Work-based learning_Handbook.pdf

A handbook for policy makers and social partners
in ETF partner countries
Work-based learning

02
Contents
Introduction 04
What is work-based learning 05
Why work-based learning matters 06
Work-based learning and middle- and low-income countries 11
1. Making a choice between different types of work-based learning 16
1.1 Policy issues 16
1.2 The main types of work-based learning programmes 16
2. Connecting work-based learning and learning in the classroom 33
2.1 Alternatives or complements? 33
2.2 Integrating and coordinating learning at work and learning in the classroom 34
3. Starting and expanding work-based learning programmes 37
3.1 National examples 37
3.2 Policy lessons 41
4. Ensuring the quality of work-based learning 44
4.1 A framework 44
4.2 Strengthening the capacity of enterprises and working with them 46
4.3 Practical tools for students and enterprises 47
4.4 Formal quality assurance mechanisms 49
4.5 Raising the quality of informal apprenticeships 52
5. Assessing and recognising work-based learning 54
6. Financing work-based learning 58
6.1 Introduction to financing policy issues 58
6.2 Issues and examples relating to the financing of work-based learning programmes 60
Prepared for the ETF by Richard Sweet
The contents of this handbook are the sole responsibility of the author
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ETF or the EU institutions.
PDF ISBN 978-92-9157-699-9 doi:10.2816/018079 TA-01-18-822-EN-N
@ European Training Foundation, 2018 (second edition, first published in 2014) – Cover photo: ETF/Alastair Macphail
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

03
7. Governing work-based learning 70
7
.1 What is governance? 70
7
.2 What is good governance? 72
7
.3 What does this mean in practice? 73
Annex: Benchmarking criteria for quality in apprenticeship of the European Association of Craft, Small
and Medium-sized Enterprises 77
Abbreviations 78
Glossary 79
Bibliography 82

04
¹
It complements other reports on work-based
learning that have been published by the
European Commission and its agencies,
including the European Training Foundation
(ETF), which can be consulted for detailed
references to research on the benefits of
work-based learning. See details at the end
of this handbook.
2

A glossary of some of the common terms
used in discussion of work-based learning
can be found at the end of this handbook.
All of us learn when we work. We watch our fellow workers and imitate them. We make mistakes and do better the next time. More
experienced workers show us how to do things. Much of this learning is not systematic, and it is not formally organised. It often occurs
randomly or by chance, and so some workers benefit while others do not. Sometimes it is useful, and sometimes it is not.
This handbook has been written to help policy makers and social partners – organisations that represent employers and employees
– to understand some of the ways in which learning in the workplace can be encouraged and how its quality can be improved. It is
also intended to help them to understand some of the ways that such learning can be organised in a structured way so that it benefits
learners, enterprises and employees, and so that it provides wider benefits for the labour market and the economy as a whole1
.
Policy makers, social partners, and vocational education and training (VET) institutions (schools, colleges and training centres) all sit
outside individual enterprises. The handbook tries to show what they can do in a practical way to help enterprises to introduce and
improve structured work-based learning2
.
•
It concentrates on work-based learning that is part of VET, but is not limited to this.
•
It has a particular focus on the needs and circumstances of middle- and low-income countries.
•
It tries to focus on opportunities – on what is possible, not on problems and barriers.
•
As far as possible it tries to suggest options rather than provide solutions.
The handbook deals with nine topics:
•
why work-based learning matters;
•
features of middle- and low-income countries that should be taken into account when thinking about work-based learning
programmes;
•
the different types of work-based learning programmes, and what should be considered when choosing between them;
•
the relationship between work-based learning and learning that takes place in classrooms;
•
some of the ways in which work-based learning programmes can be started and expanded;
•
how to make sure that work-based learning programmes are of high quality;
•
how to assess and recognise work-based learning;
•
financing work-based learning;
•
governing and managing work-based learning programmes.
Introduction
04

05
05
Work-based learning refers to learning that occurs when people do real work. This work can be paid or unpaid, but it must be real work
that leads to the production of real goods and services.
•
Some enterprises, particularly large ones, have their own training classrooms or workshops, and employees take time away from
work to attend training sessions in them. This type of training was very common in many countries of the former Soviet Union.
This is not work-based learning. It is simply classroom-based learning that happens to take place in an enterprise rather than in an
educational institution.
•
This handbook concentrates on work-based learning that is part of VET. This type of learning is hardly ever stand-alone, but is usually
combined with classroom-based learning.
•
Some schools and colleges use virtual firms, practice firms, simulations and the like. These are not a substitute for the real thing,
as they cannot create all of the features of a real workplace, but they can be useful when the alternative is difficult to access.
Section 1.2 discusses this in more detail.
What is work-based learning?

06
Benefits for stakeholders
There are a number of reasons for policy makers, individual companies and social partners to be interested in introducing, expanding
and improving the quality of work-based learning.
•
From the enterprises’ point of view, workplaces in which employees constantly learn new skills and new ways of doing things
tend to be more productive and more profitable. They tend to be more innovative, be better at using employees’ knowledge to
improve product quality and customer service, and have lower staff turnover.
•
From the learners’ point of view, work-based learning can make their programmes of study more interesting and connect them
more directly to the world of work. It can improve their job prospects by giving them more relevant work skills and by connecting
them to employers who may offer them jobs after they graduate. This can be an important way of expanding opportunities and
increasing social inclusion among groups that are disadvantaged in the labour market.
•
From the employees’ point of view, the chance to learn new things makes work more interesting. It encourages employees to
be more interested in improving their career prospects, and increases the chances that they will undertake formal VET.
•
For public policy makers in initial, post-secondary and continuing VET, work-based learning:
•
produces higher-quality skills that are more relevant to real work situations than does learning that occurs entirely in the
classroom; and it produces skills that are likely to be more up to date with current practices in the workplace;
•
helps to strengthen cooperation between education and business, and to create strong links, both for individual students and
for the system as a whole, between vocational education and the real demands of the labour market;
•
increases the link between learners and the labour market and so improves their chances of getting a job after they complete
their training;
•
involves employers in designing and managing VET, thus increasing their confidence in the system;
•
makes economic sense, with costs shared between employers and government rather than all being met from the public
purse; this means that government budgets should go further;
•
makes greater use of plant and equipment on employer premises for training, and so reduces the need to purchase expensive
training equipment;
•
can create learning opportunities that many publicly financed VET schools and colleges cannot afford.
•
For those who run schools and colleges, work-based learning:
•
can be a powerful way to develop generic skills such as team-work and problem solving, and basic work habits such as punctuality;
•
shows students the relevance of their courses to future jobs, and so makes them more interested in studying; this can be
important for increasing participation and outcomes for disadvantaged students;
Why work-based learning matters

07
What encourages employers to take part?
Employers take part in work-based learning programmes for a number of reasons. One obvious reason, which applies to all types of
programme, is that they are aware of the programmes and of their benefits. If they do not know about programmes, they are unlikely
to take part. This highlights the importance of awareness raising, marketing and communication, in which employer organisations,
trade unions and governments should all be involved. Marketing work-based learning programmes to small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs), who are the least likely to know about them, is particularly important.
The reasons for taking part can depend on the nature of the programme and its quality. For example, in programmes such as
work experience and unpaid work placements, where contact with the workplace is brief and those who participate are
unpaid students, employers often take part so that they can screen trainees and check how suitable they would be as future
workers, or to show that they are good members of their community or their industry, but expect few other direct business
benefits.
Programmes such as apprenticeship, in which extensive training is provided over a long period, can produce more direct business
benefits.
•
Apprenticeships can meet the specific skill needs of a business more cost-effectively than recruiting skilled workers from the
external labour market, as apprentices who have been trained in and understand the specific needs of the business can be more
immediately productive than workers recruited from outside.
•
can be used in career guidance programmes to teach young people about what is involved in jobs and careers;
•
leads to better school-to-work outcomes: young people who have been involved in work-based learning are more likely to
get jobs, as their skills are more relevant to employers’ needs, they have better basic work habits, and their contacts with
employers are stronger.
•
For policy makers in public employment services, work-based learning:
•
can re-motivate those who are long-term unemployed and maintain their motivation to seek work;
•
increases unemployed people’s contact with employers, and so can increase their chances of getting a job;
•
is a way to develop new skills in a more interesting and relevant way than classroom-based training, particularly for people
who have low levels of education.

08
•
They can be cost-neutral, or can even result in a net gain, when the productive contribution of apprentices offsets or exceeds the firm’s
training costs. For firms to be able to recover their training costs over the period of the training, the following conditions need to be met.
•
Apprentices need to be involved in productive work processes that develop recognised vocational skills as early as possible.
This requires careful attention to the recruitment of quality apprentices so that motivation is high and drop-out rates are low
(and this is easier where career guidance for potential apprentices is effective). It requires high-quality training in the workplace
to quickly develop apprentices’ skills. It also requires a high level of investment in training by the firm.
•
Apprentices’ wages (or net wage costs if public subsidies are involved) need to be relatively low compared to the wages of
skilled workers. However, to avoid apprentices being used simply as cheap workers, it is essential that high-quality training and
the future benefit of their skills balance the lower wages that are paid during the training period.
•
Such programmes produce a pool of skilled workers who can be promoted into more senior roles in the business in future years,
and who can meet the firm’s future needs for skilled workers.
•
Apprenticeships can reduce labour turnover, as apprentices who are trained by a company are more likely to stay with it.
•
They allow apprentices to develop the company’s values and ethos, and this is important in cases where apprentices stay with
the company after training.
SMEs dominate the labour market in many ETF partner countries. Being able to obtain net financial benefits during the training period
can be particularly important for SMEs, as such firms are less likely than large firms to retain graduate apprentices as skilled workers.
Training networks may be a way to reduce training costs for small firms, and so increase their willingness to train apprentices.
Examples of these are given in Section 2.2.
Key policy challenges of work-based learning
Companies often have large and well-organised internal work-based learning programmes as part of their human resource management
systems. For example, employees can be rotated through different sections of the firm, linked to a mentor, or given challenging new job
assignments or projects.These can be purely internal, and of little direct concern for policy makers. However, when these work-based
learning programmes are linked to public education and training – for example, if students divide their time between the classroom and
the workplace, if they have a curriculum that is common across many enterprises, or if employees receive public certificates as a result
of such a programme – then public policy makers and employer and employee organisations become involved.
Similarly, many VET institutions have programmes that take place only in the classroom. However, when these programmes are
linked to enterprises – for example, if students divide their time between the classroom and the workplace, and if they have a
curriculum that is divided between the classroom and the enterprise – then public policy makers and employer and employee
organisations become involved.

09
Cooperation and coordination: perhaps the most important challenge
Structured work-based learning programmes have a number of distinctive features that policy makers and employer and employee
organisations need to take into account. Perhaps the most important is that no single ministry or organisation on its own can
implement them. They are not like company internal training programmes or school and college courses, which can be conducted
by firms, schools or colleges alone. Ensuring that such programmes are successful requires every key partner to work together.
In practice this usually means more than one ministry (for example, education and labour) as well as employer and employee
organisations. It means individual schools, colleges and enterprises working together, not just national employer and employee
organisations and government ministries. Moreover, things need to be done at more than one level: nationally, regionally and locally.
Coordination and cooperation are at the heart of successful structured work-based learning programmes.
The apprenticeship programme at Interlinge, Casablanca
Interlinge is a lingerie manufacturer in Casablanca (Morocco) that depends heavily on exports to a number of major European
customers. Since 2004 the company has become very involved in apprenticeship training as a response to the need to increase output
and quality through higher skill levels, as well as a shortage of appropriately skilled workers, despite high levels of unemployment.With
the support of the German aid agency GTZ, Interlinge has created its own training centre to provide the classroom-based elements of
its apprenticeship programme, and it now recruits new workers only through apprenticeship. Apprenticeship is the entry route for all
categories of workers – for example mechanics and secretaries – not just those involved in clothing production. Apprenticeship is now
a key part of the firm’s human resource strategy: improving the quality of skills and training is a key element in its business strategy.
The firm has used its apprenticeship programme as a means of introducing, through newly recruited workers, a team-based and multi-
skilled form of work organisation.This ensures that all workers acquire a breadth of skills and regularly rotate through a wide range of
different tasks.The link between a strategy to increase skill levels through a combination of training and more effective work organisation
has helped to change the enterprise culture towards greater responsiveness to the market and increased emphasis on the importance
of people.This has resulted in a fall in turnover and absenteeism rates, and a rise in productivity of around 15% over a three-year period.
Extract from Sweet (2009)
Other challenges for work-based learning
Many of the other key challenges for work-based learning are discussed in this handbook, including how to decide the best combination of
work- and classroom-based learning; how to start programmes and then sustain and expand them; how to decide which model of work-
based learning is the best for a specific purpose; how to finance programmes; and how to make sure that the quality of programmes is high.

10
Work-based learning – Everyone wins
Skills
Productivity
Motivation
Jobs
Employers
Learners
Employees
Public
Employment
Service
Schools and
colleges
Vocational
education and
training
administrators

11
Some examples of work-based learning in middle- and low-income countries
Many middle- and low-income countries have work-based learning programmes as part of their VET systems. Many have programmes
that have been introduced relatively recently. This includes a number of ETF partner countries. Policy makers and the social partners can
learn a great deal from these. The following examples illustrate the diversity of these programmes.
• Algeria has a well-developed formal apprenticeship system that sits alongside a strong tradition of informal apprenticeships. Based
on legislation that was originally passed in 1975 and 1981, apprenticeship contracts cover occupations at semi-skilled, skilled, highly
skilled, technician and advanced technician levels. Apprenticeships can last between 12 and 36 months, and two-thirds of the total
time is spent within the enterprise; theoretical instruction takes place at public VET institutions or other training centres. In 2011,
250 000 young people were apprentices, accounting for around 40% of all those enrolled in VET.
• In Georgia a collaboration scheme betweenTbilisi State University and Georgian enterprises to train company employees within a
work-based learning programme is implemented through the EU’s Chemlab project, supported and advised by the South Caucasus
and Georgia Private Sector Development Programmes of GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, Germany’s
international aid agency).The university offers theoretical and practical training that is complemented by real workplace learning in
two partner companies. It is a good example of a work-based learning programme at tertiary level in which sharing resources and
competences offers a solution for SMEs that are unable to offer a full range of training courses to their employees.
• In Kosovo3
a relatively new programme at the International Business College of Mitrovica builds three-month internships into all
sub-degree- and degree-level courses in marketing and management, environmental and agricultural management, and public
administration. Students must report on what they have learned in their placements against the learning objectives set for the
internship. The college supplements internships with other forms of practical and work-based learning, such as field visits, guest
lecturers and work-based projects.
• In Moldova, internships, which are normally unpaid, are an integral part of all upper secondary VET programmes. All students must
complete at least one internship, and internships normally last for two to three months. Contracts between specific vocational
schools and specific employers make it easier for students to find places. Students are monitored by teachers from their schools
during their placements.
• In Morocco formal initial VET is offered in three forms: school-based, apprenticeship and alternance. These sit alongside a long
tradition of informal apprenticeships in some industries. Apprenticeships are a relatively recent initiative, and are targeted at school
drop-outs. The alternance model, which is seen as having equal status to school-based programmes, is based on principles built
into the German dual system of apprenticeship training, and is supported by comprehensive legislation. It is largely concentrated
in programmes that lead to the three highest levels of vocational qualifications. Alternance programmes normally last for two, or
in some cases three, years, and at least half of the time is spent in the enterprise. All trainees and employers must sign a contract
Work-based learning and middle-
and low-income countries
3

This designation is without prejudice to
positions on status, and is in line with
UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ Opinion on
the Kosovo declaration of independence.

12
of training. Trainees are paid a subsidy by the employer, but are not legally regarded as employees. Those in the alternance system
account for around 14% of all initial VET students.
• In Turkey work-based learning, known as traineeship, is compulsory in all upper secondary technical and vocational education:
technical and vocational education accounts for around 44% of all secondary education. Traineeships sit alongside a large
apprenticeship system, and both are governed by the same 1986 law. Under this law, all companies with 20 or more employees must
provide training places for secondary vocational education students, although the extent to which this actually occurs is not clear.Trainees
are paid a wage that must not be less than 30% of the minimum wage; a contract is signed by the student and the employer.
• In Ukraine practical training in enterprises is a mandatory part of all secondary level VET courses. These courses account for about
26% of all upper secondary students. Around 20–30% of the total course time should be spent in an enterprise and a contract is
drawn up for each placement. Students are paid a salary, part of which the enterprise pays to the school.
All these examples are from countries that are classified by the World Bank as either lower-middle-income or upper-middle-income
countries. The table below shows the ETF’s partner countries classified in this way. This suggests that a lower level of gross domestic
product (GDP) is not necessarily an impediment to the introduction of work-based learning programmes.
ETF partner countries classified by World Bank income groups
Low income Lower-middle income Upper-middle income High income
Kyrgyzstan
Tajikistan
Albania
Armenia
Egypt
Georgia
Kosovo
Moldova
Morocco
Syria
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Algeria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Lebanon
Libya
Montenegro
Serbia
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Iceland
Israel
Russia
Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP
.PCAP
.CD; 2011 or nearest year

13
Policy lessons from these examples
•
There is no one model of work-based learning that suits all middle- and low-income countries. Many instances can be found of
middle-income countries that have more than one model: Morocco and Turkey are examples.
•
Policy makers and social partners in middle- and low-income countries should look closely at models of work-based learning in
countries that are similar to theirs: they should not just learn from work-based learning models in high-income economies. They
should also be aware that many high-income countries do not have well-developed models of work-based learning (for example, the
United States, Japan, Korea), so GDP is not the most important factor to take into account.
•
In middle-income countries work-based learning programmes can be found at occupational and qualification levels ranging
from semi-skilled to professional and tertiary, and they exist in a very wide range of industries and occupations. Policy makers
and social partners should think beyond the traditional skilled manual trades when planning work-based learning programmes.
Some challenges in middle- and low-income countries
•
Employer organisations and trade unions may have relatively low membership, and membership may be uneven across sectors.
•
The public funds available to support work-based learning might be limited, with a higher priority being given to other types of
programmes.
•
There may be a large number of very small and micro enterprises, and these are less likely than larger enterprises to provide
training.
•
Cultural factors such as the low status of blue-collar work or attitudes towards women’s employment may limit participation.
•
Unemployment may be high, particularly among young people.
•
The informal sector of the economy may be large.
•
There may be wide gender differences in participation in the labour market, as well as in post-compulsory education and training.
•
Significant differences may exist in employment and education opportunities between regions and social groups.
•
There may be no tradition of employers seeing training as part of their responsibilities.
•
There may be no tradition of schools and employers cooperating.

14
Questions for policy makers
•
Some of these challenges also exist in some high-income countries. What does this mean for your country? Should they be taken as
a limitation or an opportunity?
Where the same challenges have existed in high-income countries, there are a number of examples showing that they can be
addressed.
• The United Kingdom has managed to greatly increase apprenticeship numbers in recent years.
•
Sweden is currently trying to reintroduce apprenticeship after abolishing it in 1971.
•
In the mid 1990s Norway created a new apprenticeship system for young people, and numbers expanded rapidly.
•
In recent years Ireland has reformed and expanded its apprenticeship system.
•
What lessons can be learned from middle-income countries that have well-established work-based learning programmes or that
have introduced impressive reforms recently?
A number of examples exist.
•
Algeria, the Philippines, Fiji and Sri Lanka all have well-established apprenticeship systems.
•
Malaysia began to create a modern dual system of apprenticeship training in the mid 2000s.
•
China is putting substantial effort into improving cooperation between vocational schools and enterprises.
•
What other ways can enterprises be contacted and involved if the social partners are not well organised? This might include, for
example:
•
working at the local level;
•
working through other bodies to which employers belong, such as regional associations, community organisations and religious
organisations.
•
If resources are limited, and if there are some groups with greater needs than others, should priorities be set in terms of access to
work-based learning programmes (e.g. for unemployed young people, members of disadvantaged minority groups). If so, how?

15
Work-based learning in middle- and low-income countries
Although there may be challenges and constraints, there are also many opportunities available to
introduce and improve work-based learning as part of VET in middle-and low-income countries.
Opportunities
Challenges

16
This chapter outlines the main types of work-based learning programmes, discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each, and
suggests some of the policy issues involved in making a choice between the different types.
1.1 Policy issues
•
There are a number of different types of work-based learning programmes.
•
These have different advantages and disadvantages: for learners, for employers, for schools and colleges, and for governments.
• Work-based learning can be used to achieve a number of different objectives, such as:
•
to develop vocational skills that contribute to recognised vocational qualifications;
•
to develop general work habits and job-readiness;
•
to help students to understand what is involved in jobs so that they make better career choices;
•
to give disadvantaged people and job seekers access to opportunities to work that they might not otherwise have.
A key issue for policy makers and social partners is how to choose the right type of programme for the right purpose, while best
meeting stakeholders’ needs.
1.2 The main types of work-based learning programmes
It is helpful to classify work-based learning arrangements into four main types4
:
•
arrangements in which the learner is legally an employee, such as formal apprenticeships, and in some cases alternance; in
some cases informal apprenticeships may come under this heading;
•
arrangements in which the learner is legally a student; these can be called by a number of names, including traineeships,
internships, work placements and cooperative education;
•
borderline cases such as virtual firms, training firms, or ‘real’ firms that are attached to and part of educational institutions;
•
programmes such as work shadowing and work experience, the main aim of which is to teach the learner about work rather than
to teach them to do work.
1.
Making a choice between different types
of work-based learning
4
This is not the only way to classify
work-based learning programmes. Other
publications give different, though similar,
classifications. For example, in lower- and
middle-income countries it may be useful
for some purposes to think of the difference
between well-established programmes
with large numbers of participants, long-
established programmes that remain quite
small, and recent small pilot programmes.
Different ways of classifying programmes will
suggest different types of policy challenges.

17
Source: Adapted from ETF (2013)
The differences between these types of work-based learning programmes are often not clear, as they can be quite similar. It is also
important to be aware that wide variation can exist within each type.
Where the learner is an employee: formal apprenticeships
Formal apprenticeships have the following features.
•
The learner is legally an employee and is paid a wage.This wage normally reflects the lower productivity of the apprentice compared
to a skilled worker, particularly in the early period of the apprenticeship, and the cost to the employer of providing training.
•
A contract of employment and training is signed.
•
This is normally signed by the learner and the employer.
•
In many cases other parties such as the off-the-job training provider or parents may also sign it.
•
The contract normally specifies the duration of the employment and training period.
•
It normally specifies what each party to the contract is required to do: for example, to learn, to provide employment, to teach
skills, or to attend regularly.
FIGURE 1.1 Types of work-based learning programmes
Frequent workplace contact
Strong VET links
Limited workplace contact
Weak VET links
Apprenticeships,
alternance training
Internships, unpaid work
placements for students
Simulated workplaces, virtual firms, training
firms
Programmes to reintegrate disadvantaged and
unemployed individuals
Learning about work

18
•
The period covered by the contract is divided between work carried out in an enterprise and classroom-based education and training.
•
The apprenticeship is closely integrated into the normal operations of the enterprise over the full working day, week, month and
year.
•
These arrangements are supported by legislation or regulations.
Formal apprenticeships commonly, although not always, have the following additional features.
•
More time is spent at work than in classroom-based training.
•
A recognised qualification is issued. Most commonly this is issued by a government authority responsible for vocational training,
but apprenticeship qualifications can also be issued by an education and training provider, or by an employer organisation.
Sometimes more than one qualification or certificate is awarded.
TABLE 1.1 Advantages of formal apprenticeships
Enterprises Social partners Educational
institutions
Governments Individuals
•
Can have a say in who
they employ and train
• Can use
apprenticeships as a
way to recruit skilled
workers in the future
•
Can do this in a cost-
neutral way, or even
gain a financial benefit,
if wages and financing
arrangements are well
constructed
•
Can use apprentices
for productive work as
well as providing them
with training
•
Have a greater
say in the content,
quality and ongoing
management of
VET
•
Have a say about
training both in the
workplace, and in
the classroom
• Vocational education
programmes become
much more relevant
to the demands of the
workplace
• Programmes have
a better balance of
theory and practice, so
students’ motivation
can be higher
•
Teachers have closer
contacts with workers
and enterprises
•
The cost of training
equipment is lower
• Better school-to-
work outcomes are
achieved and youth
unemployment can be
lower
•
There is a better
balance between
the supply of and
demand for skills: skill
mismatches are less
likely to occur
•
Costs are shared in
a more effective way
between governments,
enterprises and
individuals
•
Gain skills and
qualifications for a
recognised skilled
occupation
•
Have a much
smoother transition
to full-time work
• Can develop
vocational
competence to
quite a high level

19
Formal apprenticeships have a number of advantages for the various parties involved, and these are listed in TABLE 1.1. On the other
hand:
•
Formal apprenticeships require a great deal of cooperation and negotiation between employers, trade unions and governments
at the national, local and industry-sector level. In addition, appropriate institutional arrangements, such as legislation and
regulations, wage arrangements, governance and quality assurance arrangements, need to be created.
•
Such formal apprenticeships require enterprises to commit themselves to train apprentices at work, as well as to use them for
productive work. Enterprises need to have the facilities and resources to train apprentices. In particular, they need to have staff
who are able and willing to train apprentices on the job, as well as to supervise their work. Enterprises that take on apprentices
also need to have a sufficient range of skills so that the apprentice can receive broad training in a complete occupation.
Apprenticeships can be difficult to implement, or may not deliver quality outcomes, if enterprises do not do this.
•
Apprentices may be provided with limited general education, and pathways to higher education or tertiary study may be limited.
There is no single model of formal apprenticeship. A common feature of apprenticeships is that training is conducted in two places of
learning: companies and vocational schools. This applies to all of the main forms of work-based learning programmes covered in this
handbook. However, apprenticeship arrangements can differ widely, even within a single country. Such differences can reflect:
•
skill levels of particular jobs: for example, more highly skilled occupations will generally require longer training periods than lower-
skilled jobs;
•
needs and circumstances of different industries: for example, in Germany’s dual system apprentices’ wages vary widely from one
industry to another; another example is that industries in which there are wide seasonal variations in demand, such as agriculture
and construction, may be much more likely to favour fairly long periods of block release for classroom-based learning than other
industries;
•
national economic circumstances: for example, apprenticeships in high-technology occupations and at high qualification levels
may be rare in low-income countries;
•
national history, traditions and culture: for example, educational institutions may play a stronger role in quality assurance in
countries where there is no strong tradition of employer involvement in education and training;
•
institutional arrangements, such as the extent to which employers and workers are organised and cooperate in different
industry sectors.
The titles of such arrangements can also vary. They are most commonly called apprenticeships, but in many cases almost identical
arrangements are referred to as traineeships or alternance. And, sometimes arrangements that are called apprenticeships may not
have some of the features outlined above. For example, in some apprenticeships in Morocco’s agricultural sector some employers
have been reluctant to sign contracts; and in some Australian apprenticeships there is provision for all of the training to be provided
in the workplace, with no classroom-based learning.

20
TABLE 1.2 How apprenticeships differ
Dimension Examples
Duration •
Fiji: Apprenticeships can last between three and five years, although most last for four or five years.
•
Germany: Apprenticeship programmes typically take between two years and three and a half years,
depending on the trade (although a very small number take two years).
•
Ireland: Apprenticeships are organised over a four-year period.
•
Singapore: Traineeships can last for between one year and two and a half years.
•
Sri Lanka: Apprenticeships can last between six months (although apprenticeships as short as this are
rare in most countries) and four years.
•
Turkey: Apprenticeships vary from two to four years in length, but the duration can be reduced by half if
the apprentice has completed secondary or higher education.
Mix of workplace
and classroom-
based learning
•
Algeria: Apprentices spend a short initial period in full-time vocational training before entering the
workforce, and from then on alternate between periods at work and off-the-job training.
•
Croatia: Over three years apprentices must spend 2 600 hours in practical training. At least 70% of this
must be provided in the workplace, and the rest in school workshops. The actual pattern of alternation
between school and workplace is decided jointly by vocational schools and trade or craft associations.
A pattern in which a week is spent in theoretical studies followed by a week of practical learning in the
workplace (or school workshop) is regarded as ideal.
•
Egypt: Participants in programmes run by the Productivity and Vocational Training Department (PVTD)
spend two years in full-time vocational training followed by one year in which they alternate between the
workplace and the classroom.
•
Ireland: Three of the seven phases of a four-year apprenticeship are in the classroom.
•
Norway: Apprentices spend two years in full-time schooling followed by two years in full-time
employment.
•
Philippines: Apprentices spend 40% of the total time in a classroom and 60% of the time in a company.
•
Switzerland: Common patterns are for apprentices to spend one day per week at the vocational school
and four days at the host company, or two days per week at the vocational school and three days at the
host company. Alternatively, they alternate between some weeks attending classes at the vocational
school and some weeks attending industry courses at an industry training centre.
Apprenticeships can differ in a number of ways: their length; wages and funding arrangements; the balance between work-based
and classroom-based learning and how these are sequenced; the ages of apprentices; and the types of occupations that are covered.
TABLE 1.2 gives examples of the different ways in which formal apprenticeships can be arranged.

21
Dimension Examples
Eligibility and age
limits
•
Algeria: Apprenticeships are open to young people aged 15–25, and to women and disabled people up
to the age of 30.
•
Australia: There are no age limits for entry to apprenticeships in Australia, although in practice wage
rates may deter many adults from taking part.
•
France: Apprenticeship contracts are mainly aimed at young people under 26 in initial training. However,
these age limits may be brought forward (in particular where the first stage of secondary education
has been completed) or put back in certain cases (for example, for disabled workers or creators of
companies).
•
Singapore: Traineeships are limited to school leavers.
•
Tunisia: ‘Traditional’ apprenticeships are available to 15–20-year-olds who have not completed the
ninth year of basic education. ‘Reformed’ apprenticeships are available to those of the same age
who have completed nine years of basic education. There are no age limits for entry to alternance
programmes.
•
Turkey: Young people aged at least 14 who have completed primary school but who have not been able
to continue their education any further can start an apprenticeship.
Who signs the
contract
•
Algeria: The contract is signed by the apprentice or the apprentice’s legal guardian and by the
employer; it must be stamped by the local authority and approved by the vocational training
establishment.
•
Fiji: The contract is signed by the apprentice, the employer, and the Director-General of the Training and
Productivity Authority of Fiji.
•
Turkey: The contract is signed by the apprentice (or their guardian) and the employer, and must be
approved by the chamber to which the employer is affiliated.
Occupations and
qualification levels
covered
•
Algeria: Three-quarters of all apprenticeships are at the skilled worker level and one-quarter are in
highly skilled occupations. Roughly one-third can be found in information technology, management and
administration.
•
Fiji: Trade apprenticeships are offered in 23 traditional blue-collar and technical occupations, and
technician apprenticeships in five occupations.
•
Germany: Apprenticeships are very common in industries such as banking and insurance, but
elsewhere such training commonly takes place in classroom-based programmes.
TABLE 1.2 How apprenticeships differ (cont.)

22
Dimension Examples
•
India: India has four categories of apprenticeships: trade apprenticeships, which span 188 categories
and can last from six months (although apprenticeships as short as this are rare in most countries) to
four years; graduate apprenticeships, which encompass 114 trades and have a one-year training period;
technician (vocational) apprenticeships, which encompass 102 trades and have a one-year training
period; and technician apprenticeships, which encompass 114 trades and have a one-year training
period.
•
Malaysia: A modernised apprenticeship system includes apprenticeships in areas such as ICT, retail
management, mechatronics and industrial automation, as well as many traditional trades.
•
Philippines: Apprenticeships can be offered in any trade, form of employment or occupation that
requires more than three months of practical training on the job supplemented by theoretical
instruction.
•
Sri Lanka: Apprenticeships are offered in 146 occupations, including the service sector and information
technology as well as traditional blue-collar trades.
TABLE 1.2 How apprenticeships differ (cont.)
Where the learner is an employee: informal apprenticeships
Informal apprenticeships are training arrangements that are not formally regulated by governments and the social partners, but that
follow local traditions and customs. They do not usually include classroom-based learning. They involve a training agreement between
an apprentice and a master craftsperson: this is normally an informal social contract, not a written one. In this agreement, which
may be written or oral, the master craftsperson commits to training the apprentice in all the skills relevant to his or her trade over
a significant period of time, usually between one and four years, while the apprentice commits to contributing productively to the
work of the business. Training is integrated into the production process and apprentices learn by working alongside the experienced
craftsperson5
.
Informal apprenticeships are common in many low- and middle-income countries. They can account for the majority of all skill
development in African countries such as Ghana, Benin and Senegal. They are very common in countries such as Pakistan, Morocco
and Algeria, where they are important in industries such as agriculture, construction, fishing and traditional crafts. This makes them
an important source of skills in these countries.
5
This definition and the contents of Table 1.3
are based on ILO (2011).

23
TABLE 1.3 Advantages, disadvantages and policy challenges of informal apprenticeships
Advantages
•
They are a socially accepted type of training that provides relevant skills and increases apprentices’ employment chances once
they have completed the training.
•
The cost can be lower than that of formal VET.
•
Where connections between formal VET institutions and the workplace are weak, employers often say that informal
apprenticeships develop higher-quality skills than the formal system.
•
They can be an important source of innovation and productivity for micro and small enterprises.
Disadvantages
•
The skills that are developed can be specific to a particular enterprise, thus reducing apprentices’ subsequent labour market
mobility, as well as limiting the depth and range of skills available to the economy as a whole.
•
Hours can be long, wages low, and working conditions poor.
• The social partners have very limited or no involvement.
• No certificate is issued, which limits the opportunities for further formal education and training.
Policy challenges
•
Is it appropriate to upgrade informal apprenticeships, or to introduce formal apprenticeships? Or should both be done at the
same time?
•
How can the quality of informal apprenticeships be upgraded without reducing employers’ willingness to offer them? Chapter 4
of this handbook discusses this.
Where the learner is a student: internships, traineeships, work placements, work experience, some alternance programmes,
cooperative education and similar schemes
Work-based learning programmes in which the learner is legally a student rather than an employee can have a wide variety of names.
Rather than focusing on their titles, it is more helpful to look at their features, at their advantages and disadvantages, and at what is
needed to make them work properly. Other parts of this handbook, such as the sections on quality, will look more closely at what is
needed to make them work properly. This section focuses on their features and their advantages and disadvantages.
This type of programme has a number of features.
•
It usually involves the majority of the student’s time being spent in the classroom, and only a minority of it in the workplace.
•
In most cases the major responsibility for the programme rests with the school or college, not with the social partners or
individual enterprises.

24
•
The school or college timetable and the timing of school or college holidays will often influence how much time students spend
in the workplace and when they are able to spend time there.
In each case this is the opposite of apprenticeship programmes.
One helpful way to look at work-based learning programmes in which the learner is a student rather than an employee is to see
them along a continuum, at one end of which are programmes that are only loosely connected to the formal VET system, while at
the other end are programmes that are very closely linked to the formal VET system.
An example of the first of these is some cooperative education programmes in Canada and the United States, in which the student
receives academic credit for work experience, but in which there may be very little connection between what the student does in the
workplace and the curriculum of the school or college6
, and where no assessment is carried out of what the student has learned at work.
There are several important differences between cooperative education and other forms of school-organised workplace
experience on the one hand, and apprenticeship on the other. These include the lack of a contractual relationship between
the young person and the employer, a weaker connection between the student’s school-based learning and what occurs
within the firm [...], a lack of organised involvement in the design and management of the programmes by employer
associations and trade unions, and the absence of recognised occupational certification. Unlike apprenticeship, where the
basic design and quality control rests with industry bodies, cooperative education and similar programmes are generally
initiated by the educational institution and implemented through partnerships with individual enterprises. (OECD, 2000)
However, many work-based learning programmes in which the learner is a student are quite closely connected to the formal VET
system. They may involve all or some of a number of features, such as a close link to the formal curriculum; support by legislation or
regulation; social partner involvement; a contract; and formal assessment of and credit for what has been learned in the workplace.
It is important to realise that the distinction between programmes with titles such as alternance and apprenticeship can sometimes
become quite blurred. In France it is possible to obtain identical vocational qualifications in several ways: through full-time study;
through arrangements that involve study combined with work experience; or through alternance training that involves spending
time both in a company and in a school, signing a formal contract and being paid a wage. As an example, a learner can enrol for a
vocational qualification such as the brevet de technicien supérieur (BTS), a tertiary-level qualification, and be regarded as a student,
undertaking periods of work experience during the holiday period. However, the same qualification can be earned through alternance
training (BTS en alternance), where students alternate between work experience and study year-round. In this case they sign an
apprenticeship contract and are required to be paid a wage. As another example of how the distinctions can become blurred, at La
Rochelle Business School in France, a Master of Business Administration (MBA) can be undertaken through alternance training in
which learners spend three weeks in the company and one week at the school and are paid a wage equal to either 65% or 89% of
the French legal minimum wage, depending on their age. This arrangement is similar to an apprenticeship in that a wage is paid and
a contract is signed. But it is also similar to work-based learning programmes in which the learner is a student, in that the principal
manager of the programme is the educational institution, not the social partners.
6
Another example is a case reported in the
Singapore press (Ho, 2011) of Chinese
hospitality students who were required to
do their work placements in an electronics
factory where the work had no connection to
their course.

25
TABLE 1.4 Examples of work-based learning programmes in which the learner is a student rather than an employee
Morocco Some 14% of Moroccan secondary VET students take part in alternance training, which has been in existence since
1996. Over a period of two or three years, students spend half their time in an enterprise and the remaining half in a
VET school. Alternance programmes are concentrated in the three highest levels of national vocational qualifications:
qualification, technician and specialised technician. The system encompasses 97 occupations and 143 specialties, and
is supported by national legislation.
Educational institutions play a central role in managing the system. In addition to selecting the trainees and providing
general and technical instruction, the educational institutional places trainees in enterprises and elaborates the overall
training plan. This specifies how the training is divided between the enterprise and the institution, the duration and
timing of the work-based learning, and the evaluation methods. It also provides trainees with a portfolio that is used to
monitor training in the enterprise.
Employers are required to have a tutor to guide the trainee, and tutors must have appropriate qualifications and
experience. A contract is signed between the trainee and the company, and this must specify a range of matters
including the occupation, the identity of the tutor, the duration of training and the working hours of the trainee.
Trainees’ learning is assessed in examinations conducted both by schools and by host companies.
Russia Through its Career Centre, the St Petersburg Graduate School of Management runs a programme of summer internships
for its students. It also offers guest lectures by employers, business competitions, career planning, CV preparation and
interview preparation.The internship programme takes place in each year of the course, and is compulsory in the second
and third years. Each internship lasts from four to six weeks, and is covered by an agreement between the school and
the company that identifies the student’s duties in the company. Internships are normally not paid.
Spain Upper secondary vocational programmes consist of a combination of compulsory general education subjects,
compulsory vocational content of a general nature, such as the working environment and career guidance, and
compulsory vocational content that is specific to each area of specialisation. National regulations require that the
curriculum includes a module of workplace training lasting from 10 to 20 weeks. Agreements with companies require
a workplace tutor to be appointed and teachers to access the workplace to assess students.
Sweden In Sweden upper secondary education contains 13 vocationally oriented programmes that are taken by around half
of all students. All vocational programmes also offer broad general education through eight core subjects and confer
basic eligibility to continue studies at the post-secondary level. Vocational programmes are expected to include 15
weeks of workplace training over the three-year period. Schools are responsible for arranging this, and for supervising
its quality. Most municipalities have advisory bodies that include local employers’ and employees’ representatives.
These advise schools on matters such as the provision of workplace training courses, equipment purchase and
training of workplace supervisors. However, at the national level there is very little in the way of a formal framework
for cooperation between VET providers and the social partners.

26
The advantages and disadvantages of work-based learning programmes in which the learner is legally a student rather than an
employee will depend to a large extent on where they sit along the continuum that stretches from limited involvement with the formal
VET system to substantial involvement. TABLE 1.5 describes some of the advantages and disadvantages of programmes at each end
of the spectrum. Advantages and disadvantages will partly depend on how closely programmes are linked to the formal VET system.
TABLE 1.5
Advantages and disadvantages of work-based learning programmes in which the learner is a student rather than
an employee
Link to the formal VET system
Loose Tight
Advantages •
Can be simple for schools and colleges to organise
•
Can give students an understanding of what is
involved in work and help them to develop basic
work habits
•
May take only limited time away from other
school or college subjects
•
Students can increase their chances of securing
a job after graduating, and employers can pick
future recruits
•
Students can find applied and real-life
experiences, and this can motivate them to
continue with their studies
•
Can be simpler for schools and colleges to organise
than formal apprenticeships
•
Costs to the employer can be lower than those of
apprenticeships
•
Students can develop both work habits and specific
vocational competence
•
Students find applied and practical learning interesting
and motivating, and enjoy contact with adults who can
act as mentors
•
A recognised vocational qualification may be awarded
•
Students can increase their chances of obtaining a job
after graduating, and employers can select future recruits
Disadvantages •
May do little to develop real vocational skills
•
May give little or no credit towards vocational
qualifications
•
Quality control may be weak, and students may
be easily exploited as cheap labour
•
There may be a lack of employer commitment to
training
•
Lack of social partner involvement can mean
wide differences between programmes and the
lack of a common approach to content or quality
•
Can require significant school resources (e.g. selecting
workplaces, supervising students, assessment,
governance)
•
May not be long enough to develop full vocational
competence
•
Students may not become a full part of the work team,
or experience all aspects of the weekly, monthly or
yearly work cycle
•
The school timetable and school holidays may reduce
workplace involvement

27
Simulated work-based learning
This refers to fictitious firms created by schools that attempt to provide a realistic simulation of an economic activity. They can require
groups of students to undertake activities that replicate the operations and challenges of a real company. They can operate online, or
on school or college premises. In some cases no actual goods and services are produced, while others do produce real goods and
services, which are then sold. They can be called practice firms, virtual firms or – more commonly – training firms. Many examples
in low- and middle-income countries have been inspired by Austria’s long experience with the use of training firms as part of its VET
system.
As shown in TABLE 1.6, training firms can have a number of advantages, particularly when compared to standard classroom-based
teaching and learning; they also have disadvantages and challenges.
TABLE 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of simulated work-based learning
Advantages
•
The learning is team-based, applied and practical, and can be much more engaging and interesting than ‘chalk and talk’ methods
of teaching and learning.
•
Such programmes can be easier to set up than models such as apprenticeship, as schools can do most of the organisation and
planning themselves.
•
They require little in the way of special training equipment: normally a room and a few computers is enough.
•
In countries where there is little tradition of employer involvement in education and training, this can be a way in which students
can develop vocational skills that otherwise they may not be able to acquire.
Disadvantages and challenges
•
Some aspects of work may be very hard or impossible to simulate: for example, learning from more experienced workers and
from adults; long days; the ways in which the type of work being done changes with the time of day, week or year; and the
chance of being sacked for poor performance.
•
It can be time-consuming for schools to organise, and take a lot of planning, even if it is simpler than other types of work-based
learning.
•
Teachers who are used to traditional ways of teaching may find it difficult to accept.
•
When real goods and services are produced, local firms may be opposed or hostile if these are sold at less than normal market
prices.

28
BOX 1.1 Can the learning experience of the workplace be simulated?
Most evidence suggests that training in an authentic work environment has particular advantages. One Danish study [...] shows that
learning at school and at work are complementary. Students were followed during their last year of school-based training and one
period of on-the-job training in clothing shops. It was found that knowledge about the workplace is not developed in artificial situations;
it is best acquired and assimilated as part of the real work community. Students saw simulation of the workplace situation (playing the
roles of customer and sales assistant) as artificial and useless. One pilot evaluation of the introduction of work placement in Finnish
VET (Bridge from Vocational Education toWork) found that work-based learning taught students entrepreneurship and the technical
and social skills needed for their future occupation and promoted maturity. According to the students, they learned most in terms of
practical occupation-specific skills, initiative, cooperation skills, self-confidence, independent thinking, willingness to change and to
develop, independent problem-solving skills and the use of information sources.
[...] In one German state, where the share of students enrolled in school-based VET is higher than usual, shadow ‘practice firms’ have
been created for school-based VET. In a survey of employers’ perception of training in practice firms, most employers viewed it as
preferable to classroom teaching but less valuable than work placement. [...]
Extract from Kuczera et al. (2008)
There are a number of examples of training firms in ETF partner countries. Through KulturKontakt’s ECO NET project, the Austrian
Federal Ministry for Education, Arts and Culture supports the development of training firms as part of the VET systems of 10 ETF
partner countries. There is a focus on programmes in business studies, trade, insurance and similar areas, but also hotel and
restaurant studies, agriculture and tourism. The aim is always to make the training firm an integral part of the curriculum. As part of
the project, teachers are trained to be facilitators, and KulturKontakt helps to develop handbooks, standards and computer systems.
Support for participation in national and international training-firm fairs helps to strengthen knowledge sharing between countries.
Around 1 600 training firms have been established in over 330 schools since 2001.
In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia the transition to a market economy led to the closure of many large employers with
internship programmes, and to the growth of a large number of micro enterprises. To help fill the gap, a USAID project that ran
between 2003 and 2008 supported 40 VET schools to set up ‘real companies’ to give students the opportunity to build practical
experience through, for example, taking part in financial analysis, marketing planning and business planning.
Examples of practice firms can also be found in Kazakhstan in tourism and hospitality training. Colleges have opened simulated hotel
rooms, set up a training tourist company, and opened rooms for hotel training that can accommodate real guests.

29
Learning about work rather than learning to do work
Although not as important for this handbook as other types of work-based learning, programmes that try to teach students about
work are worth mentioning. They can be called work experience, work shadowing, enterprise visits or similar terms. They usually:
•
involve quite brief periods in the workplace;
•
are only quite small parts of the school or college programme: for example, they may be part of a single subject, or part of a
career education programme, rather than being integrated with a complete course of study.
TABLE 1.7 Advantages and disadvantages of programmes that teach students about work
Advantages
• They can help students to make a better choice of career.
• They can be used to help students make a better choice of VET programme.
• They can be easier to organise and administer than other types of work-based learning programmes.
• They help to improve the quality and relevance of career education programmes.
• They can help to motivate students and give them direction by showing them where their studies might lead.
•
They involve little disruption to the school or college timetable and in some cases they can be organised so that they take place
in students’ own time.
Disadvantages
• They are quite limited in what they are trying to do compared with other types of work-based learning programmes.
Learning about work can help to improve transitions to work. In South Eastern Europe some employers and local communities are
involved in the provision of job fairs or similar events. Much of the employer involvement seems to have occurred spontaneously
at the local level, as has been reported in, for example, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. It has also been stimulated by
central and local employers’ chambers and by craft chambers; this has been a particularly strong impetus in Croatia, but is also noted
in Albania. In Serbia the National Employment Service has been active in organising such events. In the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia the role of school vocational guidance consultants places a strong emphasis on community engagement and the creation
of networks with employers and parents to assist students. This seems to have been an important reason for what is reported to be
strong employer, parent and community involvement in school career guidance services in that country. In Bosnia the pharmaceutical

30
Programmes that give job seekers access to work
Work-based learning of several different types can be used to give job seekers, and others who are at risk in the labour market,
access to work and work experience. This can help individuals to develop skills that may have been lost through long periods of
unemployment, provide unemployed people with contacts with real employers, and reduce the chances of unemployment among
those who may be at risk through low levels of education or other indicators of labour market disadvantage. Each of these can help
to improve their job prospects.
In Austria supra-company apprenticeships are part of a 2008 training guarantee, and allow young people who are unable to find a
placement at company level to complete a full apprenticeship delivered by an accredited provider. They follow the same principles as
traditional apprenticeships, but are typically preceded by additional guidance, and students can receive additional personal support
during their studies. They are closely linked with vocational guidance and coaching, and include four phases:
•
introduction (group familiarisation, introduction to the purposes of the programme, exploration of vocational goals);
•
vocational guidance (introduction to various career paths on offer and requirements for each profile);
•
preparation and vocational orientation (closer familiarisation with specific vocational profiles, including employer visits);
•
additional modules (these can include specific modules for girls, or additional guidance).
Supra-company apprenticeships provide the same accredited curriculum as a standard apprenticeship. Trainees can complete a
supra-company apprenticeship in three years, generally with a final examination, if they are not able to transfer to a company-level
apprenticeship in the meantime. As with regular apprenticeships, supra-company apprenticeships combine college-based education
with practical work experience, largely delivered in workshops run by the training provider (to simulate an in-company environment).
This is supplemented by a 12-week in-company placement each year.
company Bosnalijek, which is a major employer of graduates, sends a team from its human resources department to present the
company to students at the university, and provides work experience programmes to some, with the goal of targeting the most
promising among them.
In Romania START internships were initiated by a group of business associations, embassies, and multinational companies, and
implemented by Junior Achievement Romania. The scheme is targeted at higher education graduates. It aims to facilitate access
to the labour market through the exploration of career opportunities, gaining experience working in a company and developing
transferable skills. The project commenced as a pilot in 2008. Between 2009 and 2011, 1 400 internship positions were offered by
90 companies. More than 9 500 Romanian students have registered with the programme.

31
In Flemish Belgium the Individual Training Within the Enterprise programme places unemployed people with an enterprise for
between one and six months. Employers select the unemployed candidates and provide them with training that meets the needs
of the particular workplace. The scheme is provided on the understanding that the unemployed person is offered a job at the end of
the training period. The unemployed person is paid the equivalent of their normal unemployment benefit, as well as a productivity
premium that increases during the period of the training.
Morocco uses apprenticeship as a deliberate part of its strategy to tackle youth unemployment. It is aimed at school drop-outs
who are not qualified to enter the main forms of initial VET (school-based or alternance programmes). Most of the training (80%) is
provided on the job, and the classroom training is provided in centres that differ from the normal vocational schools. Apprenticeships
are offered in 128 separate trades, but agriculture, craft production, hotels and catering, and craft services are the largest sectors.
Apprenticeship leads to a qualification at the lowest level of the national qualification system.
Under the European Youth Opportunities Initiative, EUR 1.3 million has been provided in European Social Fund technical assistance
to assist Member States to set up new apprenticeship and traineeship schemes or improve existing schemes, with a focus on those
who are farthest away from the labour market.
When designing programmes to target unemployment and disadvantage groups, there are a number of questions that policy makers
should ask themselves.
•
What is the profile of the target group? For example: school drop-outs or graduates; individuals with special needs.
•
What is the aim of the programme? For example, catch-up classes; integration into a mainstream vocational pathway; providing a
fast track into the labour market; upskilling; retraining.
•
What methods can be used to address the specific requirements of the target group? For example: pedagogical methods;
flexibility of curricula; individualisation of learning pathways; partnerships with key stakeholders; funding mechanisms;
appropriate training environments.
•
Are there good practices that can be built on? Have similar programmes in the past or in other geographical regions led to
particular successes, or have they had substitution effects between the target group and regular labour?

32
Vocational qualifications and skills
Work habits and employability
Career choice
Unemployment and disadvantage
Apprenticeships
Alternance
Simulated workplaces
Traineeships
Learning about work
?
FIGURE 1.2 Work-based learning: which model for which purpose?

33
2.1 Alternatives or complements?
Work-based learning and classroom-based learning should not be seen as separate activities. They should be treated as
part of a complete package: classroom learning complements and adds to learning in the workplace; learning at work
complements and adds to learning in the classroom. Plumbers need to learn trade mathematics and about the physics
of heat, gas and water; nurses need to understand the practical aspects of patient care, as well as physiology and
pharmacology. Furthermore, it is normal for advanced VET systems to make sure that the curriculum considers the whole
person and takes a view of the apprentice as a lifelong learner. Learning in the workplace is complemented not only by trade
theory, but also by broader general and personal education.
• In Finland all 119 upper secondary vocational programmes include: nine compulsory general education subjects that
account for around a quarter of the total time; compulsory vocational subjects amounting to 90 credits; and 10 credits of
free-choice subjects. All vocational programmes include at least 20 credits of compulsory on-the-job learning.
• In Germany apprentices must study general education subjects that can include German, other languages, social studies,
and sport in the part-time vocational schools.
• In Iceland both apprenticeship – the most common form of upper secondary vocational education – and school-based
vocational programmes require: compulsory general education studies; vocational theory; specific vocational content; and
workplace training.
Thus, for policy makers and social partners there will always be policy questions that need to be considered about how to
integrate and coordinate the learning that occurs at work and the learning that occurs in classrooms as part of work-based
learning programmes. These questions will arise both where the learner is an employee, for example, in apprenticeships, and
where the learner is a student, as in internships. They will arise when creating new work-based learning arrangements and
when trying to improve existing ones.
A key difference between classroom-based and work-based learning programmes is that in work-based programmes,
because learning is normally divided between the classroom and the workplace, education ministries, schools and colleges
cannot do everything by themselves. They need to cooperate closely with social partners and other ministries at a national
level; with industry sectors; with organisations at the local and regional level, such as employers’ chambers and trade unions;
and with individual enterprises.
2.
Connecting work-based learning
and learning in the classroom

34
2.2 Integrating and coordinating learning at work and learning in the classroom
A number of practical and administrative questions need to be considered when working out how to coordinate and integrate the
two types of learning. Some of these questions, and some ways of answering them, are outlined below.
What can be done if a workplace cannot cover the full range of knowledge and skills that need to be learned at work?
This is a particularly important question for work-based learning programmes that aim to develop full recognised competence for
a particular industry or occupation. A problem can arise if a firm only has a limited and specialised range of products or processes,
or if the work carried out by the firm changes at different times of the year. This is a common problem in training provided by
small firms.
The usual answer is to try to make sure that the learner (apprentice, trainee, student) can gain access to supplementary training or
supplementary experience. This can be achieved in various ways.
What should be learned in the workplace, and what should be learned in the classroom?
This is the first and most important question to ask when creating work-based learning programmes. The best general answer is that
each location should teach what it is best suited to teach. A first step is to decide what needs to be included in the total package of
learning: for example, what will be the balance between specific vocational skills, vocational theory, general education and personal
development? What will be the best combination of time spent at work and time spent in the classroom?
Decisions can then be made about who is best qualified to teach what. This will normally involve experts from the education and
training sector and experts from industry – people who know in detail the content of the work involved in specific occupations –
sitting down together to discuss it. It may also involve the use of specialised techniques such as DACUM (Developing a Curriculum),
as well as surveys and other larger-scale research. But the first step must be for people from education and industry to come
together to jointly find an answer.
At the end of the process it is a good idea to describe the content of the entire education and training package in a document that
can be easily understood by all of the key stakeholders, namely the social partners, education ministries, and individual employers
and learners.

35
•
One solution is to rotate learners through different enterprises over the period of a training programme. To ensure that these
types of arrangement work properly, organisations need to be set up at the regional or industry-sector level to manage the
rotation between workplaces. This often involves supervising and monitoring the training in each enterprise, not just handling
the administrative arrangements. There are examples of such schemes in Australia (group training companies), the Netherlands
(regional centres of expertise) and Norway (local training offices). Such arrangements need to be properly funded. The Norwegian
centres are funded by pooling the government training subsidies that are provided to SMEs. The Australian examples are funded
by a combination of direct government subsidies and fees charged to employers for the help that they are given with training.
These types of cooperative arrangements between firms can also arise spontaneously, or they can be assisted by regional
employer associations and by employers’ chambers.
•
Another solution is special interfirm training centres. For example, in Germany the Federal Ministry of Education and Research
provides funds for intercompany training centres that offer training programmes to supplement training provided by SMEs
whose range of products and services does not allow them to provide the full breadth of training required. These measures,
which supplement company training, usually run over a period of four to six weeks within the three-year training period for the
skilled trades, or over a period of 26 weeks in the building sector.
•
A third solution involves education and training institutions arranging supplementary practical training in their workshops. These
types of solution require the existence of good relationships between educational institutions and the firms concerned so that
the training institutions are aware of the problem and can schedule supplementary training to solve it.
These solutions may not be easy to organise, but they are a positive way of making sure that those taking part in work-based
learning programmes can gain the full range of knowledge and skills required by the curriculum.
How should work-based and classroom-based learning be organised?
The periods of work-based and classroom-based learning can be arranged in many ways. Examples of work-based learning
programmes that have already been provided illustrate some of them.
For programmes in which most of the time is spent in the workplace, and for programmes where the learner is an employee rather
than a student, options can include:
•
a fairly short period of classroom-based training at the beginning of the programme, with the rest of the programme alternating
between periods at work and periods in a classroom;
•
equal periods in the workplace and the classroom alternating with one another;
•
classroom-based learning occurring each week, one or two days at a time;
•
classroom-based learning taking place in a smaller number of longer blocks of time, such as a week or a month; this can be used
when apprentices, trainees or students have to travel a long way each time they attend off-the-job training;

36
•
the entire classroom-based education and training taking place in one long block at the beginning of the programme, and all of
the time in the workplace taking place after that; this is sometimes called the ‘train-and-place’ model, and is used in Norway and
in many of China’s upper secondary vocational education programmes.
For programmes in which most of the time is spent in the classroom, and for programmes in which the learner is a student rather
than an employee, options include:
•
one day a week in the workplace on a regular basis throughout the entire programme;
•
a week or more at a time in the workplace at less regular intervals: for example, one week during every school or college
term;
•
equal periods in the workplace and the classroom alternating with one another.
The choice between these options will depend on a number of factors. Various questions need to be considered, including the
following.
•
Which combination of work-based and classroom-based learning makes the most pedagogical sense? Will it make it easier or
harder for the learner to integrate theory and practice? Will it make it easier or harder for the learner to apply what has been
learned in class, or to see how theory learned in the classroom relates to practice?
•
What effect will the combination have on student motivation? Will there be enough practical learning at work to maintain the
interest of students who are bored?
•
What impact will attending classroom-based education and training have on the enterprise? Will it disrupt the ongoing work of
the enterprise? Will it be a major inconvenience at peak times, such as stocktaking or harvest time? Will it mean that students
will miss out on learning from work that only takes place at certain times of the business cycle or production cycle, such as
stocktaking, harvest time, or before religious holidays?
•
What impact will attending the workplace have on the educational institution? Will students have to miss other classes in order
to attend the workplace, or can the timetable be arranged so that no work is missed? If large numbers of students are absent at
the same time, will this have an impact on teachers’ working arrangements?
•
If the workplace time is scheduled to suit the school timetable, will this mean that the opportunity to experience and learn from
important parts of the business or production cycle in the enterprise is missed?
•
How should these decisions be made? By enterprises or the social partners alone? By education ministries alone? By education
ministries in cooperation with the social partners? By individual schools or colleges alone? By individual enterprises alone? By
individual schools and individual enterprises in cooperation?

37
Countries’ experiences in introducing work-based learning programmes have been very different. There are countries where:
•
large-scale changes have been introduced very quickly;
•
pilot programmes have been introduced and then expanded gradually over a period of time;
•
pilot programmes have remained very small and had no major impact.
Successful examples can be found in both high- and middle-income countries. Unsuccessful examples can also be found
in both high- and middle-income countries. A number of examples include what appears to be both success and a lack of
success, in both high- and middle-income countries. Following these examples, it is useful to draw some lessons about what
seems to work and what does not seem to work when trying to introduce or expand work-based learning programmes.
3.1 National examples
Algeria
There is a long tradition of informal apprenticeship in Algeria. Following the country’s independence, formal training through
apprenticeships was established for the first time in 1975, when legislation was passed giving apprenticeship a legal basis.
Vocational training by way of apprenticeship was further institutionalised in law in 1981, through legislation that defined the scope,
mission and role of each party involved, their rights and obligations, the entry conditions for apprentices and the conduct of the
training. Following this, apprenticeship saw a remarkable expansion and rise in popularity during the 1980s.
Nevertheless, experience has revealed a number of inadequacies and difficulties, including poor human, material and financial
resources for the monitoring of apprentices; weaknesses in teaching and training programmes and teaching methods; inadequate
regular contact between vocational training providers and employers; and the lack of a mechanism to motivate and stimulate those
directly involved in apprenticeships. This experience resulted in a number of legislative and regulatory changes in 1990 and 2000 to
address the problems identified. Financing issues relating to employer incentives to take part were addressed in 1997 legislation
that established a national apprenticeship tax.
The number of apprentices in Algeria increased from 40 000 in 1981 to 250 000 in 2011, approximately 40% of all vocational
trainees in the country.
3.
Starting and expanding
work-based learning programmes

38
Croatia
Apprenticeships were an integral part of the education system for the trades and crafts in Croatia as early as the 12th century.
Between the mid 1950s and the mid 1990s, apprenticeship did not exist as a form of VET. However, Croatia retained structures and
practices from its earlier period, including strong chambers, social partnership, and some self-regulation of trades. Consequently, after
the breakup ofYugoslavia there was a stronger infrastructure in place, centred on the chambers, as a basis for business–education
collaboration. When the country became independent, apprenticeships were re-established in the 1994 Law onTrades and Crafts.This
clearly specified the roles and responsibilities of the stakeholders, including government ministries, vocational schools, the chambers,
and companies or other legal entities that deliver the practical training. Relevant by-laws clearly specify how assessment is to take
place.The number of young people enrolling in apprenticeships represents around a fifth of primary school graduates each year, a
figure that has remained relatively stable over time, as has the number of apprenticeship places on offer from employers.
China
China does not have a formal apprenticeship system. The relatively underdeveloped apprenticeship system that had existed since
the late 1950s was abandoned during the Cultural Revolution, and a 1985 decision of the Central Committee of the Communist
Party effectively sidelined it by laying down the principle that training should precede employment. Train-and-place programmes, in
which a period of institutional training precedes a period of employment, without the two alternating, are now the most common
model used in China’s upper secondary vocational schools.
Improving cooperation arrangements for schools and enterprises, and extending and improving the quality of the work-based
components of vocational education, are currently high priorities for China’s VET policy makers. However, the quality is commonly
reported to be low, with few formal guidelines in operation at the local level; central policies are reported to be quite vague and
general; and there are no formal mechanisms at the national level. The exploitation of students as cheap labour is reported. Many
models are being experimented with at the provincial level and by sector organisations. While the central government has adopted a
number of policies to support these goals, practical legal and administrative frameworks to support them, particularly at the regional
level, are often lacking, and at the national level a school–enterprise cooperation mechanism has yet to be established.
Egypt
The Ministry of Trade and Industry’s Productivity and Vocational Training Department has operated a work-based training programme,
commonly referred to as the PVTD programme, since 1956. However it remains very small: its participants represent only around
1% of all upper secondary vocational education students. Only around 500 enterprises are involved, predominantly large public
enterprises. The programme sits alongside a number of similar and sometimes competing programmes run by other ministries and
agencies, all on a limited scale. There is no unifying national framework for apprenticeship and other forms of work-based learning.

39
Korea
In the early 1990s Korea tried to imitate the German dual system of apprenticeship, but the experiment failed. An important reason
for the failure was that the government tried to control nearly all aspects of the experiment, and allowed only a minimal role for
the social partners. Another reason was the lack of a tradition of training within the workplace: training within the chaebol, the
large enterprises that have dominated Korea’s recent economic growth, is largely seen as the responsibility of special training
departments. As a consequence, shop-floor supervisors, who are vital in successful apprenticeship systems, focused largely on
production problems, and did not see the development of skills in apprentices as part of their normal role.
Malaysia
Malaysia’s National DualTraining System, or apprenticeship, was introduced in 2005 following development work with advice from
German experts that commenced in 1996. It replaces a National Apprenticeship Scheme that was introduced in the 1980s but which
was abandoned owing to lack of employer support, reportedly because too much of the training took place in institutions and was too
inflexible.The present system places the enterprise at the centre of the learning process, and contains a great deal of flexibility in delivery
arrangements. Much effort has been devoted to developing materials to improve the teaching and coaching within the workplace,
developing learning and work assignments for apprentices, and training the staff of vocational education institutions to assist enterprises
as moderators, facilitators, coaches and advisers.There is ongoing support for these activities from the German–Malaysian Institute.
The system remains relatively small, but has very strong government support and is seen as a key economic and human resource
development initiative. A recent survey has identified a number of factors that are hindering employers from participating. These
include limited financial and physical resources, a lack of awareness of the scheme, and a training culture that tends to focus on
on-the-job training. The major reason given for not participating was a lack of awareness of the system and a lack of information or
publicity materials.
Morocco
The alternance system in Morocco was developed over a number of years following a series of pilot projects and as the result of
international cooperation. As part of cooperation between Morocco and Germany, similar projects in the manufacturing, agriculture,
trade and tourism sectors took place in the 1970s. During the early and mid 1990s alternance was developed within the Inter-company
Institute of AppliedTechnologicalTraining of Casablanca, with financial support from GTZ (now GIZ), the German international aid
agency. From 1998 to 2002, GTZ also supported Morocco’s Department of VocationalTraining in the expansion of the alternance
system. For example, GTZ supported the creation of a dedicated alternance unit within the Department of VocationalTraining, helped
to train trainers and tutors, and carried out awareness-raising activities among professional associations and employers.

40
Norway
Prior to the mid 1990s, apprenticeships were largely restricted to adults, and many people gained skilled worker certificates by
sitting for practical trade tests on the basis of experience, rather than through an apprenticeship. As part of a major reform of upper
secondary education that was introduced in 1994, apprenticeship was introduced as a main education and training pathway for
young people. The reforms were the outcome of debate and policy formulation stretching over a number of years and involving all of
the social partners. They involved resources being allocated for curriculum renewal, for teachers’ professional development, for the
support of skills training in enterprises, and for equipment and text books. The social partners actively promoted apprenticeships to
their members prior to the introduction of the reforms.
Careful attention was paid to financing to encourage employer participation. The wages of apprentices were reduced from around
80% of those of a qualified worker to 50%. A subsidy roughly equal to the cost of educating a student in upper secondary school
for one year was introduced for employers who took on an apprentice, together with a completion bonus if the apprentice passed
the final trade test. Together these payments could reduce the direct wage costs to the employer of taking on an apprentice by
almost 50%. An arrangement for the pooling of around half of these subsidies at a regional level by SMEs enabled the creation of
training offices to assist enterprises with the recruitment of apprentices and with on-the-job training.
Within four years of the reform being introduced, around one in four of those who started upper secondary education enrolled in
the apprenticeship track, and apprenticeships appeared to account for slightly more than one in six of those who left upper
secondary education.
Sweden
In 1971 Sweden replaced its apprenticeship system with a system of full-time school-based vocational training combined with work
placements.The change was made for two reasons: it was felt that apprenticeship was too narrow and did not give a broad enough
general education, and that it was inequitable, biased along social class lines and with too few young women enrolling.The system was
reformed and standardised in the early 1990s, with common requirements for work placements being introduce to all programmes.
In 1997
, as a result of pressure from Swedish employers, pilot apprenticeships were introduced in 20 municipalities. Under
this system, a contract was signed between the young person, the school and an employer; participants were selected for an
apprenticeship by the school, not the employer; the schools and the school system appeared to take the view that apprenticeship
was for the less academically able students, and this resulted in it being stigmatised it; schools were responsible for managing
apprenticeships and ensuring their quality, although there was a local programme committee that included employer and trade
union representatives. Schools did not trust employers to act in the interests of young people, so the initiative was introduced
on condition that participants remain students rather than employees. Schools, rather than industry, were responsible for its

41
management and quality, as well as for assessment and certification. In addition, Sweden lacked any strong ongoing mechanism for
employer and trade union involvement in setting the content and delivery of national vocational programmes. The difference between
apprenticeships and work placements was not clear to employers: both operated in the same occupations and industries. The
system did not survive the pilot projects.
In 2011, following further employer pressure, pilot apprenticeship programmes were again introduced. The new programmes have
many features common to the previous pilot programmes: apprentices are selected by the school, not the employer; the school, as
well as the young person and the employer, signs the contract; apprentices are generally not employees (although some may earn a
wage); and the school, not the social partners, will be responsible for assessment.
3.2 Policy lessons
These examples point to a number of policy lessons for countries that want to introduce, expand or reform work-based learning
systems or programmes.
•
Start with a shared vision, involve key stakeholders in developing it, and make sure that all key stakeholders are committed to
it. This should include as a minimum all relevant government ministries and agencies, employer organisations, chambers (of
commerce, trade, craft, agriculture, etc.), employee organisations and VET providers. Local and regional economic development
bodies, parents, community organisations and non-governmental organisations are other stakeholders in many countries.
•
Build a policy framework around this shared vision, and ensure that it has strong political support.
•
Make sure that the framework gives strong ownership and control to the social partners over key parts of the new system
or programme. This could include elements such as policy development, selecting participants, developing skill standards,
developing the curriculum, assessment and certification, and quality assurance.
•
Make sure that the framework includes proposals for financing (this may include wages, subsidies, taxes, industry levies, social
security and insurance, and other similar factors) that will motivate both employers and learners to participate.
•
Create a comprehensive legislative and regulatory framework to support the policy framework and vision. Make sure that the
legislative and regulatory framework clearly sets out the areas of responsibility of each of the key stakeholders.
•
Create channels for institutional coordination and communication to support the framework, such as national VET councils,
industry-sector councils and regional councils.
•
Make sure that new systems or programmes do not compete (for participants, for employer places, or for the involvement of
social partners) with existing systems or programmes of work-based learning. If there is more than one type of work-based
learning programme (for example, apprenticeships and internships), make sure that they target different occupations, industries
or individuals.

42
•
Take a long-term view. Unless there exists a strong institutional tradition that is likely to support work-based learning
programmes and systems, begin with pilot programmes. Evaluate and learn from these, share what has been learned with key
stakeholders, and modify and improve what is being done as a result of experience and evaluations.
•
Use international partnerships to help build the system if the necessary knowledge and experience is not available nationally.
•
Put a great deal of effort into building the tools that are needed to support new programmes and systems, including competency
standards, curricula, skill lists for enterprises and students, and assessment tools.
•
Put a great deal of effort into developing the knowledge and skills of the people who will need to make the system or
programme work at the local level: enterprise tutors or trainers, vocational teachers, curriculum developers and social partners.
•
Actively market and communicate the new system or programmes to all key stakeholders. Do this at the local and regional
levels, not just at the national level.

43
FIGURE 3.1 Building sustainable work-based learning systems and programmes
Social partners
Government
Shared
vision
Legislation
Financing
Social partner
ownership
Political support
Policy
framework
Take a long-term view
Use international
partnerships
Avoid competing
systems
of work-based
learning
Build basic tools: skill
standards, curricula,
skill lists, assessment
tools
Build knowledge and
skills: enterprise
trainers,
assessors, teachers
Market and
communicate

44
4.1 A framework
Ensuring that work-based learning is of a high quality requires a broader framework and a different approach than that
required for ensuring the quality of classroom-based VET. This is because enterprises, unlike schools and colleges, are not
directly under the control of governments. They cannot be compelled to do certain things in the same way that schools and
colleges can. For this reason some of the frameworks or guidelines that are applicable to quality in VET do not always apply
directly to work-based learning. They often tend to focus very much on what happens in a classroom, college or school, and
on how educational institutions relate to governments and the social partners; they have less of a focus on quality in the
workplace7
,8
.
Policies to improve the quality of work-based learning can be thought of in several ways. A fairly common way to look at all
quality frameworks is in terms of:
• ensuring that inputs are of a high quality;
• putting in place processes that can result in quality outcomes;
• assessing outcomes to judge whether they are of a high quality.
Examples in this case could include ensuring that enterprises have trained and qualified trainers (inputs); ensuring that the
links between enterprises and schools are close ones (processes); and putting in place regulations requiring national practical
tests to be held the end of apprenticeships (outcomes). These three dimensions of quality assurance are not exclusive: all can
be adopted together, and in many of the best VET systems all are used.
An alternative framework that is somewhat more directly related to work-based learning contains three broad approaches to
the quality of work-based learning, the first two of which are closely related:
• working with enterprises to strengthen their capacity to provide and take part in work-based learning programmes;
• developing practical tools that can assist enterprises and students;
• formal approaches that focus on regulations and supervision by external organisations.
These three approaches to quality assurance in work-based learning are not exclusive: all can be adopted together.
4. Ensuring the quality of work-based learning
7
See, for example, Danish Ministry of
Education (2008).
8
An exception is the set of criteria for quality
in apprenticeship that were issued by the
European Association of Craft, Small and
Medium-sized Enterprises in 2000. They
are reproduced in the Annex. It should
also be noted here that the EU is currently
developing a comprehensive quality
framework for traineeships and internships.

45
In practice, of course, the two ways of looking at quality overlap a great deal. TABLE 4.1 illustrates this overlap. Whichever
approach to policies for improving the quality of work-based learning is adopted, policy makers and social partners need to keep
in mind two questions.
• Is there a trade-off between quality and what can be afforded?
•
Is there a risk that measures to improve the quality of work-based learning will be seen as burdensome, will interfere with
the ongoing business of enterprises, and will discourage participation? This question in particular applies to measures that try
to impose legal obligations or requirements on employers.
TABLE 4.1
Improving the quality of work-based learning: some examples of policies and initiatives
Strengthening enterprises and developing practical
tools for enterprises and students
Formal frameworks
Inputs •
Screening of employers by schools before students take part
in work shadowing or work experience
•
Selecting students carefully so that enterprises are not
asked to train those who are not interested
•
Classes to prepare students for work placements
•
Skill lists that show students what they need to learn
•
Skill lists that show enterprises what they need to teach
•
Regulations that require enterprise trainers to
have formal qualifications and experience
•
Requiring enterprises to be able to teach the
full range of skills in the on-the-job curriculum
before they take trainees
Processes •
Local steering committees for programmes that bring
schools and enterprises together
•
Regular visits to enterprises by teachers, employers’
chambers or similar organisations to help them with training
problems
•
Involving employers in selecting students for work
placements
•
Requirements for all training occupations or
apprenticeships to have a tripartite training
committee
•
Regular inspection of apprentices’ working
conditions by government representatives
•
Regulations to accredit only programmes that
have formal quality processes in place
Outcomes •
Debriefing enterprises after placements to check whether
there were any problems and discuss ways to address these
problems
•
Debriefing students after their work placements to see what
they have learned, and to check whether there have been
any problems
•
Regulations that require practical examinations
at the end of an apprenticeship

46
4.2 Strengthening the capacity of enterprises and working with them
Organisations such as employers’ chambers, small business associations, government apprenticeship directorates, and schools and
colleges can do a great deal to help enterprises to improve the quality of work-based learning. These organisations can be particularly
helpful for SMEs that lack formal training expertise. The Australian group training companies, the regional centres of expertise found
in the Netherlands, and Norway’s local training offices, all of which are referred to in Section 2.2, are other examples of organisations
that sit outside enterprises but that are ideally placed to support them with work-based learning. All have been created as the result
of government policy initiatives.
•
Employers’ chambers, small business associations and similar organisations have the advantage of being closer to the daily
requirements of running a business than schools and colleges, and so may find it easier to approach firms and offer them advice
and assistance with work-based learning. Governments can introduce policies to provide resources to these organisations to
allow them to support work-based learning.
•
Government departments that are responsible for apprenticeship and vocational training sometimes employ apprenticeship
inspectors. Sometimes their role is simply to inspect and report on working conditions rather than to assist enterprises with
training. Policies to ensure that these staff have the knowledge and skills to assist with training matters, and defining their jobs
so that this is part of their role, can help to assist enterprises with work-based learning quality.
•
Regular visits to enterprises by teachers allow them to check on students’ progress, pick up any ongoing problems with training,
help workplace supervisors to understand what needs to be learned, help with the formal assessment of students’ learning, help
enterprises to better understand the requirements of students’ or apprentices’ training programmes, and build trust and good
working relationships between schools or colleges and enterprises.
•
However, regular visits may be problematic if time is not allowed for them in teachers’ formal working arrangements. Policies for
teachers’ working conditions need to take this into account and make sure that time spent visiting students on work placements
and liaising with employers counts as a recognised part of their work load. Training programmes may also be needed for teachers
who visit workplaces.
•
Local programme management committees that include enterprises, educational institutions and social partners can help to
improve communication between schools or colleges and enterprises about training.
It may also be difficult to maintain regular contact and good relationships between schools or colleges and enterprises if the
central policies that govern how schools and colleges are run do not give school leaders and managers (principals, directors,
head teachers) the freedom to make decisions about how contacts with enterprises can be initiated or managed. For example, if
they need to gain central approval before creating a partnership with an enterprise or establishing a local programme committee,
such initiatives are not likely to be encouraged.

47
4.3 Practical tools for students and enterprises
There are a number of things that policy makers and the social partners can do, or encourage, to developed practical tools for
students and enterprises that can improve the quality of work-based learning programmes. All of them are designed to increase
learners’ engagement with workplaces, enterprises’ engagement with learners, or individual employers’ engagement with VET.
•
It is essential that learners are carefully selected and properly matched with workplaces if quality is to be ensured. This helps to
make sure that learners are motivated and are learning what they want to learn, and that employers feel that they will fit into the
workplace and meet their enterprise’s expectations.
In programmes where the learner is an employee, such as apprenticeship, the selection is normally carried out by the employer.
Because an apprenticeship is a long-term commitment by both the student and the employer, selection is likely to be done quite
carefully. If it is not, drop-out rates may be high and the time invested by both the leaner and the employer may be wasted.
To avoid such problems, organisations such as employers’ chambers can assist enterprises with apprenticeship selection. For
example, they can screen those applying for an apprenticeship before they are interviewed by the enterprise, or train employers
in selection methods. High-quality career guidance can also help to improve the selection of apprentices.
In programmes where the learner is a student, matching is an important way of ensuring that employers do not have to try
to teach students who are not interested, not motivated, or lack basic work habits, all of which will reduce their willingness
to take part. Involving employers in the selection process can help to avoid this. Careful screening by the school or college is
another way of ensuring that learners and enterprises are well matched. Guidelines to ensure this, and the resources to do it,
are matters that policy should recognise. Careful matching is important both in programmes where only a short period is spent
in the workplace, such as work shadowing, and in programmes in which work placements occur over a longer period, such as
alternance.
In some programmes it may also be important to make sure that parents are fully aware of, and comfortable about, the
workplaces where students will be spending time.
•
Where workplace learners are students, schools and colleges should make sure that enterprises can meet occupational health
and safety requirements, that working conditions are appropriate for students, and that enterprises have the capacity to teach
the skills required by the programme. Often local or regional employer organisations and local trade union offices can assist in
this.
•
It is important to encourage schools and colleges to prepare students before they go to a workplace, and time needs to be set
aside for this in school and college programmes.
•
Personal learning plans should be developed for those taking part in work-based learning. These set out what the learner is
expected to learn in the workplace, and can also show roughly when things are to be learned, who is to do the teaching, and
how learning is going to be assessed. They can act as a checklist so that learners can assess their progress. Where programmes
also include classroom-based learning, the personal learning plans should set out what is to be learned in the classroom.

48
•
Students can be asked to keep diaries of what they have learned, and to record their experiences and reactions.This may be
particularly useful in programmes such as work shadowing that are trying to teach students about work, to assist career choice, and
to develop general employability skills.
•
Simple skills checklists for employers will help them to be sure about what they are expected to teach in the workplace.
However, care needs to be taken with such lists. Employers are busy people, and often do not have the time to deal with long
documents that are in complex language. Thus, skill lists should be clear and in plain language. Furthermore, it is important not
simply to rely on skills checklists to make sure that employers know what is expected, but to follow them up with personal
visits by representatives from organisations such as employers’ chambers, small business associations or schools and
colleges.
•
Debriefing learners after they have been in the workplace is important. This helps them to reflect on what they have learned,
and thus helps to reinforce learning. Debriefing sessions can also be a way of assessing progress and identifying any problems.
School and college timetables need to allow for these debriefing sessions.
BOX 4.1 Quality assurance for workplace training in postsecondary VET in Denmark
Quality assurance mechanisms for workplace training in Denmark have three key features.
•
The quality assurance process is built into the work placement arrangements: these are a decisive factor for the accreditation of
new programmes by the Danish Evaluation Institute.
•
Attention is given to making these placements as useful as possible for both VET programmes and employers, and the analysis of
those links forms part of the accreditation process by the Danish Evaluation Institute.
•
The work placement arrangements are designed to be closely linked to learning outcomes. Students apply concepts learned in the
study programme at the workplace, linking theory to practice.This link is basic to effective learning and its absence can contribute
to dropout. After their placement, students report back to their institution and they are assessed to see if they have met their
learning objectives.To ensure that the workplace effectively contributes to these objectives, each individual student has a teacher
or a supervisor for guidance. Supervisors need to have a solid knowledge of the theoretical content of the student’s course and
have sufficient time and resources to offer guidance.
In Denmark, the level and quality of employer and trade union engagement was identified as high in a comparative study looking at
13 European countries [...] and this has been attributed to the way in which work placement arrangements can engage employers in
postsecondary VET.
Extract from Field et al. (2012)

49
Some examples of the use of practical tools in work-based learning programmes
•
Egypt: Enterprises taking part in the PVTD programme have to demonstrate to the training provider that they have the
capability to train, the willingness to do so, and the necessary physical and human resources. These arrangements are quite
flexible.
•
Jordan: Trainees in the Applied Secondary Education programme are required to keep job logs at the workplace, and supervisors
fill out reports on trainees’ progress and problems. On the basis of the follow-up results and the apprentice log book, the content
of any necessary supplementary practical training can be identified and addressed in a training centre.
•
Moldova: Students are monitored during their internships by the trainers from their school, who visit the companies every two or
three days, or once a week, depending on the location of the company.
•
Morocco: In 1998 Morocco created a special resource centre for training in-firm tutors and trainers in alternance programmes,
and to support apprenticeship training. However, although it has been active in offering training, participation in its programmes is
not compulsory.
•
Syria: In Syria’s apprenticeship programme all trainers, both those in enterprises and those in educational institutions, follow
the same train-the-trainer programme to develop the skills needed to train apprentices. The two groups are deliberately included
within the same programme in order to strengthen relationships between them.
•
Turkey: Coordinators of internship programmes attached to vocational schools visit firms to decide whether their facilities are
appropriate, whether they have trades workers with qualifications at master level, and how many apprentices they can train. A
formal contract is then signed between the school and the enterprise.
•
Turkey: Firms are given a folder prepared by the vocational schools’ field coordinators. The folder includes the yearly course
schedule that covers not only the tasks that the students should be carrying out under the monitoring of the trainers, but also the
evaluation procedure to be used. These folders need to be signed regularly by both the student and the person in charge of the
trainees in the enterprise. This is verified by the field coordinator during regular visits to the enterprise.
4.4 Formal quality assurance mechanisms
This refers to requirements that are imposed on employers, learners, and schools and colleges by legislation, regulations, or
administrative directions. Some of these mechanisms are designed to protect learners from exploitation; others are intended to
improve the quality of the learning provided by programmes. Examples of these formal mechanisms include the following legal or
regulatory requirements.
•
Those taking part in work-based learning programmes are covered by insurance arrangements in the event of accidents at work,
or included in workers’ compensation arrangements in the same way as any other employee. On some occasions governments
agree to pay for this insurance in order to reduce the cost to employers and to encourage them to take part in programmes.
(This is also referred to in Chapter 6 on financing.)

50
•
Those taking part in work-based learning programmes, whether as an employee or as a student, are covered by the same
occupational health and safety requirements and labour regulations applying to hours of work and working conditions that apply
to an enterprise’s employees. Such requirements may be enforced by a labour department inspectorate rather than by an agency
responsible for VET.
•
Enterprises are approved or accredited by an external agency or organisation before they can host learners. These organisations
could be trade committees, employers’ chambers, local craft chambers, schools or colleges, or other organisations such as the
centres of expertise in the Netherlands referred to in Section 2.2. Accreditation or approval may require that the enterprise is able
to teach the full range of skills and competences required by a programme (or to make other arrangements if there are skills and
competences that they cannot teach), that they have appropriate technology and equipment available to teach these skills and
competences, and that they have appropriate employees to supervise and teach programme participants.
A stricter legal requirement may be that employers above a certain size must take part in programmes and provide places. Where
such requirements exist, experience shows that employers often ignore them.
•
Employees who supervise and teach programme participants must have a specified amount of experience, a relevant
vocational qualification, and a qualification in on-the-job training. (However, even in countries such as Germany where such
requirements are the most formalised, studies show that in practice the majority of the employees who provide training
to apprentices are not formal trainers, but normal employees who provide it as part of their normal job: they are ‘informal
workplace educators’.)
•
Practical tests or examinations of what has been learned at the workplace are a condition of learners being awarded a
certificate. These practical tests may be standardised national tests or ones developed locally, and may be conducted in
the workplace or out of the workplace by educational institutions, local trade committees, employers’ chambers or similar
organisations.
Some challenges for policy makers and social partners
•
Which of these mechanisms are used in the country?
•
Which are seen as being the most important for improving the quality of work-based learning programmes?
•
Which would be the easiest mechanisms for enterprises to accept?
•
What steps could be taken to introduce some of them?

51
TABLE 4.2
Examples of formal mechanisms for improving the quality of work-based learning
Inputs •
Morocco: Employers who provide alternance training places must have a tutor to guide trainees, and tutors
must have an appropriate vocational qualification and at least two years of relevant experience.
• Turkey: Companies with 20 or more employees are legally required to provide training places to secondary VET
students. Enterprises must allocate a master trainer for each trainee. Enterprises that provide 10 or more training
places to apprentices or trainees must have a training unit for this purpose.
Processes •
Algeria: The Labour Inspectorate is responsible for ensuring that apprenticeship legislation and regulations are
applied, that apprentices’ rights are observed and that apprentices are protected in terms of health and safety.
•
Croatia: The law governing apprenticeship gives chambers of trades and crafts responsibility for supervising the
practical aspects of training, training trainers and overall quality assurance.
•
Morocco: Legislation for alternance programmes requires VET schools to define the duration and timing of
work-based learning, and the evaluation modes for trainees.
Outcomes •
Croatia: Relevant by-laws set out how apprenticeship assessment is to be conducted, including through regular
monitoring, an interim examination in the second half of the second year of the programme, and the final exam
on completion of the programme. The by-laws specify that both practical and theoretical examinations must be
held.
A note of caution
Policy makers and the social partners need to be aware that legislation, regulations and administrative directions will not by
themselves guarantee quality. It is important to make sure that any formal requirements that are imposed on enterprises, learners,
or schools and colleges are widely accepted and respected, can be enforced, and are in fact enforced, and that resources to ensure
that they are enforced are provided. Formal requirements that are not generally accepted and that are widely flouted or unsupervised
will do little to improve quality. Some examples follow.
•
Algeria: Regulations require the creation of governance committees for apprenticeship at the local level, but in practice very few
of these exist.
•
India: Both internal and external evaluations of India’s apprenticeship system have been quite critical of its relevance and
quality. They point to government rather than market control over the number of places that can be offered, outdated regulatory
arrangements that hamper enterprise-based training, highly variable training quality, widespread failure to comply with legislative
requirements, and substantial employer dissatisfaction with the national training arrangements.

52
•
Pakistan: Participation in the apprenticeship system is very low and employer involvement is reported to be feeble. The
Government of Pakistan recognises that the system is not operating effectively. In its 2008 National Skills Strategy it reported
that the main weakness of the system seemed to be that it is coercive and provides little choice to industry in the selection
of apprentices, or to trainees in how the training is structured. There are few incentives for industry to support the system of
training apprentices, and many of the legal obligations can in practice be circumvented with ease.
•
Tunisia: Those taking part in traditional or informal apprenticeship are required by 1993 legislation to sign a contract of training,
but it has been estimated that less than half do.
•
Turkey: The extent to which the legal requirements on traineeships in enterprises are, in practice, implemented by companies is
not known, as there is no strict monitoring system. Sanctions for non-compliance are rarely applied, and hence, legal provisions
are not effectively enforced.
Formal requirements included in legislation, regulations and administrative requirements need to be underpinned by trust,
cooperation between the key actors, shared commitments, and resources if they are to improve the quality of work-based learning
programmes.
4.5 Raising the quality of informal apprenticeships
Informal apprenticeships are important in a number of low- and middle-income countries. As indicated in the Introduction (see
section 'Why work-based learning matters'), a key challenge for policy makers is how to raise the quality of apprenticeships, and how
to do this without reducing employers’ willingness to offer them. The following actions are suggested9
:
•
work with small business associations and other groups that represent the interests of master craftspeople and apprentices,
who will often have a sound understanding of local practices, of what motivates master craftspeople and apprentices, and of
how they interact with the formal training system;
•
try to strengthen the apprenticeship contract by, for example, suggesting that it includes details of working time, the duration
of the apprenticeship, how it will be decided that the apprenticeship has been completed, rights and obligations of both the
apprentice and the employer, and how any disputes will be resolved;
•
upgrade the skills of master craftspeople who employ apprentices; short courses are normally best, and costs should be kept
low; links to larger firms that have access to more advanced technologies may be another way to achieve this;
•
create opportunities for apprentices to take brief pre-apprenticeship courses covering issues such as occupational health and
safety, basic technical skills, and rights and duties at work;
•
offer apprentices the chance to take short training courses during their apprenticeship;
•
introduce skill tests at the end of the apprenticeship, based on skill standards that have been developed in association with
master craftspeople and their associations;
9
The suggestions are drawn from ILO
(2011, 2012).

53
•
use these skill standards to create logbooks or checklists that can be used to monitor training progress;
•
use information campaigns, prizes and awards to raise the status of informal apprenticeships;
•
involve community groups in initiatives to broaden access to informal apprenticeship for groups that are often excluded, such as
women and girls, and individuals with a disability;
•
acknowledge the importance of informal apprenticeship by including it in policy frameworks and legislation that are developed for
the national training system.

54
This chapter is primarily concerned not with technical questions – how to make sure that the assessment of work-based
learning is reliable and valid – but with policy issues. Assessment and recognition are policy issues for work-based learning
for the following three reasons.
• Assessment is one of the ways in which the quality of work-based learning is assured.
•
Whether or not work-based learning is assessed, how it is assessed, who assesses it, and how often it is assessed will
have an impact on the cost of work-based learning programmes, and so it becomes a financing issue as well as a quality
issue.
•
Who has the authority to assess and certify learning is central to the governance of work-based learning programmes.
TABLE 5.1 shows some of the questions and issues that policy makers and the social partners need to consider when
thinking about assessing work-based learning. In many cases there may need to be trade-offs in deciding on the answer. For
example, quality may need to be balanced against cost; and making sure that the social partners have a sense of ownership
may need to be balanced against convenience. In all cases the answers should be the outcome of discussions between
governments and the social partners.
5. Assessing and recognising work-based learning
TABLE 5.1
Questions and issues in relation to the assessment of work-based learning
Question Issues and options
Should work-based
learning be assessed
and recognised?
In most cases the answer will be yes. Otherwise it will be very hard to know whether anything has
been learned. Assessment is essential if the work-based learning is part of a programme that leads
to a vocational qualification. It is essential for assuring stakeholders of the quality of the programme.
Formal recognition in the form of certificates or qualifications also helps to ensure the portability of
the learning within the labour market
However, assessment and formal recognition may not be necessary or appropriate in programmes
that are trying to teach participants about work rather than teaching vocational skills. For example,
they may not be essential in fairly short work-shadowing or work-experience programmes that
are designed to help students to make better career choices. Informal recognition in the form of
certificates of participation, for example, may be options in these types of programme.

55
What is the purpose of
assessment?
Assessment can be used to check progress and give feedback to learners, employers and teachers.
This can be very helpful in identifying any problems that need to be corrected before the end of a
programme, when it may be too late. This type of assessment may or may not be counted towards
final grades or final certificates and vocational qualifications.
Assessment can be used at the end of a programme to see whether the participant has met the
required standards and has learned the skills set out in the learning plan or curriculum. This type of
assessment is normally the basis for awarding a vocational qualification.
How often should
work-based learning be
assessed?
The answer will depend on the length of the programme and the purpose of the assessment. The
more frequent the assessment, the greater will be the cost and the potential disruption. This is
particularly likely if the assessment is being carried out by employers or on employers’ premises. On
the other hand, more frequent assessments are likely to lead to improved quality.
Who should assess
and certify work-based
learning?
This is central to the governance of work-based learning programmes. If individual employers,
employers’ representatives (e.g. economic chambers), or the social partners are responsible for
assessments, they are the ones with the authority to judge and certify quality. The body that has
authority to certify that learning has occurred and that standards have been met usually carries the
authority to issue certificates and qualifications.
If work-based learning is assessed by teachers from schools and colleges rather than by employers
or the social partners, employers and social partners may feel that they do not have authority over
the programme, may not feel strong ownership, and may be reluctant to take part. On the other
hand, individual employers may say that it is too inconvenient and disruptive for them to carry out
assessments. Similarly, the social partners may not have the resources or may not be sufficiently well
organised to do it, for example if there is not a widespread network of employers’ chambers. Under
these circumstances it may be decided that having school or college teachers do the assessment is
the most practical alternative.
It will often be a good idea to have learners themselves assess their progress and decide whether
or not they have acquired particular skills or competences. This can be a good way to reinforce the
learning that has occurred and to detect any problems. In both cases the quality of the work-based
learning will be increased.
Work-based learning that leads to portable vocational qualifications or certificates is normally certified
by public authorities, such as ministries of education or vocational training authorities. However,
certificates or qualifications may also be issued by well-established social partner organisations.
TABLE 5.1 Questions and issues in relation to the assessment of work-based learning (cont.)

56
TABLE 5.1 Questions and issues in relation to the assessment of work-based learning (cont.)
How should work-
based learning be
assessed?
In nearly all cases the answer will be a practical test in which learners have to demonstrate that they
can actually do something (as opposed to write about it). It may not always be easy or convenient
to arrange authentic practical tests in real work situations. They may be seen by the employer as
too disruptive. Moreover, it may be difficult to arrange for the same test to be conducted in every
workplace.
For such reasons, it may be most convenient to arrange for practical tests to be carried out in a
college or school workshop, or on the premises of an employers’ chamber. However, this may not
mean that the assessment is carried out by teachers: it could be conducted on school or college
premises by employers or social partners.
Some types of skill can be assessed fairly easily, for example, being able to make something out of
wood or metal. In other cases skills may be very difficult to assess authentically outside of real work
situations: examples would be customer service skills or skills in caring for patients. This may become
a cost issue, and authenticity may need to be balanced against what is practical.
Some examples of the assessment of work-based learning
Croatia: The Chamber of Trades and Crafts is responsible for apprenticeship assessment. This includes choosing the members of
exam boards and supervising exam procedures. Apprenticeship assessment is carried out through both continuous monitoring of
achievements (e.g. all work assignments – both those carried out in the workshop and in the school – are assessed and validated),
and an interim and final examination. The interim exam takes place in the second half of the second year of the training and the
final exam is taken on completion of the programme. Both examinations include a theoretical and practical part. The theoretical part
assesses the knowledge acquired during the educational process or through informal learning; and the practical part assesses the
professional competences required for the performance of the given occupation.
Denmark: The trade committees that are responsible for each vocational qualification are responsible for the final skilled worker’s
test for apprentices and for issuing certificates. Employers and employees are represented equally on the trade committees.
Morocco: In the alternance training system the VET school decides, together with the employer, on the modes that will be used to
evaluate trainees and on the examination dates. The school also provides the trainee with a portfolio used to monitor the training
taking place in the enterprise. The learning of trainees is evaluated through examinations that take place both in schools and at the
host company.

57
Tunisia: At the end of the apprenticeship two types of evaluation are organised. A formative evaluation is planned by the external
training adviser from the training centre, in collaboration with the enterprise trainer, while a summative evaluation is held at the
training centre, with successful apprentices being awarded the Certificate of Professional Competence (CAP) or the Certificate of
Completion of the Apprenticeship (CFA).
Turkey: The final examinations for secondary students taking part in enterprise-based training are held on the same date in all
vocational schools and take place over a three-day period, the first devoted to assessing theory and the second and third to practical
skills. Enterprise representatives are able to participate in these examinations, and are paid an honorarium if they do, although it is
reported to be rare for them to do so.

58
6.1 Introduction to financing policy issues
This section outlines the types of issue that policy makers and the social partners need to take into account when considering
how work-based learning should be financed. It suggests options that can be used to finance these programmes, and provides
examples of how a number of countries have addressed financing.
Discussions of financing systems for work-based learning programmes often focus on three issues: the wages paid (or not
paid) to participants; ways to fund work-based learning within the enterprise and to compensate employers for the cost of
training; and ways to fund the classroom-based training that is part of such programmes. This section includes these, but takes
a wider view of the factors that influence the costs of work-based learning programmes, and that need to be taken into account
when thinking about financing.
The following three questions are important.
•
What needs to be financed?
•
What level of resources will be needed?
•
Who should pay for what?
In other words, the first thing to do is to work out what needs to be paid for, then how much it will cost, and then how the
costs will be distributed.
The distinctive nature of work-based learning, as compared to classroom-based learning, will influence the answers to each
question. This is because the costs and benefits of work-based learning are not just a matter for governments and for learners,
respectively, but are shared between learners, enterprises and governments. In many low- and middle-income countries the
answers may also involve contributions from international agencies and bilateral cooperation partners.
The answers will also be different for different types of work-based learning programmes, for example, formal apprenticeships,
programmes in which the learner is primarily a student, and programmes that aim to teach about work but not to provide
recognised vocational qualifications. The answers may also differ depending on whether costs are met through direct payments
or through the time spent by the people involved.
In practice, many of the decisions that are made about financing – both how much to spend, and who should pay – will be decisions
about the quality of work-based learning programmes. In some cases there may be a trade-off between financing and quality.
6. Financing work-based learning

59
What needs to be financed, and how?
Some of the elements of work-based learning programmes that will influence both the level of programme costs and the
distribution of these costs between key actors are shown in Section 6.2 below, together with questions and options for each.
When considering either the level of costs or how costs are shared, it should be noted that not all of these elements will apply in
all cases. For example, if the learning that takes place in the workplace is not going to be assessed, the costs will not be as high.
This may not matter in a programme that tries to teach basic work habits or to help young people to learn about careers. But it
will have implications for the quality of the outcomes in a programme that tries to develop recognised vocational competence
and award a vocational qualification. The distribution of costs, and at times also the level of costs, will also vary according to
whether assessment is carried out by enterprises, by education and training providers, or by external organisations such as
employers’ chambers or tripartite trades committees. Furthermore, the level and distribution of costs will differ according to
whether on-the-job learning is assessed only at the end of the programme to decide whether a final certificate is to be awarded,
or whether it is assessed regularly throughout the programme in order to give feedback to learners and to help judge programme
quality.
In Section 6.2, TABLE 6.1 explores factors that influence the level and distribution of costs; TABLE 6.2 sets out the main policy
issues associated with each element; and TABLE 6.3 gives practical examples of ways in which the financing of work-based
learning programmes has been addressed in a wide range of countries.
BOX 6.1 Switzerland: the benefits of a sound training wage structure
A number of studies have been carried out asking employers detailed information about the costs and benefits of apprenticeship
training to them […]These studies cover costs such as instructors’ time and apprentice wages set against benefits such as
productivity benefits.They show that for two thirds of Swiss host companies on average the benefits outweigh the costs by the end
of the apprenticeship period – in other words, without taking into account the benefits of apprenticeship as a means of screening
potential recruits. Benefits outweigh costs, largely because the wages of apprentices are relatively low compared to what a
skilled worker would earn, and because companies make sure their apprentices are productive by the second or third year of their
apprenticeships.These benefits mean that employers support the system as being in their interests – though they also refer to their
responsibility for developing young people as a reason to train. Reluctance to provide apprenticeship places – evident in some other
countries – has not been as serious an issue in Switzerland.
Extract from Hoeckel et al. (2009)

60
6.2 Issues and examples relating to the financing of work-based learning programmes
TABLE 6.1
Factors that influence the level and distribution of costs
Element to be financed Questions Options
Payment for learners Will learners be paid? •
No wage is paid if learners are legally students
•
An allowance is paid, but not a full wage
•
If learners are employees, a wage is paid that is less than the wage of
a qualified worker
• A wage is paid plus a wage subsidy paid to the employer
The costs of training in
the workplace
Will employers be
compensated for the cost
of providing work-based
training?
• Provide no compensation
•
Use the discount built into training wages as the basic form of
compensation
•
Provide government subsidies, tax relief, relief from social payments
or similar mechanisms to compensate employers
•
Establish a national or industry training fund, charge a training tax to
firms that do not provide training (for example, to apprentices) and
exempt firms that do
Deciding which
enterprises will take
part
Will enterprises be screened
to make sure that they are
suitable?
•
No selection or screening: enterprises volunteer, or educational
institutions allow any enterprise that wants to take part
•
Selection of enterprises by employers’ chambers or similar
organisations
• Selection of enterprises by educational institutions
Mentors, trainers
or supervisors of
the learners in the
enterprise
Will supervisors, mentors
or trainers within the
enterprise be required to
have qualifications and
training?
•
Allow any employee nominated by the enterprise to train learners
in the workplace, and do not require them to have any formal
qualifications or training
•
Require all supervisors, mentors or trainers to have a qualification –
for example, a formal vocational qualification in their occupation, or a
formal qualification in on-the-job training
•
Require these employees to take part in a course on how to train in
the workplace

61
TABLE 6.1 Factors that influence the level and distribution of costs (cont.)
Will voluntary training be
offered to these employees?
• Do not provide any additional voluntary training to these employees
•
Voluntary programmes to upgrade the vocational skills and
qualifications of these employees
•
Voluntary programmes to improve on-the-job training skills of these
employees
•
Voluntary programmes run by education and training institutions
•
Voluntary programmes run by employers’ chambers and similar
organisations
•
Develop handbooks, guides, skill lists and similar materials to help
employees to train in the workplace
Will employees be
supported and helped to
improve their on-the-job
training skills?
•
No support or assistance other than that which is provided by the
enterprise itself
•
Visits to the enterprise by representatives of employers’ chambers
or similar organisations to check on any problems and offer support
and encouragement
•
Visits to the enterprise by teaching staff from educational institutions
to check on any problems and offer support and encouragement
• Handbooks or guidebooks setting out the skills to be taught at work
•
Handbooks or guidebooks giving advice on how to train in the
workplace
Classroom-based
education and training
that is part of the
programme
Is classroom-based
education and training part
of the programme?
•
No classroom-based education and training is provided: all training is
on-the-job
•
Education and training is provided in a college or school, and focuses
on general education and vocational theory
•
Education and training is provided in a college or school, and includes
general education, vocational theory and practical vocational training
Will gaps in skills that
cannot be provided by the
enterprise be addressed?
•
Do not make any special provision for colleges or schools to fill skill
gaps
•
Arrange for supplementary practical training in school or college
workshops

62
TABLE 6.1 Factors that influence the level and distribution of costs (cont.)
Supervising and
assuring the quality
of the work-based
learning
Will employment conditions
and the quality of the
training be checked?
•
Do not visit enterprises to check employment conditions and training
quality
•
Inspect firms (for example, through the department of labour
or central apprenticeship inspectorate) to check employment
conditions, but not training quality
• Visit firms to check training quality and advise on how to improve it
Will learners be given the
chance to fill gaps in skills
that cannot be provided by
the enterprise?
• Do not make any special provision to fill skill gaps
• Arrange for learners to spend time in firms that can fill the skill gaps
•
Arrange for supplementary practical training in school or college
workshops
Assessing the
work-based learning
Will what has been learned
in the workplace be
assessed?
• No assessment takes place
•
Enterprises assess what has been learned and inform organisations
such as schools, colleges or central apprenticeship authorities of the
outcome
•
Employers’ chambers or similar bodies conduct tests and
examinations of what has been learned in the workplace
•
Assessment of what has been learned in the workplace forms part
of assessments carried out by the classroom-based education and
training provider
•
On-the-job learning is assessed at regular intervals throughout the
programme and is used to assess both ongoing progress by the
learner and programme quality
•
On-the-job learning is only assessed at the end of the programme to
certify satisfactory completion

63
TABLE 6.2
Policy issues in the financing of work-based learning programmes
Cost element Issues
Payment for
learners
If wages paid during training are too high, the incentive for employers to participate may be reduced. If
they are too low compared with other available options, young people may not participate or may drop out
part-way through a programme. If wages do not increase after training has been completed, there will be an
incentive to drop out before completion. If the wages paid after completing training are higher than those
paid during training, the incentive to participate and to complete is increased.
The costs of
training in the
workplace
Workplace training involves a cost to enterprises, namely through the lower productivity of those who are
being trained, and through the loss of productive working time by those doing the training. If there is no
recognition of these costs, employers may be unwilling to take part in work-based learning programmes
that have a wider economic benefit. If compensation for these costs is too high, employers will gain
windfall profits and public funds will be wasted.
If those who have taken part in work-based learning programmes that result in a portable skills and
public vocational qualifications move to other enterprises that do not train, the enterprises to which
they move gain the benefit of other firms’ training. This may discourage enterprises from participating
in these programmes. Public policy may wish to try to prevent ‘free loaders’ from benefiting from other
enterprises’ training investments.
The costs to enterprises will vary according to the nature of the programme. Costs will be lower in
programmes that are shorter and involve less training, such as work shadowing and work experience as
part of a school’s career education programme. Costs will be higher where programmes have a close link
to the formal VET system, where there is a strong expectation that the enterprise will provide extensive
training, and where this training is provided over a long period. The costs to the enterprise are also
likely to be higher where programmes recruit people with poor work skills, few social skills, or physical
disabilities.
Deciding which
enterprises will take
part
The absence of any limits on which enterprises can participate in work-based learning programmes may
encourage larger numbers of enterprises to take part. However, the lack of any process for checking on
the suitability of enterprises may result in poor-quality work-based training, and in learners being exploited.
If the conditions attached to participation are too time-consuming and restrictive, this may reduce the
willingness of enterprises to take part.
Requiring schools and colleges to select the enterprises that take part may be difficult if teachers are
not given enough time to check enterprises properly. It will take the time of teachers, reduce the time
available for teaching, and add to the institutions’ overall teaching costs.

64
TABLE 6.2 Policy issues in the financing of work-based learning programmes (cont.)
Cost element Issues
Checks on the suitability of enterprises, carried out by industry associations, employers’ chambers and
similar bodies, can increase the commitment of industries and of individual employers to work-based
learning programmes. However, they need sufficient resources to do this: sufficient income from
membership fees; enough members in an industry or region to make it affordable; and a network of
regional offices that is able to ensure that most potential enterprises can be contacted and assessed.
Where a widespread network of employers’ chambers or similar organisations does not exist, the most
practical institutions for checking the suitability of enterprises may be local educational institutions.
Mentors, trainers
or supervisors of
the learners in the
enterprise
If those employees who deliver workplace training as part of work-based learning programmes are
required to have specific experience, qualifications or training, the quality of programmes is likely to
be higher. However, requiring such experience, qualifications or training represents a cost that may
discourage enterprises from taking part. If educational institutions provide either compulsory or voluntary
programmes to help these employees to improve their on-the-job training skills, there is likely to be a pay-
off in programme quality, but there will be a cost involved.
Classroom-based
education and
training that is part
of the programme
If the majority of the classroom-based education and training that is provided as part of work-based
learning programmes is broad trade theory and general education, there is a strong argument for this
being publicly financed by governments. However, industries and enterprises, as well as the wider
economy, benefit from such general knowledge and skill. Therefore, in some cases there may be an
argument for an enterprise or industry contribution to the cost of this classroom-based education and
training.
An enterprise contribution to the cost of classroom-based education may give firms an interest in ensuring
its quality, and encourage closer links between enterprises and educational institutions.
Supervising and
assuring the quality
of the work-based
learning
If no checks are made on the quality of the training provided by enterprises as part of work-based learning
programmes, and if no checks are made on working conditions, there is a risk that the training will be of
poor quality and that learners will be exploited.
Requiring organisations such as schools and colleges, departments of labour and apprenticeship
directorates to carry out these checks will involve costs. The more frequent and detailed the checks, the
higher the costs.

65
TABLE 6.2 Policy issues in the financing of work-based learning programmes (cont.)
Cost element Issues
Assessing the
work-based
learning
Costs will be minimal if learning and skill development are not assessed as part of work-based learning
programmes. This may not matter in programmes that are brief and have weak links to the formal VET
system. However, the lack of assessment will be an issue if work-based learning is part of a formal
vocational education qualification.
The cost of assessment will increase if assessment is frequent. However, leaving the assessment of
work-based learning until the end of a programme and using it only to decide if a certificate or qualification
can be awarded reduces the chances that problems can be detected and corrected part-way through a
programme, and means that any gaps in the skills that should be acquired cannot be filled.
Work-based learning can be assessed by enterprises themselves, by bodies such as employers’
chambers, industry associations and tripartite trade committees, or by VET schools or colleges. The
decision about where the assessment should be carried out will influence who bears the costs.
TABLE 6.3
Examples of how countries have addressed the financing of work-based learning programmes
Cost element Examples
Payment for
learners
•
Algeria: Payments to apprentices begin at 15% of the national minimum wage for the first six months,
rising to 30% in the second six months, and then increasing in regular steps each month to reach 80% at
the end of the training period.
•
Croatia: In the first year of the apprenticeship the monthly payment for apprentices is at least 10% of the
average net salary in Croatia. It is 20% in the second year and 25% in the third year.
•
Egypt: In some programmes young people are reported to be paid a very small amount, perhaps 15–25% of
the wage of an adult worker, to help them with transport and food costs.
•
Germany:The apprentice earns a salary that increases every year and is on average one-third of the starting
wage for a skilled worker. Apprentices’ wages are negotiated in industry-wide collective agreements, and
can vary widely between industries and regions. For example, in 2008 they ranged from EUR 498 a month
for a third-year agriculture apprentice to EUR 1 120 a month for a third-year construction apprentice.
•
Jordan: Payments to participants in work-based learning programmes are entirely a matter for negotiation
between students and individual employers.

66
TABLE 6.3 Examples of how countries have addressed the financing of work-based learning programmes (cont.)
•
Lebanon:Young people taking part in the relatively small number of work-based learning programmes in
Lebanon (dual system, internships) generally receive no payments.
•
Moldova: Students taking part in compulsory internships as part of their studies are not normally paid
a salary, although in some cases schools have managed to negotiate with enterprises for a wage to be
paid.
•
Morocco:Trainees taking part in alternance training must be paid a monthly subsidy by the employer.This
can be lower than the minimum wage but must be agreed with the trainee or their legal representative.This
is not a wage, and so trainees do not pay income tax from their subsidy. In practice it appears that many
young people are not paid.
•
Turkey: Employers pay at least 30% of the minimum wage to apprentices, candidate apprentices and
students taking part as trainees in workplace training.They are not required to pay income tax.
•
Ukraine: Students taking internships as part of upper secondary vocational education are paid a salary during
their internship.This represents half of the fee that participating employers are required to pay.
The costs of
training in the
workplace
•
Algeria: For the first six to twelve months of an apprenticeship, when apprentices are at their least
productive, the cost of apprentices’ wages is met by the state. Social charges are met by the state
throughout the full period of the apprenticeship. There is a legal obligation for employers to hire
apprentices and an apprenticeship tax is paid by those who do not do so. The number of apprentices that
firms must hire depends on their size, ranging from at least one for firms with one to five employees, to
at least 3% of total employees for firms with 1 000 or more workers. The apprenticeship tax is equal to
1% of the enterprise’s wage bill, and is paid only by those firms that do not recruit apprentices. Firms that
recruit some, but less than their minimum obligation, pay a proportion of the tax. The proceeds of the tax
are paid into a special fund to support apprenticeship.
•
Croatia: Apprentices’ employers can apply for government grants and some tax relief.
•
Jordan: Medical insurance for those taking part in relevant programmes is paid by the government, and
employers are exempt from social security payments.
•
Morocco: Trainees in the alternance system are not legally employees, and so employers do not need
to make social security contributions. Employers are exempt from social security charges and from the
national training tax for both apprentices and those taking part in alternance programmes. Around 30% of
the national vocational training tax is allocated to supporting learning in the workplace.

67
•
Tunisia: A vocational training tax has existed since 1956, set at 1% of the wage bill of industrial firms
and 2% for service enterprises. The funds collected through the tax can support vocational training in a
variety of ways, which may include work-based learning for young people, but the tax is not specifically
targeted at this objective.
•
Turkey: The government meets the costs of apprentices’ and candidate apprentices’ social security
contributions and the costs of insurance for workplace accidents and occupational health.
Deciding which
enterprises will
take part
•
Algeria: Local apprenticeship commissions are responsible for collecting offers of apprenticeship
placements from employers and applications from apprentices.
•
Denmark: Approving and inspecting enterprises that want to take on trainees, on the basis of defined
criteria, is the responsibility of 120 trade committees, on which employers and employees are equally
represented. To be approved, an enterprise must have a certain level of technology, and a variety of tasks
to be performed that will provide the trainee with a full range of activities and tasks corresponding to the
qualification requirements of a skilled worker.
•
Moldova: Most vocational schools have contracts with specific enterprises to provide internship places,
and so enterprises are selected by the school, not the student.
•
Morocco: VET schools are responsible for placing those taking part in alternance programmes with
enterprises and for defining the training that should take part in the enterprise.
Mentors, trainers
or supervisors of
the learners in the
enterprise
•
Germany: Companies that train apprentices must register at least one employee who can function as the
designated responsible trainer. The requirements are set out in the national VET Act and the Regulation
on Trainer Aptitude. These trainers must hold a qualification in the occupation in question, and must have
proven knowledge of education theory. (However, in practice many other employees are also involved in
apprenticeship training within the company.)
•
Morocco: Enterprises taking part in alternance training must have a tutor to guide trainees. The tutor must
have an appropriate vocational qualification and at least two years of relevant experience.
•
Turkey: The Vocational Education Law contains a legal obligation for employers to provide traineeships
for students. The law specifies that companies employing 20 or more employees must provide training
places to secondary VET students, at the level of 5–10% of their total number of employees. In addition,
enterprises that provide training to 10 or more apprentices (or students) have to establish a training unit for
this purpose.

68
Classroom-based
education and
training that
is part of the
programme
•
Algeria: The public vocational training establishments – vocational training and apprenticeship centres
(CFPA) and national institutes for specialised vocational training (INSFP) – provide complementary
theoretical and technological training to apprentices.
•
Germany: Practical training in the workplace is complemented by lessons in publicly funded vocational
schools where students spend about 12 hours per week, or follow training organised in ‘block form’. The
education in these schools is split into two parts: one-third of the time is spent on general education and
two-thirds on occupation-specific education governed by separate framework curricula.
•
Moldova: Some, although not all, schools have negotiated for companies to pay a fee to schools for taking
students on internships. The fee is equal to the interns’ salary, and is used to pay for teaching materials,
equipment, and bonuses for teachers.
•
Turkey: Theoretical training is provided in government vocational training centres, but also in education
centres offered by enterprises. Some economic chambers and social partners have begun to develop
funds to provide training to apprentices.
•
Ukraine: Employers who provide internships as part of upper secondary vocational education must pay a
fee, half of which is paid to the vocational school (the other half is paid to the student as a salary).
Supervising
and assuring
the quality of
the work-based
learning
•
Algeria: The Labour Inspectorate is responsible for ensuring that apprenticeship legislation and regulations
are applied. It ensures that the rights of apprentices are observed and that apprentices are protected in
terms of health and safety.
•
Germany: The training that apprentices receive in the workplace is based on a training plan following
guidelines set out in the national training regulation for each qualification. It regulates the duration of
the apprenticeship, describes the profile of the profession, and sets out final exam requirements. Small
companies or highly specialised firms are encouraged to form training alliances with other firms in order to
be able to provide comprehensive training.
•
Morocco: The VET institution plays a key role in the alternance system, as in addition to selecting the
trainees and providing general and technical training, it also places them in enterprises and elaborates the
overall training plan, which specifies the division of tasks with the enterprise. The VET school also defines
the duration and timing of work-based learning, the weekly duration of training, the methods used to
evaluate trainees, and examination dates (together with the employer). The school provides the trainee
with a portfolio that is used to monitor the training taking place in the enterprise.

69
Assessing the
work-based
learning
•
Algeria: Public vocational training establishments are responsible for periodically evaluating the knowledge
acquired by apprentices and for arranging the final examination, with the participation of employers.
•
Germany:When apprentices are halfway through their training, they have to take an interim examination that
is intended to provide them with an assessment of their progress. In principle, students cannot fail this exam,
but teachers and in-company trainers will be informed of the results and are expected to respond and provide
supporting measures if the results are not satisfactory. At the end of the training, trainees take a final exam,
which is regulated and executed by the chambers (of crafts and industry/trade). It is a centralised exam, with
all apprentices being trained for one specific trade in Germany undertaking the same assessment.
•
Turkey: The final examinations for enterprise-based training are held on the same date in all vocational
schools and take place over a three-day period, the first devoted to assessing theory and the second and
third to practical skills. Enterprise representatives are able to participate in these examinations, and may
be paid an honorarium if they do.
•
Jordan: National examinations that cover both theoretical knowledge and practical skills are held as a
requirement for successful programme completion.

70
7.1 What is governance11
?
In order to help readers understand the concept of governance, TABLE 7.1 sets out some of the questions involved, and gives
some of the options for answering them that could apply to work-based learning systems and programmes.
7. Governing work-based learning10
10
This chapter draws on ETF (2012).
11
Governance is not the same as
management, which is about how policies
and decisions are implemented once they
have been made.
TABLE 7.1
Questions and options relating to governance
Questions for governance Some options
Which issues need to be covered by policies, rules,
regulations and decisions?
• The content of programmes
• Who can take part in them
• How and where learning takes place
• Financing
• Trainers’ qualifications
• How assessment is to be carried out
• Who awards qualifications and certificates
• How quality can be improved
Who has the power to make policies, rules, regulations
and decisions?
• Central government ministries
• Central policy bodies, including governments and social partners
• Industry-sector councils
• Local and regional training organisations
Who can influence policies, rules, regulations and
decisions?
• Government ministries
• Central policy bodies, including governments and social partners
• Employer and employee organisations
• Non-governmental organisations
• Individual enterprises
• Schools and colleges
• Local and regional government bodies

71
TABLE 7.1 Questions and options relating to governance (cont.)
Questions for governance Some options
Who can enforce policies, rules, regulations and
decisions?
• Government ministries and agencies
• Employer and employee organisations
• Colleges and schools
• Individual enterprises
How are policies, rules, regulations and decisions made? • Centrally, by government ministries and agencies acting alone
•
Collectively, by key stakeholders that include the social partners
• After consultation
• After evaluating evidence about effectiveness
At what level are policies, rules, regulations and
decisions made?
• National level
• Regional level
• Locally
• Industry-sector level
BOX 7.1 Social partnership in Kazakhstan’s vocational education and training system
The first piece of legislation to establish an institutional mechanism for social dialogue between the partners was the law of the
Republic of Kazakhstan ‘Social Partnership in the Republic of Kazakhstan’, which was adopted in 2000. It states (clause 4, article 17)
that the issues of vocational training and retraining of skilled workers should be included in agreements between the social partners.
More recently, the Ministry of Education and Science adopted the Strategic Plan of the Kazakh Ministry of Education and Science for
2011–2015.This document relates to the ‘State Programme 2011–2012’, outlining measures for the first five years of the programme.
It states that ‘one of the main tasks of the vocational and technical education system is establishment of partnership with employers,
business structures.’Today, social partners are granted equal voting rights on VET policy under joint decision-making procedures.They
are involved in aspects of the VET system, such as the training of teachers, the provision of vocational practice for students and of a
practical component in the final exam, the interaction between schools and enterprises and through participation on school boards.
For instance the Ministry of Education and Science is currently carrying out joint work with the National Economic Chamber and
KazEnergy to develop a vocational standards system.With the support of employers and international organisations, the government
is developing modular programmes for specialist fields, state obligatory educational standards, educational programmes and curricula.

72
The 2011–2020 State Programme also provides for contractual relationships between educational institutions and enterprises, on the
basis that enterprises offer practical training and internships to VET students.
Social partnership development takes place mostly on a sub-national level. Kazakhstan has national, regional and sector boards for
the training of vocational staff.These boards are made up of representatives of employers and trade unions. In addition, regional VET
forums on specialist training, seminars and panel discussions, are regularly held with business representatives. In these forums,
agreements have been signed between regions and major companies on bilateral cooperation on staff training.
Extract from OECD (2013)
7.2 What is good governance?
The principles of good governance for work-based learning systems and programmes differ little from those that apply to the VET
system more broadly. These include the following.
•
There is a need to develop policies and make decisions openly so that different stakeholders communicate with one another and
with those who are influenced by policies and decisions. This is easier to do if all key stakeholders are represented on the bodies
that are making decisions and developing policies.
•
It is important to ensure that key stakeholders take part in developing the policies and in making the decisions that affect
them. This may vary depending on the nature of the policy or decision, but should always include the social partners as well as
government bodies. Sometimes it will also include industry-sector representatives, local or regional bodies, or non-governmental
organisations. In all cases a very strong role in governance should be given to employers.
•
When developing policies and making decisions, it is important to be clear about who is responsible for what, and to make sure
that they are accountable for the things for which they are responsible. This will involve making sure that those responsible for
developing policies and making decisions have the capacity to do so: access to the right information; the authority to develop
policies and make decisions; and the right resources.
•
Policies should be developed and decisions made at the most appropriate level. Sometimes this could be the national level, but
often decisions are best made and policies best developed for particular regions or for particular industry sectors.
•
It is important to have clear objectives when developing policies and making decisions, and to monitor and evaluate the impact of
policies and decisions using evidence. Sharing the information that underpins policies and decisions can be as important as the
information itself when monitoring and evaluating.
•
There is a need to coordinate effectively, and to ensure that different policies and decisions do not conflict with one another.
This is easier to do if the delivery of work-based learning programmes and the responsibility for developing policies and making
decisions are not fragmented among multiple ministries and agencies.

73
7.3 What does this mean in practice?
The types of work-based learning programme covered in this handbook cannot be implemented by governments acting alone. Nor,
in nearly all cases, can they be implemented by enterprises acting alone. If they are to work effectively, those who are involved in
them must cooperate, and must trust and respect one another. A common shared vision for the future of work-based learning within
VET can help to strengthen ownership and improve implementation. These are central challenges for governing both individual work-
based learning programmes and work-based learning systems more broadly.
There seem to be some basic building blocks that are needed for good governance of work-based learning systems and
programmes:
•
a national body that includes both the social partners and government, and that takes responsibility for, or gives advice about,
national policies and decisions on work-based learning; in all cases employers should be given a very strong role in such bodies;
•
bodies that include the social partners and that can make decisions about, and develop policies for, particular industry sectors.
However, governance arrangements for work-based learning can differ widely. There is no one best model. Hence, the ways in which
these basic building blocks are put together, their powers and responsibilities, and how they relate to other parts of the VET system
will vary widely. Furthermore, not all of these models will be ideal.
The following examples illustrate the ways in which a number of countries, some of them ETF partner countries, address governance
issues and structures.
Algeria
The ministry in charge of vocational training has overall responsibility for developing apprenticeship and defining national and regional
objectives, while the Labour Inspectorate is responsible for ensuring that apprenticeship regulations and legislation are applied and
that apprentices’ rights and occupational health and safety are observed.The National Fund for the Development of Apprenticeship and
ContinuingTraining collects the national apprenticeship tax and develops initiatives with enterprises to promote apprenticeship. While
the social partners have a legal role in developing training, in practice this is merely a formal role.Their involvement is uneven, and links
to the VET sector are inadequate.The national, regional and provincial chambers of commerce and industry, agriculture, and arts and
crafts have a role in promoting apprenticeship. Local apprenticeship commissions are responsible for gathering offers of apprenticeship
places from employers and applications for apprenticeships from potential apprentices.Teachers from vocational schools play a role in
ensuring that employers and apprenticeship masters deliver appropriate training. However, the ongoing assessment of apprentices’
skills and learning outcomes is generally regarded as an area in which further development work is needed.

74
Croatia
The 1994 Law onTrades and Crafts sets out who is responsible for implementing which elements of apprenticeships. It divides
responsibility between the national education and labour ministries, the Chamber ofTrades and Crafts, vocational schools, licensed
companies and other legal entities that deliver practical training, and joint working groups of education and industry representatives
that develop programme content. Assessment requirements are contained in relevant by-laws.The Chamber ofTrades and Crafts has
a number of important powers delegated to it by the Law. It supervises the practical part of the training, issues licences to businesses
wishing to employ an apprentice, oversees the admission of pupils, trains the trainers, is responsible for examinations (choosing the
members of exam boards, supervising the exam procedures), and is responsible for quality assurance.The Chamber has taken an
active role in evaluating the system’s strengths and weaknesses through surveys and research, and has been active in identifying
improvements that are needed, including the need to improve the involvement of stakeholders from the education sector in the
system of apprenticeships, and strengthening the role of employers.
Morocco
Overall coordination of alternance training in Morocco is the responsibility of the Department of VocationalTraining of the Ministry for
Employment and VocationalTraining.The National Commission for VocationalTraining – chaired by the minister in charge of vocational
training and including the relevant ministry departments and professional organisations – is in charge of general orientation of the
alternance system and making proposals for improvements.The Commission is assisted by Provincial Committees of Vocational
Training, which monitor and evaluate alternance training at the local level and produce annual reports with recommendations.
In turn, Provincial Committees are informed by reports from steering committees for one or several vocational training institutions
chaired (usually) by an employer representative.The role of these committees is to motivate enterprises to participate in alternance
training, make recommendations on its effectiveness, monitor and evaluate training activities in enterprises, and guarantee adequate
conditions for the trainees.
However, the overall efficiency of these arrangements is open to question, and active cooperation with representatives of the world
of work is often absent. In some cases, steering committees are not in place or cannot fulfil their roles; national and provincial
committees have also achieved limited success in involving social partners in policy developments.
In practice the VET institution plays a key role in the alternance system. In addition to selecting the trainees and providing general and
technical training, it places them in enterprises and elaborates the overall training plan that specifies the division of tasks with the
enterprise.The VET school also defines the duration and timing of work-based learning, weekly duration of training, the methods used
to evaluate trainees, and examination dates (together with the employer).

75
Sri Lanka
The coordination and regulation of apprenticeships are the responsibility of the National Apprentice and IndustrialTraining Authority.The
Authority is also responsible for trade testing and certification undertaken by licensed assessors, and acts as an advisory body on VET to
the NationalTertiary and Vocational Education Commission, the body responsible for establishing and maintaining national competence
standards in association with industry. In addition to its planning, regulatory and supervisory functions, the Authority runs a number of
training institutes. Apprenticeship training is based on training standards that are developed by sector-specific national advisory committees.
Switzerland
At the tertiary level professional organisations (employers, trade associations and trade unions) play a central role in the governance
of professional colleges as well as the VET system in general. They work in close cooperation with the federal government and
the cantons. At the federal level, the Federal Office for Vocational Education and Technology is in charge of overall development,
management, quality and strategic planning. The responsibilities of the main stakeholders are as follows.
•
Professional organisations identify needs in terms of qualifications and set the standards for curricula for each type of qualification.
•
The federal government approves curricula and types of qualification, and can fund certain types of qualification.
•
The cantons monitor developments and fund certain types of qualification.
•
Professional colleges implement training and deliver qualifications.
•
Enterprises provide training places or internships, participate in dialogue with professional organisations and in some cases
provide funding for participants.
For full-time professional college students, in-company training is typically included in the curriculum. The content of work-based
learning and the organisation of traineeships are not strictly regulated; for example, the legislation only defines the minimum duration
of the entire training period.

76
Trade unions and the governance of work-based learning
In the EU, and in particular in the 15 original Member States, trade unions play an active role in the governance of work-based
learning programmes. They play this role at the level of the enterprise (for example, in works councils), at the industry-sector level,
at the regional level, and in national advisory and policy-making bodies. Trade union involvement in governance can take many forms.
Through both social dialogue and collective bargaining, trade unions can be involved in activities such as:
•
negotiating apprentices’ pay rates and working conditions, both of which are vital in providing incentives for employers and young
people to participate, and in ensuring that costs do not outweigh benefits;
•
helping to frame the regulations and policies that govern work-based learning;
•
assisting in the development of standards and qualifications;
•
providing recognised vocational training to their members;
•
acting as partners in the assessment and certification of learning, and providing guidance services for members.
All of these are, of course, in addition to protecting and advancing the interests of their members, including those who are
apprentices or who are learners in other types of work-based learning programmes.
Trade union involvement in the governance of work-based learning faces a number of challenges in many ETF partner countries.
Membership may be low; the political environment may not favour trade unions and their active involvement as social partners; and
trade unions may have limited resources, a situation that may prevent their active involvement, even if the need for involvement is
understood. Nevertheless, a number of positive examples exist in which trade unions play an active role in the governance of work-
based learning in ETF partner countries.
•
Croatia has established a system of VET sector councils responsible for the revision of occupational standards.
• In Kazakhstan the social partners are granted equal voting rights on VET policy under joint decision-making procedures. They are
involved in aspects of the VET system, such as the training of teachers, the provision of vocational practice for students and of a
practical component in the final exam, the interaction between schools and enterprises, and participation on school boards.
• Serbia has established a Council for Vocational Education and Adult Education, a tripartite body with key functions, including links
with businesses, and involvement in the national qualification framework and curricula.
• In Turkey the national Vocational Education Board and provincial employment and vocational education boards all have trade
union representation.

77
Annex: Benchmarking criteria
for quality in apprenticeship
of the European Association of Craft,
Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
Training in two places: in the enterprise and at school. What matters
for apprenticeship, unlike what happens in ‘on/off-the-job’ training, is
that the training takes place, for the most part, in the enterprise and
is complemented with the necessary theory.
The apprenticeship contract is the legal basis for the relationship of
training in which social and working conditions are regulated.
Fixed standards for the content of practice and theory, mutually
complementary, are recognised at national level and are applied to
the enterprises. Elaboration of these standards in cooperation with
social partners and any public/private organisations concerned.
Guidance and adaptation of training contents and methods in
relation to technological and economic progress.
The chambers, the sectoral organisations and other competent
institutions ensure a significant part in the organisation of
apprenticeship training, in advising enterprises and apprentices, as
well as in the training of trainers (e.g. master craftsmen).
Control of the training part taking place in the enterprise (and control
of the standards) by the chambers or any other concerned institutions/
control of the training part taking place at school by public authorities.
Involvement of the training enterprises in the financing of the practice
part.The financing of the theoretical part is done by public financing.
The training is ensured by qualified staff: for the practice in enterprise
by trainers (e.g. master craftsmen) who fulfil national required
conditions (qualification, experience, reputation ...); for the theoretical
part the staff are recruited following criteria recognised at national level.
Validation of skills at the end of the training by an examination
organised with the participation of experts from the economic
sector (chambers, professional organisations, etc.).
A range of training which is accessible for people with
apprenticeship difficulties as well for very gifted people. The
enterprise is solely responsible for recruiting its apprentices.
Integration of apprenticeship in the national systems of training.
Apprenticeship training is part of a training pathway, which can open
access to continuing training (e.g. training of master craftsmen), and
to higher education/university.
Extract from Linderholm and Parker (2000)

78
Abbreviations
BTS
Brevet de technicien supérieur (Advanced technician
certificate – France)
CAP
Certificat d'aptitude professionnelle (Certificate of
professional competence – Tunisia)
CFA
Certificat de fin d'apprentissage (Certificate of completion
of the apprenticeship – Tunisia)
CFPA
Centre de formation professionnelle et d'apprentissage
(Vocational training and apprenticeship centre – Algeria)
ETF European Training Foundation
EUR Euro
GDP Gross domestic product
GIZ
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(formerly GTZ)
GTZ (see GIZ)
ICT Information and communication technology
ILO International Labour Organisation
INSFP
Institut national spécialisé en formation professionnelle
(National institute for specialised vocational training –
Algeria)
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PVTD Productivity and Vocational Training Department (Egypt)
SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises
TVET Technical and vocational education and training
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VET Vocational education and training

79
Glossary
This glossary of common work-based learning terms draws on two
principal sources, namelyThe New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
and NCVER (National Centre for Vocational Education Research)
(2006)Thesaurus of VET Descriptors.The glossary is reproduced from
an earlier ETF publication on work-based learning (Sweet, 2009).
Alternance training
A term that is commonly used in French-speaking countries to refer
to education or vocational training in which periods in the workplace
alternate with periods in an education and training institution.
Apprenticeship
A long-established form of VET that includes alternating periods
at the workplace and in a school or vocational training centre, in
which a contract of training exists between the apprentice and the
employer, and in which the apprentice is legally an employee, rather
than a student, and receives a wage or allowance from the employer.
Assessment
The methods and processes used to evaluate the attainments
(knowledge, know-how, skills and competences) of an individual,
and typically leading to certification.
Certification
The process of awarding a certificate to somebody as proof of
satisfactory completion of a course of study.
Classroom-based learning
Education and training which takes place within an educational
institution (as opposed to the enterprise or workplace).
Competence or competency
The demonstrated capacity to perform: the possession of
knowledge skills and personal characteristics needed to satisfy the
special demands or requirements of a particular situation. See also
skill.
Competence-based assessment
Assessment in which the student’s competence is judged against
previously determined standards or criteria.
Competence-based training
A system by which the student is trained on the basis of
demonstrated ability rather than on the basis of elapsed time.
Contract of training
A verbal or written agreement binding an apprentice and an
employer and setting out the obligations of each.
Cooperative education
A term that is commonly used in North America to refer to
programmes in which learners spend time in workplaces and
receive academic credit for the work experience, but in which there
may be little connection between what the student does in the
workplace and the curriculum of the school or college.
Curriculum
The content of an organised programme of study in an educational
or training institution indicating the subjects taught, the time allotted
to each, and their sequence.

80
Demonstration
The process of teaching by showing somebody how to do
something: a practical exhibition or explanation of something.
Dual system
The (German) vocational training system, which takes place both in
vocational schools and in enterprises. The term is also used for the
apprenticeship systems in Austria, Switzerland and Denmark and in
some ETF partner countries such as Egypt and Lebanon.
Experiential learning
Learning through the experience of doing something, rather than
being told about it or reading about it.
General education
Education which in its choice of subject-matter does not envisage
any kind of specialisation or work preparation for students in a
particular industry or occupational sector. It is normally contrasted to
vocational education or VET.
Internship
A term that is mainly used in North America to describe a period
spent in an enterprise gaining practical experience under supervision
Mentor
A trusted and experienced supervisor or adviser (noun). To serve
as a teacher or trusted adviser (verb). Mentoring can be one of
the techniques used, either formally or informally, to promote
enterprise-based learning or experiential learning.
Off-the-job training
Training which takes place outside of the normal place of work,
either off the premises, for example in a vocational school or training
centre, or in an area of the enterprise set aside for training.
On-the-job training
Training within the enterprise given at the normal place of work and
using normal work tasks for instruction and practice purposes.
Practice
Learning through actually doing something, by rehearsal or by
repetition.
Qualification
An education and training award or certificate.
Recognition
Acknowledgment of learning, gained either through formal
courses of education and training, or through previous life or work
experience, and which may be used to grant status or credit in a
subject or module.
Sandwich course
A term commonly used in English-speaking countries to refer to
programmes, often at tertiary level, in which learners alternate
blocks of time in the classroom with blocks of time in the workplace.
School-based training
Education and training which takes place within an educational
institution (as opposed to the enterprise or workplace).
Skill
The ability to perform a particular mental or physical activity which
may be developed by training or practice. See also competence.
Standards or skill standards
Statements developed by industry specifying the competences
required by workers for each sector of the workforce.

81
Structured work-based learning
Formal learning which occurs in the workplace using an instructional
plan, skill list or competence list to organise the knowledge and
skills that need to be learned. Normally contrasted to experiential
learning or informal learning.
Theory
General principles, methods or conceptual knowledge (as opposed
to practice).
Training
The development of skills, knowledge, attitudes or competences
through instruction and practice.
Training contract
See contract of training.
Training wage
The wage or salary that is paid to somebody in a contract of training.
It is normally discounted, or reduced, when compared to the
wage of a normal worker, to recognise the time and effort that the
employer devotes to training, and the resulting loss of enterprise
productivity, as well as to recognise the increased future income
that will flow to the employee as a result of gaining skills.
Vocational education, or vocational education and training (VET), or
technical and vocational education and training (TVET)
Vocational training, given in primary or secondary schools, in
enterprises or in higher educational institutions designed to develop
occupational skills.
Work placement
A period of unpaid work undertaken by students as part of their
course of education in a school or higher educational institution, and
which is characterised by the structured nature of the learning.
Work-based learning
Learning that takes place within the workplace using tasks or
jobs for instruction and practical purposes. It may be formal
and structured using instructional plans, or informal, occurring
incidentally, in the process of normal daily work, for example,
through experience, practice, mentoring or demonstration.

82
Bibliography
Danish Ministry of Education, The Danish Approach to Quality in
VET, 2nd edition, National Education Authority, Copenhagen, 2008.
ETF (European Training Foundation, 'Good Multilevel Governance
in Vocational Education and Training', ETF Position Paper, ETF
, Turin,
2012.
ETF (European Training Foundation), Work-based Learning: Benefits
and Obstacles. A Literature Review for Policy Makers and Social
Partners in ETF Partner Countries, ETF
, Turin, 2013.
Field, S., lvarez-Galván, J., Hénard, F
., Kis, V., Kuczera M. and
Musset, P
., A Skills beyond School Review of Denmark, OECD,
Paris, 2012, p. 31.
Ho, A., ‘Students exploited as cheap labour’, Straits Times, Sunday
29 May, 2011.
Hoeckel, K., Field, S. and Grubb, N., Learning for Jobs. OECD
Reviews of VET: Switzerland, OECD, Paris, 2009.
ILO (International Labour Organisation), Upgrading Informal
Apprenticeship Systems: Skills for Employment Policy Brief, ILO,
Geneva, 2011.
ILO (International Labour Organisation), Upgrading Informal
Apprenticeship: Resource Guide for Africa, ILO, Geneva, 2012.
Kuczera, M., Field, S., Hoffman, N. and Wolter, S., Learning for
Jobs. The OECD Policy Review of Vocational Education and Training:
Sweden, OECD, Paris, 2008, p. 26.
Linderholm, L. and Parker, G. (eds), Quality in Apprenticeship in the
European Union, UEAPME, Brussels, 2000.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development),
Initial Education to Working Life: Making the Transition Work, Paris,
2000, p. 95.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development),
Developing Skills in Central Asia through Better VET Systems, Paris,
2013, pp. 62–3.
Sweet, R., European Training Foundation, Work-based Learning
Programmes for Young People in the Mediterranean Region, Office
for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg,
2009.
A note on sources used for this handbook
The handbook draws on a wide range of sources for its national
examples and policy messages. For ETF partner countries three
main sources have been used:
•
a compendium of initiatives on work-based learning and
a separate mapping of work-based learning practices,
predominantly drawn from ETF partner countries, that were
prepared by the consulting firm GHK as part of the wider
Learning Context Matters project, of which this handbook has
been a part;
•
a set of national questionnaires on work-based learning in
partner countries that were gathered by GHK as part of the
wider project;
•
Sweet, R., European Training Foundation, Work-based Learning
Programmes for Young People in the Mediterranean Region,
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, 2009.

83
For examples drawn from the Asia-Pacific region the primary
source is:
•
Sweet, R., ‘Work-based learning: Why? How?’, Revisiting Global
Trends in TVET: Reflections on Theory and Practice, UNESCO-
UNEVOC, Bonn, 2013.
In turn this draws on a set of descriptions of national VET systems
prepared in 2011 for Training Recognition Australia, an agency of the
Australian government.
Material on EU and OECD countries draws on a number of sources.
Two of the principal sources are:
•
Cedefop’s descriptions of national VET systems:
www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/Information-services/vet-in-europe-
country-reports.aspx
•
the country studies and national policy reviews that have been
prepared as part of the OECD’s current VET policy review:
www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/vet.htm
Further reading
A number of sources, in addition to those cited in this handbook,
can be consulted for additional information on work-based learning
policy and on good practice in implementing work-based learning
programmes. They include:
•
ETF (European Training Foundation), Work-based Learning:
Benefits and Obstacles. A Literature Review for Policy Makers
and Social Partners in ETF Partner Countries, ETF
, Turin, 2013.
• European Commission, Background paper for the European
Seminar: Monitoring and Evaluation of Apprenticeships and
Traineeship Schemes, Brussels, 2014.
• European Commission, Apprenticeship and Traineeship
Schemes in EU27: Key Success Factors. A Guidebook for Policy
Planners and Practitioners, Brussels, 2013.
• European Commission, Work-based Learning in Europe:
Practices and Policy Pointers, Brussels, 2013
•
Material produced for the European Alliance on Apprenticeship:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/apprenticeship/index_en.htm
•
Material developed for the European Commission’s Rethinking
Education strategy:
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/vocational-policy/alliance_
en.htm
•
An overview of apprenticeship systems and issues produced
by the ILO in 2012 as a contribution to the G20 Task Force on
Employment:
http://innovativeapprenticeship.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/
Overview-of-Apprenticeship-Systems-and-Issues.pdf
•
An OECD note on quality apprenticeships prepared in 2012 as a
contribution to the G20 Task Force on Employment:
www.oecd.org/els/emp/OECD%20Apprenticeship%20
Note%2026%20Sept.pdf
•
Material that is available through the International Network
on Innovative Apprenticeship (INAP), and in particular papers
delivered at its conferences in 2006, 2008, 2009 and 2011:
www.inap.uni-bremen.de/
•
INAP’s 2012 memorandum, An Architecture for Modern
Apprenticeships – Standards for Structure, Organisation and
Governance:
www.inap.uni-bremen.de/dl/memorandum_inap_commission_
architecture_apprenticeship_2012.pdf
•
Deitmer, L., Hauschildt, U., Rauner, F
. and Zelloth, H. (eds), The
Architecture of Innovative Apprenticeship, Springer, Dordrecht,
2013.

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