
ances. Also known as an inverter. ration Protocol

DC/DC Converter. A device that dielectric. A non-conductive mate-
changes the voltage of a DC power rial that separates conducting wires
source. See also: linear conver- inside a cable.
sion, switching conversion
Digital Elevation Map (DEM). Data
decibel (dB). A logarithmic unit of that represents the height of terrain
measurement that expresses the for a given geographic area. These
magnitude of power relative to a maps are used by programs such as
reference level. Commonly used Radio Mobile to model electromag-
units are dBi (decibels relative to an netic propagation.
isotropic radiator) and dBm (deci-
bels relative to a milliwatt). Digital Video Broadcast (DVB-S).
One of several standards used for
default gateway. When a router satellite Internet access. See also:
receives a packet destined for a Broadband Global Access Net-
network for which it has no explicit work (BGAN) and Very Small Ap-
route, the packet is forwarded to the erture Terminal (VSAT).
default gateway. The default gate-
way then repeats the process, pos- dipole antenna. The simplest form
sibly sending the packet to its own of omnidirectional antenna.
default gateway, until the packet
reaches its ultimate destination. Direct Current (DC). An electrical
current which remains constant over
default route. A network route that time. DC current is typically used for
points to the default gateway. network equipment, such as access
points and routers. See also: Alter-
Denial of Service (DoS). An attack nating Current
on network resources, usually
achieved by flooding a network with Direct Sequence Spread Spec-
traffic or exploiting a bug in an appli- trum (DSSS). The radio modulation
cation or network protocol. scheme used by 802.11b.

d e p re c i a t i o n . A n a c c o u n t i n g directional antenna. An antenna
method used to save money to that radiates very strongly in a par-
cover the eventual break down of ticular direction. Examples of direc-
equipment. tional antennas include the yagi,
dish, and waveguide antennas. See
destructive interference. When also: omnidirectional antenna,
two identical waves merge and are sectorial antenna
exactly out of phase, the amplitude
of the resulting wave is zero. This is directivity. The ability of an antenna
called destructive interference. See to focus energy in a particular direc-
also: constructive interference tion when transmitting, or to receive

Glossary 395

energy from a particular direction edge. The place where one organi-
when receiving. zation's network meets another.
Edges are defined by the location of
diversity see antenna diversity the external router, which often acts
as a firewall.
DNS see Domain Name Service
electromagnetic spectrum. The
DNS caching. By installing a DNS very wide range of possible fre-
server on your local LAN, DNS re- quencies of electromagnetic energy.
quests for an entire network may be Parts of the electromagnetic spec-
cached locally, improving response trum include radio, microwave, visi-
times. This technique is called DNS ble light, and X rays.
caching.
electromagnetic wave. A wave that
dnsmasq. An open source caching propagates through space without
DNS and DHCP server, available the need for a propagating medium.
from http://thekelleys.org.uk/ It contains an electric and a mag-
netic component. See also: me-
Domain Name Service (DNS). The chanical wave
widely used network protocol that
maps IP addresses to names. elevation see inclination

dominant mode. The lowest fre- end span injectors. An 802.3af
quency that can be transmitted by a Power over Ethernet device that
waveguide of a given size. provides power via the Ethernet ca-
ble. An Ethernet switch that provides
DoS see Denial of Service power on each port is an example of
an end span injector. See also: mid
D S S S s e e D i re c t S e q u e n c e span injectors
Spread Spectrum
end-to-end encryption. An en-
DVB-S see Digital Video Broadcast. crypted connection negotiated by
both ends of a communications ses-
Dynamic Host Configuration Pro- sion. End-to-end encryption can
tocol (DHCP). A protocol used by provide stronger protection than link
hosts to automatically determine layer encryption when used on
their IP address. untrusted networks (such as the
Internet).

E EtherApe. An open source network
visualization tool. Available at
eavesdropper. Someone who inter- http://etherape.sourceforge.net/
cepts network data such as pass-
words, email, voice data, or online Ethereal see Wireshark.
chat.

396 Glossary

Extended Service Set Identifier ing loops need to be resolved for
(ESSID). The name used to identify proper network operations.
an 802.11 network. See also:
closed network free space loss. Power diminished
by geometric spreading of the wave-
external traffic. Network traffic that front, as the wave propagates
originates from, or is destined for, an through space. See also: attenua-
IP address outside your internal tion, free space loss, Appendix C
network, such as Internet traffic.
frequency. The number of whole

F
waves that pass a fixed point in a
period of time. See also: wave-
length, Hertz
firestarter. A graphical front-end for
configuring Linux firewalls available front-to-back ratio. The ratio of the
from http://www.fs-security.com/. maximum directivity of an antenna
to its directivity in the opposite direc-
filter. The default table used in the tion.
Linux netfilter firewall system is the
filter table. This table is used for full duplex. Communications
determining traffic that should be equipment that can send and re-
accepted or denied. ceive at the same time (such as a
telephone). See also: half duplex
firewall. A router that accepts or
denies traffic based on some crite- fwbuilder. A graphical tool that lets
ria. Firewalls are one basic tool you create iptables scripts on a
used to protect entire networks from machine separate from your server,
undesirable traffic. and then transfer them to the server
later. http://www.fwbuilder.org/
flush. To remove all entries in a

G
routing table or netfilter chain.

forwarding. When routers receive
packets that are destined for a dif- gain. The ability of a radio compo-
ferent host or network, they send the nent (such as an antenna or ampli-
packet to the next router closest to fier) to increase the power of a sig-
its ultimate destination. This process nal. See also: decibel
is called forwarding.
gain transfer. Comparing an an-
forwarding loops. A routing mis- tenna under test against a known
configuration where packets are standard antenna, which has a cali-
forwarded cyclically between two or brated gain.
more routers. Catastrophic network
failure is prevented by using the TTL gasification. The production bub-
value on every packet, but forward- bles of oxygen and hydrogen that

Glossary 397

occurs when a battery is over- zontal direction. See also: circular
charged. polarization, vertical polarization

globally routable. An address is- hot-spot. In wireless networks, a
sued by an ISP or RIR that is reach- hot-spot is a location that provides
able from any point on the Internet. Internet access via Wi-Fi, typically
In IPv4, there are approximately four by use of a captive portal. In pho-
billion possible IP addresses, al- tovoltaic systems, a hot-spot oc-
though not all of these are globally curs when a single cell in a solar
routable. panel is shaded, causing it to act as
a resistive load rather than to gen-

H
erate power.

hub. An Ethernet networking device
half duplex. Communications equip- that repeats received data on all
ment that can send or receive, but connected ports. See also: switch.
never both at once (such as a hand-
held radio). See also: full duplex. Huygens principle. A wave model
that proposes an infinite number of
Heliax. High quality coaxial cable potential wavefronts along every
that has a solid or tubular center point of an advancing wavefront.
conductor with a corrugated solid
outer conductor which enables it to Hz see Hertz
flex. See also: coax

Hertz (Hz). A measure of fre-
quency, denoting some number of
I
cycles per second. IANA see Internet Assigned Num-
bers Authority
HF (High-Frequency). Radio
waves from 3 to 30 MHz are re- ICMP see Internet Control Mes-
ferred to as HF. Data networks can sage Protocol
be built on HF that operate at very
long range, but with very low data ICP see Inter-Cache Protocol
capacity.
impedance. The quotient of voltage
hop. Data that crosses one network over current of a transmission line,
connection. A web server may be consisting of a resistance and a re-
several hops away from your local actance. The load impedance must
computer, as packets are forwarded match the source impedance for
from router to router, eventually maximum power transfer (50 for
reaching their ultimate destination. most communications equipment).

horizontal polarization. An elec- inbound traffic. Network packets
tromagnetic field with the electric that originate from outside the local
component moving in a linear hori- network (typically the Internet) and

398 Glossary

are bound for a destination inside Intrusion Detection System (IDS).
the local network. See also: out- A program that watches network
bound traffic. traffic, looking for suspicious data or
behavior patterns. An IDS may
inclination. The angle that marks make a log entry, notify a network
deviation from a horizontal plane. administrator, or take direct action in
See also: azimuth response to undesirable traffic.

infrastructure mode see master inverter see DC/AC Converter
mode
IP see Internet Protocol
insulator see dielectric
iproute2. The advanced routing
Inter-Cache Protocol (ICP). A high tools package for Linux, used for
performance protocol used to com- traffic shaping and other advanced
municate between web caches. techniques. Av a i l a b l e f r o m
http://linux-net.osdl.org/
Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA). The organization iptables. The primary command
that administers various critical parts used to manipulate netfilter firewall
of Internet infrastructure, including rules.
IP address allocation, DNS root
name servers, and protocol service irradiance. The total amount of so-
numbers. lar energy that lights a given area, in
W/m2
Internet Control Message Proto-
col (ICMP). A Network Layer proto- ISM band. ISM is short for Indus-
col used to inform nodes about the trial, Scientific, and Medical. The
state of the network. ICMP is part of ISM band is a set of radio frequen-
the Internet protocol suite. See cies set aside by the ITU for unli-
also: Internet protocol suite. censed use.

Internet layer see network layer isotropic antenna. A hypothetical
antenna that evenly distributes
Internet Protocol (IP). The most com- power in all directions, approximated
mon network layer protocol in use. IP by a dipole.
defines the hosts and networks that
make up the global Internet. IV characteristic curve. A graph
that represents the current that is
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP). provided based on the voltage gen-
The family of communication proto- erated for a certain solar radiation.
cols that make up the Internet.
Some of these protocols include
TCP, IP, ICMP, and UDP. Also
called the TCP/IP protocol suite, or
simply TCP/IP.

Glossary 399

Line of Sight (LOS). If a person
K standing at point A has an unob-
structed view of point B, then point A
knetfilter. A graphical front-end for is said to have a clear Line of Sight
configuring Linux firewalls. Available to point B.
from http://venom.oltrelinux.com/
linear polar coordinates. A graph
known good. In troubleshooting, a system with equally spaced, gradu-
known good is any component that ated concentric circles representing
can be substituted to verify that its an absolute value on a polar projec-
counterpart is in good, working tion. Such graphs are typically used
condition. to represent antenna radiation pat-
terns. See also: logarithmic polar
coordinates
L linear conversion. A DC voltage
conversion method that lowers the
lag. Common term used to describe
voltage by converting excess energy
a network with high latency.
to heat. See also: switching con-
version
lambda ( ) see wavelength
linear polarization. An electro-
LAN see Local Area Network
magnetic wave where the electric
field vector stays in the same plane
latency. The amount of time it takes
all the time. The electric field may
for a packet to cross a network con-
leave the antenna in a vertical orien-
nection. It is often (incorrectly) used
tation, a horizontal orientation, or at
interchangeably with Round Trip
some angle between the two. See
Time (RTT), since measuring the
also: vertical polarization, hori-
RTT of a wide-area connection is
zontal polarization
trivial compared to measuring the
actual latency. See also: Round
link budget. The amount of radio
Trip Time.
energy available to overcome path
losses. If the available link budget
lead-acid batteries. Batteries con-
exceeds the path loss, minimum
sisting of two submerged lead elec-
receive sensitivity of the receiving
trodes in an electrolytic solution of
radio, and any obstacles, then
water and sulfuric acid. See also:
communications should be possible.
stationary batteries
link layer encryption. An encrypted
lease time. In DHCP, IP addresses
connection between link-local de-
are assigned for a limited period of
vices, typically a wireless client and
time, known as the lease time. After
an access point. See also: end-to-
this time period expires, clients must
end encryption
request a new IP address from the
DHCP server.

400 Glossary

link-local. Network devices that are
connected to the same physical
segment communicate with each
M
other directly are said to be link- MAC layer see data link layer
local. A link-local connection cannot
cross a router boundary without us- MAC address. A unique 48 bit number
ing some kind of encapsulation, assigned to every networking device
such as a tunnel or a VPN. when it is manufactured. The MAC ad-
dress is used for link-local communica-
listen. Programs that accept con- tions.
nections on a TCP port are said to
listen on that port. MAC filtering. An access control
method based on the MAC address
load. Equipment in a photovoltaic of communicating devices.
system that consumes energy. See
also: battery, solar panel, regula- MAC table. A network switch must
tor, converter, inverter keep track of the MAC addresses
used on each physical port, in order
Local Area Network (LAN). A net- to efficiently distribute packets. This
work (typically Ethernet) used within information is kept in a table called
an organization. The part of a net- the MAC table.
work that exists just behind an ISP's
router is generally considered to be maintenance-free lead-acid bat-
part of the LAN. See also: WAN. teries see lead-acid batteries

logarithmic polar coordinates. A Man-In-The-Middle (MITM). A
graph system with logarithmically network attack where a malicious
spaced, graduated concentric circles user intercepts all communications
representing an absolute value on a between a client and a server, allow-
polar projection. Such graphs are ing information to be copied or ma-
typically used to represent antenna nipulated.
radiation patterns. See also: linear
polar coordinates managed hardware. Networking
hardware that provides an adminis-
long fat pipe network. A network trative interface, port counters,
connection (such as VSAT) that has SNMP, or other interactive features
high capacity and high latency. In is said to be managed.
order to achieve the best possible
performance, TCP/IP must be tuned managed mode. A radio mode
to match the traffic on such links. used by 802.11 devices that allows
the radio to join a network created
LOS see Line of Sight by an access point. See also: mas-
ter mode, ad-hoc mode, monitor
mode

Glossary 401

master browser. On Windows mesh. A network with no hierarchi-
networks, the master browser is the cal organization, where every node
computer that keeps a list of all the on the network carries the traffic of
computers, shares and printers that every other as needed. Good mesh
are available in Network Neighbor- network implementations are self-
hood or My Network Places. healing, which means that they
automatically detect routing prob-
master mode. A radio mode used lems and fix them as needed.
by 802.11 devices that allows the
radio to create networks just as an message types. Rather that port
access point does. See also: man- numbers, ICMP traffic uses mes-
aged mode, ad-hoc mode, moni- sage types to define the type of in-
tor mode formation being sent. See also:
ICMP.
match condition. In netfilter, a
match condition specifies the criteria method of the worst month. A
that determine the ultimate target for method for calculating the dimen-
a given packet. Packets may be sions of a standalone photovoltaic
matched on MAC address, source system so it will work in the month in
or destination IP address, port num- which the demand for energy is
ber, data contents, or just about any greatest with respect to the available
other property. solar energy. It is the worst month of
the year, as this month with have the
Maximum Depth of Discharge largest ratio of demanded energy to
(DoDmax). The amount of energy available energy.
extracted from a battery in a single
discharge cycle, expressed as a MHF see U.FL
percentage.
microfinance. The provision of
Maximum Power Point (Pmax). The small loans, savings and other basic
financial services to the world s
point where the power supplied by a
poorest people.
solar panel is at maximum.
mid span injectors. A Power over
MC-Card. A very small microwave
Ethernet device inserted between
connector found on Lucent / Orinoco /
an Ethernet switch and the device to
Avaya equipment.
be powered. See also: end span
injectors
mechanical wave. A wave caused
when some medium or object is
milliwatts (mW). A unit of power
swinging in a periodic manner. See
representing one thousandth of a
also: electromagnetic wave
Watt.
Media Access Control layer see
MITM see Man-In-The-Middle
data link layer

402 Glossary

MMCX. A very small microwave door networking components, such
connector commonly found on as antennas and outdoor access
equipment manufactured by Senao points.
and Cisco.
Nagios (http://nagios.org/) A real-
monitor mode. A radio mode used time monitoring tool that logs and
by 802.11 devices not normally used notifies a system administrator
for communications that allows the about service and network outages.
radio passively monitor radio traffic.
See also: master mode, managed NAT see Network Address Trans-
mode, ad-hoc mode lation

monitor port. On a managed nat. The table used in the Linux
switch, one or more monitor ports netfilter firewall system to configure
may be defined that receive traffic Network Address Translation.
sent to all of the other ports. This
allows you to connect a traffic moni- NEC2 see Numerical Electromag-
tor server to the port to observe and netics Code
analyze traffic patterns.
NetBIOS. A session layer protocol
Multi Router Traffic Grapher used by Windows networking for file
(MRTG). An open source tool used and printer sharing. See also: SMB.
for graphing traffic statistics. Avail-
able from http://oss.oetiker.ch/mrtg/ netfilter. The packet filtering
framework in modern Linux kernels
multipath. The phenomenon of re- is known as netfilter. It uses the
flections of a signal reaching their iptables command to manipulate
target along different paths, and filter rules. http://netfilter.org/
therefore at different times.
netmask (network mask). A net-
multipoint-to-multipoint see mask is a 32-bit number that divides
mesh the 16 million available IP addresses
into smaller chunks, called subnets.
mW see milliwatt All IP networks use IP addresses in
combination with netmasks to logi-
My TraceRoute (mtr). A network cally group hosts and networks.
diagnostic tool used as an alterna-
tive to the traditional traceroute pro- NeTraMet. An open source network
gram. http://www.bitwizard.nl/mtr/. flow analysis tool available from
See also: traceroute / tracert. freshmeat.net/projects/netramet/

network address. The lowest IP
N number in a subnet. The network
address is used in routing tables to
N connector. A sturdy microwave specify the destination to be used
connector commonly found on out-

Glossary 403

when sending packets to a logical Nominal Voltage (VN). The operat-
group of IP addresses. ing voltage of a photovoltaic system,
typically 12 or 24 volts.
Network Address Translation
(NAT). NAT is a networking technol- ntop. A network monitoring tool that
ogy that allows many computers to provides extensive detail about con-
share a single, globally routable IP nections and protocol use on a local
address. While NAT can help to area network. http://www.ntop.org/
solve the problem of limited IP ad-
dress space, it creates a technical null. In an antenna radiation pattern,
challenge for two-way services, a null is a zone in which the effective
such as Voice over IP. radiated power is at a minimum.

network detection. Network diag- nulling. A specific case of multi-
nostic tools that display information path interference where the signal
about wireless networks, such as at the receiving antenna is zeroed
the network name, channel, and by the destructive interference of
encryption method used. reflected signals.
network layer. Also called the number of days of autonomy (N).
Internet layer. This is the third layer The maximum number of days that
of the OSI and TCP/IP network a photovoltaic system can operate
models, where IP operates and without significant energy received
Internet routing takes place. from the sun.
network mask see netmask Numerical Electromagnetics
Code (NEC2). A free antenna mod-
ngrep. An open source network se- eling package that lets you build an
curity utility used to find patterns in antenna model in 3D, and then ana-
data flows. Available for free from lyze the antenna s electromagnetic
http://ngrep.sourceforge.net/ response. http://www.nec2.org/

node. Any device capable of send-
ing and receiving data on a network.
Access points, routers, computers, O
and laptops are all examples of
OFDM see Orthogonal Frequency
nodes.
Division Multiplexing
Nominal Capacity (CN). The maxi-
omnidirectional antenna. An an-
mum amount of energy that can be tenna that radiates almost equally in
extracted from a fully charged bat- every direction in the horizontal
tery. It is expressed in Ampere-hours plane. See also: directional an-
(Ah) or Watt-hours (Wh). tenna, sectorial antenna

404 Glossary

one-arm repeater. A wireless re- overdischarge. Discharging a bat-
peater that only uses a single radio, tery beyond its Maximum Depth of
at significantly reduced throughput. Discharge, which results in deterio-
See also: repeater ration of the battery.

onion routing. A privacy tool (such oversubscribe. To allow more users
as Tor) that repeatedly bounces your than the maximum available band-
TCP connections across a number of width can support.
servers spread throughout the Inter-

P
net, wrapping routing information in a
number of encrypted layers.

OR logic. A logical operation that packet. On IP networks, messages
evaluates as true if any of the items sent between computers are broken
being compared also evaluate as into small pieces called packets.
true. See also: AND logic. Each packet includes a source, des-
tination, and other routing informa-
Orthogonal Frequency Division tion that is used to route it to its ulti-
Multiplexing (OFDM) mate destination. Packets are reas-
sembled again at the remote end by
OSI network model. A popular TCP (or another protocol) before
model of network communications being passed to the application.
defined by the ISO/IEC 7498-1
standard. The OSI model consists packet filter. A firewall that oper-
of seven interdependent layers, from ates at the Internet layer by inspect-
the physical through the application. ing source and destination IP ad-
See also: TCP/IP network model. dresses, port numbers, and proto-
cols. Packets are either permitted
outbound traffic. Network packets or discarded depending on the
that originate from the local network packet filter rules.
and are bound for a destination out-
side the local network (typically partition. A technique used by net-
somewhere on the Internet). See work hubs to limit the impact of
also: inbound traffic. computers that transmit excessively.
Hubs will temporarily remove the
overcharge. The state of a battery abusive computer (partition it) from
when charge is applied beyond the the rest of the network, and recon-
limit of the battery's capacity. If en- nect it again after some time. Ex-
ergy is applied to a battery beyond cessive partitioning indicates the
its point of maximum charge, the presence of an excessive bandwidth
electrolyte begins to break down. consumer, such as a peer-to-peer
Regulators will allow a small client or network virus.
amount of overcharge time to a bat-
tery to avoid gasification, but will passive POE injector see Power
remove power before the battery is over Ethernet
damaged.

Glossary 405

path loss. Loss of radio signal due PKI see Public Key Infrastructure
to the distance between communi-
cating stations. plomb. A heavy piece of metal bur-
ied in the earth to improve a ground
Peak Sun Hours (PSH). Average connection.
value of daily irradiation for a given
area. PoE see Power over Ethernet

photovoltaic generator see solar point-to-multipoint. A wireless
panel network where several nodes con-
nect back to a central location. The
photovoltaic solar energy. The use classic example of a point-to-
of solar panels to collect solar en- multipoint network is an access
ergy to produce electricity. See also: point at an ofﬁce with several lap-
thermal solar energy tops using it for Internet access. See
also: point-to-point, multipoint-to-
photovoltaic system. An energy multipoint
system that generates electrical en-
ergy from solar radiation and stores point-to-point. A wireless network
it for later use. A standalone photo- consisting of only two stations, usu-
voltaic system does this without any ally separated by a great distance.
connection to an established power See also: point-to-multipoint,
grid. See also: battery, solar panel, multipoint-to-multipoint
regulator, load, converter, inverter
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). A
physical layer. The lowest layer in network protocol typically used on
both the OSI and TCP/IP network serial lines (such as a dial-up con-
models. The physical layer is the nection) to provide IP connectivity.
actual medium used for communica-
tions, such as copper cable, optic polar plot. A graph where points are
ﬁber, or radio waves. located by projection along a rotat-
ing axis (radius) to an intersection
pigtail. A short microwave cable with one of several concentric cir-
that converts a non-standard con- cles. See also: rectangular plot
nector into something more robust
and commonly available. polarization. The direction of the
electric component of an electro-
ping. A ubiquitous network diagnos- magnetic wave as it leaves the
tic utility that uses ICMP echo retransmitting antenna. See also:
quest and reply messages to deter- horizontal polarization, vertical
mine the round trip time to a network polarization, circular polarization
host. Ping can be used to deter-
mine the location of network prob- polarization mismatch. A state
lems by "pinging" computers in the where a transmitting and receiving
path between the local machine and antenna do not use the same polari-
the ultimate destination. zation, resulting in signal loss.

406 Glossary

policy. In netfilter, the policy is the through the use of filters. Privoxy is
default action to be taken when no often used in conjunction with Tor.
other filtering rules apply. For ex-
ample, the default policy for any proactive routing. A mesh imple-
chain may be set to ACCEPT or mentation where every node knows
DROP. about the existence of every other
node in the mesh cloud as well as
port counters. Managed switches which nodes may be used to route
and routers provide statistics for traffic to them. Each node maintains
each network port called port count- a routing table covering the whole
ers. These statistics may include mesh cloud. See also: reactive
inbound and outbound packet and routing
byte counts, as well as errors and
retransmissions. protocol analyzer. A diagnostic
program used to observe and disas-
power. The amount of energy in a semble network packets. Protocol
certain amount of time. analyzers provide the greatest pos-
sible detail about individual packets.
Power over Ethernet (PoE). A
technique used to supply DC power protocol stack. A set of network
to devices using the Ethernet data protocols that provide interdepend-
cable. See also: end span injec- ent layers of functionality. See also:
tors, mid span injectors OSI network model and TCP/IP
network model.
PPP see Point to Point Protocol
PSH see Peak Sun Hours
presentation layer. The sixth layer
of the OSI networking model. This Public key cryptography. A form of
layer deals with data representation, encryption used by SSL, SSH, and
such as MIME encoding or data other popular security programs.
compression. Public key cryptography allows en-
crypted information to be exchanged
private address space. A set of over an untrusted network without
reserved IP addresses outlined in the need to distribute a secret key.
RFC1918. Private address space is
frequently used within an organiza- Public Key Infrastructure (PKI). A
tion, in conjunction with Network security mechanism used in con-
Address Translation (NAT). The junction with public key cryptogra-
reserved private address space phy to prevent the possibility of
ranges include 10.0.0.0/8, Man-In-The-Middle attacks. See
172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. also: certificate authority
See also: NAT.

Privoxy (http://www.privoxy.org/). A
web proxy that provides anonymity

Glossary 407

Q
dresses are administered by the
IANA. The space has been divided
into large subnets, which are dele-
quick blow. A type of fuse that im- gated to one of the five regional
mediately blows if the current flow- Internet registries, each with author-
ing through it is higher than their ity over a large geographic area.
rating. See also: slow blow
regulator. The component of a pho-
tovoltaic system that assures that
R the battery is working in appropriate
conditions. It avoids overcharging
or undercharging the battery, both
radiation pattern see antenna
of which are very detrimental to the
pattern.
life of the battery. See also: solar
panel, battery, load, converter,
radio. The portion of the electro-
inverter
magnetic spectrum in which waves
can be generated by applying alter-
repeater. A node that is configured
nating current to an antenna.
to rebroadcast traffic that is not des-
tined for the node itself, often used
reactive routing. A mesh imple-
to extend the useful range of a net-
mentation where routes are com-
work.
puted only when it is necessary to
send data to a specific node. See
Request for Comments (RFC).
also: proactive routing
RFCs are a numbered series of
documents published by the Internet
realtime monitoring. A network
Society that document ideas and
monitoring tool that performs unat-
concepts related to Internet tech-
tended monitoring over long periods,
nologies. Not all RFCs are actual
and notifies administrators immedi-
standards, but many are either ap-
ately when problems arise.
proved explicitly by the IETF, or
eventually become de facto stan-
reciprocity. An antenna's ability to
dards. RFCs can be viewed online
maintain the same characteristics
at http://rfc.net/.
regardless if whether it is transmit-
ting or receiving.
return loss. A logarithmic ratio
measured in dB that compares the
recombinant batteries see lead-
power reflected by the antenna to
acid batteries
the power that is fed into the an-
tenna from the transmission line.
rectangular plot. A graph where
See also: impedance
points are located on a simple grid.
See also: polar plot
reverse polarity (RP). Proprietary
microwave connectors, based on a
Regional Internet Registrars
standard connector but with the
(RIR). The 4 billion available IP ad-
genders reversed. The RP-TNC is

408 Glossary

probably the most common reverse forwarded. If a router receives a
polarity connector, but others (such packet for a network that is not in
as RP-SMA and RP-N) are also the routing table, the router uses its
commonplace. default gateway. Routers operate at
the Network Layer. See also:
RF transmission line. The connec- bridge and default gateway.
tion (typically coax, Heliax, or a
waveguide) between a radio and an RP see Reverse Polarity
antenna.
RP-TNC. A common proprietary
RIR see Regional Internet Regis- version of the TNC microwave con-
trars nector, with the genders reversed.
The RP-TNC is often found on
Round Trip Time (RTT). The equipment manufactured by
amount of time it takes for a packet Linksys.
to be acknowledged from the remote
end of a connection. Frequently RRD see Round Robin Database
confused with latency.
RRDtool. A suite of tools that allow
rogue access points. An unauthor- you to create and modify RRD data-
ized access point incorrectly in- bases, as well as generate useful
stalled by legitimate users, or by a graphs to present the data.
malicious person who intends to RRDtool is used to keep track of
collect data or do harm to the net- time-series data (such as network
work. bandwidth, machine room tempera-
ture, or server load average) and
Round Robin Database (RRD). A can display that data as an average
database that stores information in a over time. RRDtool is available from
very compact way that does not ex- http://oss.oetiker.ch/rrdtool/
pand over time. This is the data
format used by RRDtool and other rsync (http://rsync.samba.org/). An
network monitoring tools. open source incremental ﬁle transfer
utility used for maintaining mirrors.
router. A device that forwards
packets between different networks. RTT see Round Trip Time
The process of forwarding packets
to the next hop is called routing.

routing. The process of forwarding
S
packets between different networks. SACK see Selective Acknowl-
A device that does this is called a edgment
router.
scattering. Signal loss due to ob-
routing table. A list of networks jects in the path between two nodes.
and IP addresses kept by a router to See also: free space loss, at-
determine how packets should be tenuation

Glossary 409

sectorial antenna. An antenna that shared medium. A link-local net-
radiates primarily in a specific area. work where every node can observe
The beam can be as wide as 180 the traffic of every other node.
degrees, or as narrow as 60 de-
grees. See also: directional an- Shorewall (http://shorewall.net/). A
tenna, omnidirectional antenna configuration tool used for setting up
netfilter firewalls without the need to
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). An learn iptables syntax.
end-to-end encryption technology
built into virtually all web browsers. sidelobes. No antenna is able to
SSL uses public key cryptography radiate all the energy in one pre-
and a trusted public key infra- ferred direction. Some is inevitably
structure to secure data communi- radiated in other directions. These
cations on the web. Whenever you smaller peaks are referred to as
visit a web URL that starts with sidelobes.
https, you are using SSL.
signal generator. A transmitter that
Selective Acknowledgment (SACK). emits continuously at a specific fre-
A mechanism used to overcome quency.
TCP inefficiencies on high latency
networks, such as VSAT. Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP). A protocol de-
Server Message Block (SMB). A signed to facilitate the exchange of
network protocol used in Windows management information between
networks to provide file sharing network devices. SNMP is typically
services. See also: NetBIOS. used to poll network switches and
routers to gather operating statistics.
Service Set ID (SSID) see Ex-
tended Service Set Identifier site-wide web cache. While all
modern web browsers provide a
session layer. Layer five of the OSI local data cache, large organizations
model, the Session Layer manages can improve efficiency by installing a
logical connections between appli- site-wide web cache, such as Squid.
cations. A site-wide web cache keeps a copy
of all requests made from within an
session oriented protocol. A net- organization, and serves the local
work protocol (such as TCP) that copy on subsequent requests. See
requires initialization before data also: Squid.
can be exchanged, as well as some
clean-up after data exchange has slow blow. A fuse that allows a cur-
completed. Session oriented proto- rent higher than its rating to pass for
cols typically offer error correction a short time. See also: quick blow
and packet reassembly, while con-
nectionless protocols do not. See SMA. A small threaded microwave
also: connectionless protocol. connector.

410 Glossary

SMB see Server Message Block should have low latency and more
than enough capacity to carry the
SmokePing. A latency measure- traffic of its users. See also: band-
ment tool that measures, stores and width, capacity, and latency.
displays latency, latency distribution
and packet loss all on a single split horizon DNS. A technique
graph. SmokePing is available from used to serve different answers to
http://oss.oetiker.ch/smokeping/ DNS requests based on the source
of the request. Split horizon is used
SNMP see Simple Network Man- to direct internal users to a different
agement Protocol set of servers than Internet users.

Snort (http://www.snort.org/). A spoof. To impersonate a network
very popular open source intrusion device, user, or service.
detection system. See also: Intru-
sion Detection System. spot check tools. Network moni-
toring tools that are run only when
SoC see State of Charge needed to diagnose a problem.
Ping and traceroute are examples of
solar module see solar panel spot check tools.

solar panel. The component of a Squid. A very popular open source
photovoltaic system used to con- web proxy cache. It is flexible, ro-
vert solar radiation into electricity. bust, full-featured, and scales to
See also: battery, regulator, load, support networks of nearly any size.
converter, inverter http://www.squid-cache.org/

solar panel array. A set of solar SSID see Extended Service Set
panels wired in series and/or paral- Identifier
lel in order to provide the necessary
energy for a given load. SSL see Secure Sockets Layer

solar power charge regulator see standalone photovoltaic system
regulator see photovoltaic system

spectrum see electromagnetic State of Charge (SoC). The
spectrum amount of charge present in a bat-
tery, determined by the current volt-
spectrum analyzer. A device that age and type of battery.
provides a visual representation of
the electromagnetic spectrum. See stateful inspection. Firewall rules
also: Wi-Spy that are aware of the the state asso-
ciated with a given packet. The state
Speed. A generic term used to refer is not part of the packet as transmit-
to the responsiveness of a network ted over the Internet, but is deter-
connection. A "high-speed" network mined by the firewall itself. New,

Glossary 411

established, and related connections clude ACCEPT, DROP, LOG, and
may all be taken into consideration REJECT.
when filtering packets. Stateful in-
spection is sometimes called con- TCP see Transmission Control
nection tracking. Protocol

stationary batteries. Batteries de- TCP acknowledgment spoofing
signed to have a fixed location and
in scenarios where the power con- TCP window size. The TCP pa-
sumption is more or less irregular. rameter that defines how much data
Stationary batteries can accommo- that may be sent before an ACK
date deep discharge cycles, but they packet is returned from the receiving
are not designed to produce high side. For instance, a window size of
currents in brief periods of time. See 3000 would mean that two packets
also: lead-acid batteries of 1500 bytes each will be sent, after
which the receiving end will either
structure. In NEC2, a numerical ACK the chunk or request retrans-
description of where the different mission.
parts of the antenna are located,
and how the wires are connected TCP/IP see Internet protocol suite
up. See also: controls
TCP/IP network model. A popular
subnet mask see netmask simplification of the OSI network
model that is used with Internet net-
subnets. A subset of a range of IP works. The TCP/IP model consists
networks, defined by netmasks. of five interdependent layers, from
the physical through the application.
switch. A network device that pro- See also: OSI network model.
vides a temporary, dedicated con-
nection between communicating tcpdump. A popular open source
devices. See also: hub. packet capture and analysis tool
available at http://www.tcpdump.org/.
switching conversion. A DC volt- See also: WinDump and Wireshark.
age conversion method that uses a
magnetic component to temporarily Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
store the energy and transform it to (TKIP). An encryption protocol used
another voltage. Switching conver- in conjunction with WPA to improve
sion is much more efficient than lin- the security of a communications
ear conversion. session.

thermal solar energy. Energy col-
T lected from the sun in the form of
heat. See also: photovoltaic solar
target. In netfilter, the action to be energy
taken once a packet matches a rule.
Some possible netfilter targets in-

412 Glossary

thrashing. The state when a com- traceroute / tracert. A ubiquitous
puter has exhausted the available network diagnostic utility often used
RAM and must use the hard disk for in conjunction with ping to determine
temporary storage, greatly reducing the location of network problems.
system performance. The Unix version is called
traceroute, while the Windows ver-
throughput. The actual amount of sion is tracert. Both use ICMP echo
information per second flowing requests with increasing TTL values
through a network connection, dis- to determine which routers are used
regarding protocol overhead. to connect to a remote host, and
also display latency statistics. An-
throughput testing tools. Tools other variant is tracepath, which
that measure the actual bandwidth uses a similar technique with UDP
available between two points on a packets. See also: mtr.
network.
traction batteries see lead-acid
Time To Live (TTL). A TTL value batteries
acts as a deadline or emergency
brake to signal a time when the data Transmission Control Protocol
should be discarded. In TCP/IP net- (TCP). A session oriented protocol
works, the TTL is a counter that that operates at the Transport Layer,
starts at some value (such as 64) providing packet reassembly, con-
and is decremented at each router gestion avoidance, and reliable de-
hop. If the TTL reaches zero, the livery. TCP is an integral protocol
packet is discarded. This mecha- used by many Internet applications,
nism helps reduce damage caused including HTTP and SMTP. See
by routing loops. In DNS, the TTL also: UDP.
defines the amount of time that a
particular zone record should be transmission power. The amount
kept before it must be refreshed. In of power provided by the radio
Squid, the TTL defines how long a transmitter, before any antenna gain
cached object may be kept before it or line losses.
must be again retrieved from the
original website. transparent bridging firewall. A
firewall technique that introduces a
TKIP see Temporal Key Integrity bridge that selectively forwards
Protocol packets based on firewall rules.
One benefit of a transparent bridg-
TNC connector. A common, sturdy ing firewall is that it does not require
threaded microwave connector. an IP address. See also: bridge.

Tor (http://www.torproject.org/). An transparent cache. A method of
onion routing tool that provides implementing a site-wide web cache
good protection against traffic that requires no configuration on the
analysis. web clients. Web requests are si-
lently redirected to the cache, which

Glossary 413

U
makes the request on behalf of the
client. Transparent caches cannot
use authentication, which makes it
impossible to implement traffic ac- U.FL. A very tiny microwave con-
counting at the user level. See also: nector commonly used on mini-PCI
site-wide web cache, Squid. radio cards.

transparent proxy. A caching proxy UDP see User Datagram Protocol
installed so that users web requests
are automatically forwarded to the unintentional users. Laptop users
proxy server, without any need to who accidentally associate to the
manually configure web browsers to wrong wireless network.
use it.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).
transport layer. The third layer of Cable used for 10baseT and
the OSI and TCP/IP network mod- 100baseT Ethernet, consisting of
els, which provides a method of four pairs of twisted wires.
reaching a particular service on a
given network node. Examples of Useful Capacity (Cu ). The usable
protocols that operate at this layer
capacity of a battery, equal to the
are TCP and UDP.
product of the Nominal Capacity
and the Maximum Depth of Dis-
trending. A type of network monitor-
ing tool that performs unattended charge.
monitoring over long periods, and
plots the results on a graph. Trend- User Datagram Protocol (UDP). A
ing tools allow you to predict future connectionless protocol (at the
behavior of your network, which transport layer) commonly used for
helps you plan for upgrades and video and audio streaming.
changes.
UTP see Unshielded Twisted Pair
TTL see Time To Live

tunnel. A form of data encapsula- V
tion that wraps one protocol stack
within another. This is often used in valve regulated lead acid battery
conjunction with encryption to pro- (VRLA) see lead-acid batteries
tect communications from potential
eavesdroppers, while eliminating the vertical polarization. An electro-
need to support encryption within magnetic field with the electric com-
the application itself. Tunnels are ponent moving in a linear vertical
often used conjunction with VPNs. direction. Most wireless consumer
electronic devices use vertical po-
larization. See also: circular polari-
zation, vertical polarization

414 Glossary

Very Small Aperture Terminal See also: Broadband Global Ac-
(VSAT). One of several standards cess Network (BGN) and Digital
used for satellite Internet access. Video Broadcast (DVB-S).
VSAT is the most widely deployed

W
satellite technology used in Africa.
See also: Broadband Global Ac-
cess Network (BGAN) and Digital
Video Broadcast (DVB-S). WAN see Wide Area Network

video sender. A 2.4 GHz video War drivers. Wireless enthusiasts
transmitter that can be used as an who are interested in finding the
inexpensive signal generator. physical location of wireless net-
works.
Virtual Private Network (VPN). A
tool used to join two networks to- wavelength. The distance meas-
gether over an untrusted network ured from a point on one wave to
(such as the Internet). VPNs are the equivalent part of the next, for
often used to connect remote users example from the top of one peak to
to an organization's network when the next. Also known as lambda ( ).
traveling or working from home.
VPNs use a combination of encryp- WEP see Wired Equivalent Privacy
tion and tunneling to secure all net-
work traffic, regardless of the appli- wget. An open source command
cation being used. See also: tun- line tool for downloading web pages.
nel. http://www.gnu.org/software/wget/

VoIP (Voice over IP). A technology Wi-Fi. A marketing brand owned by
that provides telephone-like features the Wi-Fi Alliance that is used to
over an Internet connection. Exam- refer to various wireless networking
ples of popular VoIP clients include technologies (including 802.11a,
Skype, Gizmo Project, MSN Mes- 802.11b, and 802.11g). Wi-Fi is
senger, and iChat. short for Wireless Fidelity.

VPN see Virtual Private Network. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). A
fairly strong link layer encryption
VRLA see valve regulated lead protocol supported by most modern
acid battery Wi-Fi equipment.

VSAT see Very Small Aperture Wi-Spy. An inexpensive 2.4 GHz
Terminal spectrum analysis tool available
from http://www.metageek.net/.
Very Small Aperture Terminal
(VSAT). One of several standards Wide Area Network (WAN). Any
used for satellite Internet access. long distance networking technol-
VSAT is the most widely deployed ogy. Leased lines, frame relay,
satellite technology used in Africa. DSL, fixed wireless, and satellite all

Glossary 415

typically implement wide area net-
works. See also: LAN.

wiki. A web site that allows any user
to edit the contents of any page.
One of the most popular public wikis
is http://www.wikipedia.org/

window scale. A TCP enhancement
deﬁned by RFC1323 that allows
TCP window sizes larger than 64KB.

WinDump. The Windows version of
tcpdump. It is available from
http://www.winpcap.org/windump/

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). A
somewhat secure link layer en-
cryption protocol supported by vir-
tually all 802.11a/b/g equipment.

Wireless Fidelity see Wi-Fi.

wireshark. A free network protocol
analyzer for Unix and Windows.
http://www.wireshark.org/

WPA see Wi-Fi Protected Access

Z
Zabbix (http://www.zabbix.org/) A
realtime monitoring tool that logs
and notiﬁes a system administrator
about service and network outages.

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