![xv
From the Publisher
324 PART III Handbook
INTRODUCING . . . PHRASES AND CLAUSES
Phrases and clauses are grammatical units within the sentence. Prepositions introduce
phrases that as a unit join nouns and pronouns to the rest of the sentence.
Phrases
Phrases function as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. When they act as these parts
of speech, it is important to remember that they do so as a unit, though each word within
the unit may be made up of a different part of speech and have a function distinct from
that of the unit itself.
Phrases | function as a unit within the sentence.
As a unit and within the sentence are functioning as adverbs, modifying the verb func-
tion. (Recall that adverbs modify verbs.) The first phrase answers the question how while
the second answers the question where of the verb. But though each phrase is acting
adverbially, the individual words within the unit have distinct functions, none of which
is adverbial.
as 5 preposition
within 5 preposition
a 5 indefinite article
the 5 definite article
unit 5 noun (object of preposition as)
sentence 5 noun (object of preposition within)
Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrase units act as either adverbs or adjectives. As you’ve seen above, a
group of words that includes more than one part of speech can, as a unit, modify a verb.
It is then said to be functioning adverbially (as an adverb) within the sentence.
She drove me into town so I could do my laundry.
The prepositional phrase into town begins with the preposition into and is followed by
the noun town, the object of the preposition. But if you look at the phrase as a unit, you
can see that into town is functioning as an adverb modifying the verb drove by explain-
ing where the action took place: “Drove where? Into town.”
Similarly, a group of words can modify a noun or pronoun, in which case it is func-
tioning adjectivally (as an adjective). Consider the prepositional phrases (indicated by
underlining) in these sentences:
An obsession with Star Wars | led to her career as an astronomer.
“With Star Wars” is a prepositional phrase that gives us more information about (i.e.,
modifies) the noun obsession. It is functioning as an adjective.
with 5 preposition
Star Wars 5 proper noun (object of preposition with)
A PHRASE is a
group of two or
more grammatically
linked words which,
lacking a subject
and/or predicate,
can be thought of
as functioning as a
single part of speech.
ADVERBIALLY
means acting as an
adverb.
ADJECTIVALLY
means acting as an
adjective.
➔To find out
more about
conjunctions, see
page 315.
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➔When you use
transitional
words or phrases
to connect one
idea to the next,
be careful to
punctuate correctly.
See chapter 11,
Semicolon (p. 345)
for punctuation
rules governing
transitional words
and phrases.
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144 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader
1. Sample Student Argumentative Essay—MLA Style
SAMPLE STUDENT ESSAY
The Gluten-Free Epidemic
by Dalton Anderson
[1] Gluten-free dieting has been one of the most popular health trends in the last de-
cade. This diet has received plenty of attention from health enthusiasts who claim eating
gluten-free is one of the easiest ways to lose weight. Even professional athletes, such as the
NBA’s Steve Nash and tennis star Novak Djokavic, have jumped on the gluten-free bandwag-
on (Gulli 58). Studies have confirmed that eating gluten-free benefits the small percentage
of the population afflicted with Celiac Disease, but there is no indication that gluten-free
is beneficial to the average, healthy consumer. In fact, evidence suggests that eating glu-
ten-free can be detrimental to a consumer’s wallet and well-being.
[2] There is only one rule to the gluten-free diet: consumers can eat whatever they
wish, but their food cannot contain gluten. This problematic protein is constructed from
gliadin and glutenin (Boissonneault et al. 13). Gluten is essential to many baking techniques
because it supports the structure for pastries and other wheat products. Interestingly, glu-
ten is also found in products that the average consumer wouldn’t imagine having a con-
nection to gluten, such as soy sauce, hot dogs, beer, and toothpaste (Gulli 55). Therefore,
the common availability of gluten-containing foods makes a gluten-free diet very diffi-
cult to follow, especially considering that bread is the most consumed product in every
country (Troncone, Auricchio, and Granata 330).
[3] Dr. William Davis was the first pioneer for the gluten-free revolution. Davis’s book,
Wheat Belly, promises that by removing wheat (and, therefore, gluten) from the reader’s
diet, the reader will “lose 20, 30, or 50 pounds just within the first few weeks” (10). The
solution is simple: “eliminate the wheat, eliminate the problem” (12). Since the release of
Wheat Belly, the popularity of gluten-free dieting has skyrocketed. Twenty-five percent
of consumers now look for gluten-free options when shopping (Boissonneault et al. 13).
Gluten-free has grown into a $6.2 billion worldwide market that continues to expand every
day with large companies like Kellogg’s, Campbell, and Domino’s all converting to get a
share of the market. Gluten-free options make up a $90 million market in Canada alone
(Gulli 55). In addition, the market is expected to grow 20% annually for the foreseeable
future (Mitchell 9).
[4] Most of the consumers who make up this emerging market are people who don’t
have a medical requirement to eat gluten-free. Currently, the only portion of the population
restricted to eating gluten-free for life is the small percentage suffering from Celiac Disease.
Celiac Disease is a rare autoimmune disease that affects 1% of the population (Zannini et al.
13) and occurs in individuals who are genetically sensitive to gluten (Troncone & Jabri 582).
The disease is caused by an irregular reaction of specialized white blood cell to the gliadin
portion of gluten. Celiacs usually suffer from wheat allergy and gluten sensitivity as well, which
are conditions that are more common in the general public (Boissonneault et al. 13). Celiacs
who consume gluten may experience anemia, skin lesions, chronic diarrhea, osteopenia, and
Anderson’s thesis
expresses a value
claim. However, in his
conclusion, he goes
beyond this to make a
recommendation to his
readers.
Although this paragraph
gives mostly background
information, Anderson
efficiently makes an
argumentative point in
the last sentence.
Anderson uses four
sources in this relatively
short paragraph,
carefully placing his
citations so the reader
is clear on where the
information comes from.
See chapter 7, page 213,
and chapter 8 for more
about citations.
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105
4 Responding to Texts: Summaries and Analyses
SAMPLE STUDENT SUMMARY
Summary of “Biodiversity”
by Candace Savage
Although only one word, “biodiversity” describes the wondrous variety of life on our unique
planet surrounded by the barrenness of space. The author believes that life today is more
diverse than ever, but our insatiable demands are degrading our biodiversity. Three over-
lapping standards can measure species stability, beginning with simple numbers: many
species—of birds, mammals, amphibians, and fish—are nearing extinction today. While
an inevitable part of nature’s cycles, extinction becomes threatening when species loss is
disproportionate to species gain. Second, species are losing their genetic variability, which
aids in adaptation by encoding richness into species DNA. Third, planetary life, including
human life, will become less adaptable and creative as ecosystems are less able to pro-
vide for our basic needs. We must, therefore, safeguard biodiversity for our sake and our
children’s.
Use a dictionary and a
thesaurus to help you
change the wording
of the original. Ensure
that the word is the best
replacement; otherwise,
your summary could be
unclear.
r
n
l
Concision and clarity are essential in
effective summaries. You should experiment
with different phrasing, ensuring that your
prose can be understood by the average
reader.
In paragraph 2, the
author expresses her
point about biodiversity
today as a probability,
not as a fact. The
summary phrasing
acknowledges her
rhetorical purpose.
The summary writer uses parallel phrasing
to improve clarity. Transitions are used
sparingly to help with sentence flow.
s
v
i
s
e
into speci
and creati
efore, safe
s
e
a
Th
to
spa
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The new signpost
margin notes contain
cross-references for
easier navigation.
Helpful margin notes include definitions of key terms and
writing tips. Definitions also appear in the glossary at the end
of the book.
Examples of student writing provide readers
with a peer-focused approach to honing
their skills and developing technique.
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![xvi From the Publisher
SAMPLE SCHOLARLY ESSAY
The Teenage Brain: Self Control
by B. J. Casey & Kristina Caudle
Abstract
Adolescence refers to the transition from childhood to adulthood that begins with the
onset of puberty and ends with successful independence from the parent. A paradox for
human adolescence is why, during a time when the individual is probably faster, stronger,
of higher reasoning capacity, and more resistant to disease, there is such an increase
in mortality relative to childhood. This is due not to disease but, rather, to preventable
forms of death (accidental fatalities, suicide, and homicide) associated with adolescents
putting themselves in harm’s way, in part because of diminished self-control—the abil-
ity to suppress inappropriate emotions, desires, and actions. This article highlights how
self-control varies as a function of age, context, and the individual and delineates its
neurobiological basis.
Introduction
[1] During adolescence, people are probably the quickest that they will ever be; their
crushes will never be better, and their thrills will never quite be the same. That’s the
good news. The bad news is that during this time, relative to childhood, their chances
of dying from putting themselves in harm’s way will increase by 200% (Dahl, 2001). This
The abstract outlines the
problem to be investigated
and the focus of the article.
Abstracts of scientific
experiments often
outline the stages of the
experiment. However, this
paper reports on the results
of many experiments, not
just the authors’ own.
Although this definition of
adolescence might seem
unnecessary, the authors
return to the idea that
“successful independence”
can be considered an
adaptive mechanism that
equips adolescents for
adulthood. See paragraphs
3, 4, and 17.
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Appendix E
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Note that your responses may vary from those given here.
Chapter 1
Exercise 1.6 (p. 16)
1. b. The instructor announced class cancellation yesterday.
2. b. Todd is sarcastically voicing his displeasure (c is a possible inference).
3. c. The school has been designed for students with behavioural problems.
4. a. Meghan will likely face many challenges at the university,
5. d. No inference is possible.
Chapter 2
Exercise 2.6 (p. 30)
1. high school history teachers: neutral?
phys-ed teachers: positive
high school students: mixed
2. NHL hockey fans: mixed?
referees’ union: positive
NHL team owners: negative
3. pet owners: mixed?
city council: positive
pet breeders: negative
4. a citizen’s rights group: negative
RCMP officers: positive
dentists: neutral
5. students who own laptops: positive
students who do not own laptops: negative? neutral?
instructors who have taught for 20 years or more: negative
Exercise 2.7 (p. 34)
2. Borderline personality disorder is a controversial condition.
It is a topic (it is not complete enough to serve as a thesis).
Possible subject: personality disorders
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151
5 The Argumentative Essay
After reading the essay, consider
• the writer’s audience
• the journal in which it appeared (the name is given at the end of the essay)
Access the home page of the journal to determine the suitability of the essay for the
target audience. What inference can you make about argumentative purpose from this
information?
SAMPLE PROFESSIONAL ESSAY
The writer introduces
his topic in the first
paragraph by means of
a personal observation.
While using the first
person is not usually
a good way to begin
an argument, here
it helps Perlmutter
establish his credibility
as an expert in “political
communication.”
In this logically
developed paragraph,
the writer begins with
a topic sentence,
follows with supporting
examples, and
concludes with a
question that leads the
reader into the next
paragraph.
Here Perlmutter makes
a brief concession,
acknowledging the
partial truth of the
stereotype. He places
his simple thesis, a
value claim, in the last
sentence.
By this statement,
Perlmutter reveals
argumentative purpose:
raising awareness, or
considering a new
perspective on a familiar
topic.
The paragraph is developed partly
through an illustration. However, like
most of the paragraphs in the essay,
compare and contrast is the primary
organizational method.
Why Politicians Should Be More Like Professors
by David D. Perlmutter
[1] As a professor of political communication, I find it fascinating that one of the most
common negative criticisms of President Barack Obama by pundits and politicians is that he
is too “professorial.”
[2] Personal tone and style have always affected the public’s attitudes toward its
leaders. From speeches by Pericles in Athens to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s fireside chats
via radio, and, more recently, tweets from Mayor Cory Booker of Newark, N.J., during
one of this winter’s Northeast blizzards, it’s clear that successful mass communication
is that which best approximates successful personal communication. The politicians
we call “great communicators” are those who can reach a person standing in a gigantic
plaza, watching at home on television, or even reading an article shared on Facebook,
and make that person feel (in the proverbial language of the focus-group response)
as if they were “talking to me personally.” That said, what exactly is wrong with being
professorial?
[3] The intellectual distance and aloofness of some professors is often exaggerated
as the signature characteristic of a profession practiced by tens of thousands of indi-
viduals in different ways every day. I do know aloof scholars. But I also know charis-
matic and charming ones. And rather than protest against a stereotype, I’d like to offer
a counter-argument: We would live in a better world if our political leaders were more
professorial.
[4] Among good professors, facts matter. Take a familiar tale from academe: A professor
is contacted by a legislative staff member to get information on a topic on behalf of a poli-
tician. The professor soon discovers that facts are of minor importance, and that the staffer
is interested only in those numbers, quotes, or cases that support the position already held
by the politician, and will ignore any that contradict it. Instead of taking stances and making
decisions based on careful investigation, as academic researchers do, politicians usually take
stands based on cherry-picked research and pre-approved talking points that echo existing
party ideologies and pander to donors and voting constituencies.
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Add commas to the following sentences if required, and name the rule category that ap-
plies. There is one comma rule to apply in each sentence.
1. After her inaugural speech several members of the House rose to congratulate her.
2. The optional package includes bucket seats dual speakers and air-conditioning.
3. We have collected more than $20,000 and there is a week remaining in our campaign.
4. Metaphors similes and personification all are examples of figurative language.
5. Although many are called few are chosen.
6. The magnificent country estate is hidden behind a long elegant row of silver birches.
7. “We can’t achieve peace in our time if we assume war is inevitable” he said.
8. As well as the Irish many Africans were forced to leave their families behind during
times of famine.
9. Because of the humidity levels it feels hotter than the actual temperature.
10. Joe Clark the former prime minister has a famous wife.
11. Even though most people are aware of global warming and climate change fewer are
aware of the term carbon footprint.
12. James Earl Jones who is the voice of Darth Vader in Star Wars is a well-known actor.
13. The Globe and Mail is a popular paper across Canada whereas the Toronto Star was
created for the Toronto and area market.
14. Trust is important in any relationship and it always takes time to develop.
15. People have immigrated to Canada from countries in Asia Europe the Middle East and
Central and South America.
16. Caffeine a stimulant is unregulated and completely legal.
17. Since climate change is a global problem it requires global solutions.
EXERCISE
11.1
Check answers to
select questions
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Professional essays—almost all of them
new—have been selected for currency and
readability.
The readings include paragraph
numbers, encouraging students to refer
to specific text in their analyses.
Exercises, including both individual and
collaborative activities, provide students with
opportunities to practise their skills.
An icon indicates which exercises
have an answer key in the appendix.
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![12 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader
Word Meanings
Comprehension is vital as a starting point in just about everything you read. This section
focuses on strategies to increase comprehension. Dictionaries are indispensable tools
for writing, whether you are a professional writer or a student writer. They are also an
essential part of reading. But while a good dictionary is part of the key to understanding
challenging texts, it is certainly not the only one.
Because the texts you read in university may be more challenging than those you are
used to, looking up every unfamiliar word would be time-consuming and distracting.
Thankfully, you don’t need to know the precise meaning of every word you read; you
need to know the exact meanings of the most important words but only approximate
meanings for others.
Since relying only on a dictionary is inefficient, you should cultivate reading prac-
tices that minimize the constant use of a dictionary. Refer to a dictionary when needed,
for example, to confirm a word’s meaning; otherwise, try to determine meanings by
• looking at surrounding words, which often give a clue to meaning
• looking at the idea the writer is trying to express
• noting similarities with words you do know
Important words are often revealed through context—the words around them. If
a writer does not define difficult words, he or she may use synonyms or rephrasing to
make their meanings easy to grasp. Writers may also use an unfamiliar word in such a
way that the surrounding words clarify its meaning.
Using Context or Similarities to Determine Word Meanings
In the following sentences from the essay at the end of this chapter, “Embrace the
Mediocrity Principle” (p. 19), words before or after the italicized words can be used to
determine their meanings:
[The principle’s] acceptance as a guiding 21st century paradigm . . . just might save
humankind from its own bloated sense of superiority and greed.
A paradigm is something that guides, such as a pattern; 21st century could further
suggest that a paradigm is an enduring pattern.
[Homer-Dixon] describes how the current convergence of global crises can no lon-
ger be dismissed by the “Don’t Worry, Be Happy” voices of hucksters promoting
status, wealth, and consumption.
With the words that follow hucksters, the writer appears to be criticizing people
who sell consumer goods. You might conclude that the word refers to people who take
advantage of others’ naivety to make a sale.
Particularly important concepts may be defined. Early in the essay, two important
principles are defined (p. 19):
Welcome to The Mediocrity Principle . . . . Unlike the famous Peter Principle that
says people rise to fulfill their incompetence, the new and very real Mediocrity
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![18 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader
Reading for Style and Tone
A Closer Look
Straightforward, direct writing is rightly praised (especially
by writing instructors!). However, a writer may employ a
more complex or indirect style than that needed for sim-
ple communication. Why would a writer choose to use
indirect means to get his or her points across?
Such a style can make
writing more interesting or
the thesis more convincing.
Alert readers will understand
that the writer’s indirectness
is serving a purpose and read
the essay in light of that pur-
pose. Readers who do not
notice this may be confused
by the essay or misinterpret it.
A writer’s style consists of
features that (1) make the writ-
ing distinctive—for example, a
descriptive style might use many adjectives—and (2) reflect
the audience or purpose in writing. For example, an infor-
mal style could indicate familiarity with average readers or
their values; if a writer’s purpose was to parody (make fun
of) someone, the style might reflect this through exag-
geration. Features of style, then, can include diction (word
choice), sentence structure and length, and the use of liter-
ary devices, such as imagery or metaphors. (Note that style
also has other meanings in writing—see chapters 8 and 12).
Sometimes readers need to use their critical-thinking
skills to “read between the lines” and understand the au-
thor’s tone—his or her attitude toward the subject matter
or audience. Tone is usually revealed through language
and style, including features like diction or specific stylis-
tic choices, like the use of metaphors or humour. For ex-
ample, in satire, a writer uses humour and an ironic tone
to poke fun at an individual, a group, or society itself—the
target of the satire.
TONE is the writer’s
attitude toward the
subject matter or
audience and can be
determined by the
writer’s language and
style. In SATIRE, a
writer uses humour and
an ironic tone to poke
fun at an individual,
a group, or society
itself—the target of the
satire.
Collaborative Exercise: Determining Tone
What is the author’s tone in the following passage? Is it one more of amusement or of con-
tempt? What, specifically, shows you the writer’s attitude? As you practise focused reading
on this passage, pay particular attention to the author’s word choices.
They’re the impulse buys piled up next to the cash register. They’re the books
stocked by Urban Outfitters and hipster gift stores. They’re the books you
pick up, laugh at, and figure would be just about right for that co-worker
who’s into sci-fi (The Space Tourist’s Handbook) [or] the friend who watches
too much TV (Hey! It’s That Guy!: The Fametracker.com Guide to Character
Actors). . . .
Pop-culture-inspired handbooks for situations you’re never going to face
featuring information you’re never going to need, these gimmicky, kooky,
sometimes just plain stupid books have at least one thing in common: There
are more and more of them out there, because they sell.
—Hal Niedzviecki, The Globe and Mail, 2005
EXERCISE
1.7
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![19
1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking
SAMPLE PROFESSIONAL ESSAY
Before reading the essay below, consider any relevant questions on pages 9–10 that might
apply to this essay. After reading “Embrace the Mediocrity Principle,” answer the ques-
tions that follow, focusing on making inferences based on content and credibility, along
with tone and style, where applicable.
Think of a recent episode of a TV comedy, an article in a magazine, or a website in which
satire was used. Can you identify the target of the satire (i.e., whom it was directed
against)? Was the target announced or did a reader/viewer have to infer it? Consider spe-
cific features that contributed to the satire and write a short response in which you iden-
tify the target of the satire, along with passages, images, dialogue, and so on, that pointed
to the target.
EXERCISE
1.8
SAMPLE PROFESSIONAL ESSAY
Embrace the Mediocrity Principle
by Daniel Wood
[1] The shoe has dropped. But few are inclined to embrace the implications of the dis-
coveries in the last few years that there are, almost certainly, millions of Earths out there and
that the big rock you inhabit is as ordinary as phlegm.
[2] Welcome to The Mediocrity Principle—astrophysicists’ scary gift to the third millen-
nium. Unlike the famous Peter Principle that says people rise to fulfill their incompetence, the
new and very real Mediocrity Principle says that wherever astronomers look, the universe—
and, by extension, all its constituents—sinks into trans-galactic commonness.
[3] The Earth isn’t the least unique. Ipso facto: neither are you. You’re unalterably average.
[4] It’s an idea that, cosmologically speaking, has been a long time coming. But, its ac-
ceptance as a guiding 21st century paradigm, say pundits of impending environmental and
economic apocalypse, just might save humankind from its own bloated sense of superiority
and greed.
[5] Welcome to 2012: Year of the Hairshirt. The year the 99 per cent got mad. The year that
sardines trump swordfish and mediocrity begins to replace excess. Frugalism is the new black.
[6] In a Very Brief History of Time (169 words), this is how the Earth and its occupants
have fallen into disgrace. A few centuries ago, people in the West thought this planet was the
centre of the universe, that it began in 4004 BC (on Saturday, Oct. 22, to be exact), and that
humans were made in the image of God. Copernicus, Galileo, and Darwin put large holes
in these beliefs.
[7] In the early 20th century, astronomer Edwin Hubble said a lot of those stars out there
aren’t stars at all. They’re distant galaxies—billions of them, each containing billions of stars.
[8] To make matters worse for humankind’s sense of uniqueness, it soon became clear
that time didn’t start with The Big Guy in 4004 BC, but with The Big Bang in 15 billion BC.
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![20 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader
[9] Now, using information from the Hubble and Kepler telescopes, 707 of what’s-
predicted-to-be millions of distant exoplanets have been identified—including newly
found Kepler-22b that sits in the so-called Goldilocks Zone, neither too far nor too near
to its Sun to make it a good candidate for warmth-loving, carbon-based life. In fact, there
are almost certainly tens of millions of life-sustaining, Earth-like rocks out there. We live,
it appears, on a commonplace hunk of granite, Coca-Cola, and chop suey surrounded by
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars and innumerable solar systems.
[10] “Why should we assume there is anything special about us? Mediocrity is the universal
rule,” says Alexander Vilenkin, the Boston cosmologist who in 1995 coined the phrase The
Mediocrity Principle.
[11] As this was happening, the late Harvard University paleontologist Stephen Gould
pilloried Darwin’s theory, saying evolution comes about, in part, through fluke and global
catastrophe, not just through a species’ inherent superiority. Now, humans can no longer
claim to be Heavenly or even evolutionarily blessed; we’re the result—in part—of rene-
gade luck.
Headed for newt status?
[12] Goodbye creationism. Goodbye self-importance. Goodbye security. That might have
been the appropriate reaction were it not for one thing. The Earth today is facing one of
those planetary catastrophes that Gould and his doom-saying associates have often spoken
about. And the catastrophe is us.
[13] The planet’s systems are breaking down: global warming, economic disintegration,
energy and food crises, the accelerating extinction of species, rampant pollution, AIDS,
regional economic ghettoization, and the threat of worldwide terror. The list is long and
familiar.
[14] Sixty-five million years ago, the dinosaurs failed to adapt to change and became, in
time, newts. Mediocrity was forced on them. Today, there are creepy species waiting in the
wings—rats, blackberries, cockroaches, lawyers—ready to claim humanity’s position atop
the Pig Pile. (Remember, the planet’s dominant life-form throughout history is slime.)
[15] It’s beginning to look as if the wackos carrying the placards reading “The End Is Nigh‚”
are right. Unless . . . UNLESS: This planet’s brainiest inhabitants accept that The Mediocrity
Principle applies to them. With apologies to Marshall McLuhan, medium is the message.
[16] Tad Homer-Dixon is no wacko. He’s a University of Waterloo professor of interna-
tional affairs and author of the 2001 Governor-General award-winning book The Ingenuity
Gap.
[17] In it he describes how the current convergence of global crises can no longer be
dismissed by the “Don’t Worry, Be Happy” voices of hucksters promoting status, wealth, and
consumption.
[18] “The conceit of sustainable development,” says Homer-Dixon, “is you can have your
cake and eat it, too. You can’t. There’s only so much. The cliff-edge is out there.”
[19] As Homer-Dixon sees it, there are two human options for the future: 1) capitulation to
drastic worldwide regulations and limits . . . or 2) chaos.
[20] To achieve the former, there’d have to be restrictions on consumption and on free-
doms that—to use Homer-Dixon’s phrase, “would be Holland—times 10.” It would be a world
of unimaginable technocratic order, enforced mediocrity, and eco-police. Flagrant extrava-
gance would be a crime.
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![21
1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking
[21] That is the good option. To achieve the latter—chaos—Earthlings just have to keep
doing what we’re doing now. This route leads to fortified enclaves of wealth scattered amid
widespread political and environmental collapse, plus the quarantine of entire sections of
the planet. It would be—again using Homer-Dixon’s analogy, “a patchwork of global anar-
chy—like many, many Haitis.”
[22] Which option would you choose?
Selling mediocrity
[23] The point man for global mediocrity is Vancouver’s Kalle Lasn, the founder of
award-winning Adbusters magazine, and creator of the unlikely “Buy Nothing Day.” His is
not an easy task. In a world of exceptionalism, glitz, and vacuous spectacle, the satisfactions
of the ordinary are, he knows, made to appear third-rate.
[24] For example, recent ad copy hyping the Nissan Altima read: “May Promote Feelings
of Superiority.” There are no ads anywhere promoting the virtues of mediocrity. Lasn knows
this because he has produced 25 anti-commercials and sought to air them on the three big
American TV networks. His success rate? Zero for 25.
[25] “Consumption is the mother of all evils,” he says as he studies the foyer of a big-
box Toys ‘R’ Us near his office. Colourful, inflated swimming pool animals float overhead.
“People think business and technology will save us. But that’s science fiction. Calamities lie
ahead. Ordinariness will be resisted. In time, there’ll be hell to pay. This over-consumptive
culture of ours is going to die very hard.”
[26] As he leaves the store, he admits that he doesn’t have much hope for the future. But
he does, he says, have faith . . . in the potato. He’d dug one that morning in his backyard
garden and fried it up for breakfast. At the memory, he smacks his lips.
Embrace our boringness
[27] There are, cynics acknowledge, a few hopeful signs that mediocrity might take root
amid a society that has, since the corporate scandals and economic turmoil of recent years,
grown disenchanted with excess.
[28] But it’s a long descent from taking million-dollar golden handshakes from Fannie Mae
to finding happiness in wearing bunny slippers and watching reruns of Celebrity Pets. That is
a fall too far. Mediocrity is not about tastelessness. It’s not about bad. It’s not the Lada or car-
pet bowling or people who say, “Yo!” Mediocrity eschews the snobbishness of Calvin Klein
for the practicality of Sears. Mediocrity does not go ga-ga over miniature summer squashes,
when there are plenty of zucchinis—grown locally, of course.
[29] Mediocrity embraces home haircuts, tap water, elbow patches, Scrabble nights, and
naps. Mediocrity celebrates the winners of the annual Darwin Awards for their fatal stupidity.
They are the true heroes!
[30] Mediocrity looks for guidance to Despair, Inc.—a real business whose motto is: “In-
creasing Success by Lowering Expectations” and whose logo features the Leaning Tower of
Pisa.
[31] Mediocrity has as its most respected voice the man who gave the commencement
address at his Yale University alma mater in 2001 and said there was nothing wrong with get-
ting Cs. He’d done it himself. The usual venue for his speeches has been The White House.
[32] There are some who’d argue that the Truth is out there and that extraterrestrials lurk
at the periphery of our vision. The Mediocrity Principle provides a simpler explanation.
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Writing by Choice 3rd Edition Eric Henderson
- 1. Writing by Choice 3rd Edition Eric Henderson install download https://ebookmeta.com/product/writing-by-choice-3rd-edition-eric- henderson/ Download more ebook from https://ebookmeta.com
- 3. Tense refers to the time when the action or condition expressed by the verb took place (or is taking place, or will take place). Each tense can take one of four forms: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive. These forms further describe the aspect of the verb, as to when its action began, and its duration or completion. The auxiliary (helping) verb for most forms determines the complete form of the verb. The auxiliary verb for the progressive tenses is to be (is, was, will be); for the perfect tenses, it is to have (has, had, will have). Verb Tenses 1. Present Tenses Simple Present (action or situation exists now or exists on a regular basis): I call We call You call You call He/she/it calls They call I usually call for the pizza; you call for it this time. Present Progressive (action is in progress): I am sending We are sending You are sending You are sending He/she/it is sending They are sending Mr. Kahn is sending the package to you by courier. Present Perfect (action began in the past and is completed in the present): I have eaten We have eaten You have eaten You have eaten He/she/it has eaten They have eaten I have eaten the apple you gave me. Present Perfect Progressive (action began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future): I have been hoping We have been hoping You have been hoping You have been hoping He/she/it has been hoping They have been hoping We have been hoping to receive news from the Philippines. 2. Past Tenses Simple Past (action or situation was completed in the past): I saw We saw You saw You saw He/she/it saw They saw Garfield saw the moon rise last night over his burrow. Past Progressive (action was in progress in the past): I was talking We were talking You were talking You were talking He/she/it was talking They were talking James and Beth were talking about storms when the hurricane warning flashed onto their computer screen. Past Perfect (action was completed in the past prior to another action in the past): I had finished We had finished You had finished You had finished He/she/it had finished They had finished Alex had finished the second assignment when the storm knocked out power to his computer. Past Perfect Progressive (action in progress in the past): I had been practising We had been practising You had been practising You had been practising He/she/it had been practising They had been practising The golf team sophomores had been practising for the tournament all summer, but when school started, their coach announced his resignation. 3. Future Tenses Simple Future (action will occur in the future): I will see We will see You will see You will see He/she/it will see They will see I will see the Rocky Mountains on my way to Vancouver. Future Progressive (action will be continuous in the future): I will be walking We will be walking You will be walking You will be walking He/she/it will be walking They will be walking Madison and Marek will be walking in the Marathon of Hope next Saturday morning. Future Perfect (action in the future will be completed): I will have gone We will have gone You will have gone You will have gone He/she/it will have gone They will have gone Sally will have gone around the moon several times before the ship leaves its lunar orbit. Future Perfect Progressive (action is ongoing up to a specific future time): I will have been studying We will have been studying You will have been studying You will have been studying He/she/it will have been studying They will have been studying With the completion of this assignment, they will have been studying verbs for 13 years.
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- 6. With Contributions from David Leach, Scott Johnston, and Danielle Forster Henderson_WritingByChoice_TitlePages.indd 1 2015-01-28 09:52
- 7. 1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries. Published in Canada by Oxford University Press 8 Sampson Mews, Suite 204, Don Mills, Ontario M3C 0H5 Canada www.oupcanada.com Copyright © Oxford University Press Canada 2015 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First Edition published in 2006 Second Edition published in 2011 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Permissions Department at the address above or through the following url: www.oupcanada.com/permission/permission_request.php Every effort has been made to determine and contact copyright holders. In the case of any omissions, the publisher will be pleased to make suitable acknowledgement in future editions. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Henderson, Eric, author Writing by choice / Eric Henderson. — Third edition. Includes index. ISBN 978–0–19–900861–2 (pbk.) 1. Academic writing—Textbooks. 2. Report writing— Textbooks. 3. English language—Rhetoric—Textbooks. I. Title. PE1408.H39 2015 808’.042 C2014-907931-1 Cover image: yang wenshuang/Getty Images Oxford University Press is committed to our environment. Wherever possible, our books are printed on paper which comes from responsible sources. Printed and bound in Canada 1 2 3 4 — 18 17 16 15 008612_00_FM.indd Page iv 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page iv 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 8. Contents Readings xiii From the Publisher xiv Preface xix PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader 1 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking 2 A Proactive Approach 3 Three-Way Reading 3 Three-Way Reading and Academic Writing 5 Types of Selective Reading 7 Matching Reading Type and Purpose 7 Responding Critically and Analytically through Questions 8 Before Reading 8 First Reading 10 Second Reading 11 Focused Reading and Comprehension 11 Word Meanings 12 Critical Thinking 13 What Is Critical Thinking? 13 Applying Critical Thinking 14 Breaking Down Critical Thinking 15 Sample Professional Essay 19 Chapter Summary 23 2 The Writing Situation 24 Writing Purpose 25 Writing to an Audience 25 Audience Factors 28 008612_00_FM.indd Page v 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page v 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 9. vi Contents Writing: The Composing Process 31 The Traditional Linear Model 31 Stages in Essay Writing 33 Pre-writing 33 Research 36 Organization 38 Composing: First Draft 41 Revising: Final Draft 43 Rhetorical Modes of Discourse 45 Expository versus Argumentative Essays 46 Narration and Description 47 Chapter Summary 49 3 Essay and Paragraph Essentials 50 The Essay: An Analytical Model 51 Kinds of Claims 51 Support: Evidence and Credibility 52 Essay and Paragraph Structure 60 Topic Sentence 60 Paragraph Wrap as Conclusion 62 Connecting Paragraphs by Using a Transition 62 Paragraph Fundamentals 63 Unity 63 Coherence 64 Specialized Paragraphs: Introduction and Conclusion 71 The Introduction 71 The Conclusion 83 Developing Your Essay through Substantial Paragraphs 85 Rhetorical Patterns 85 Essays Using a Primary Pattern 92 Primary versus Secondary Patterns 92 Chapter Summary 98 4 Responding to Texts: Summaries and Analyses 99 Summaries, Analysis, and Research Papers 100 Summary: The Précis 101 The Value of a Summary 101 Pointers for Précis Writing 101 Précis Planning 103 008612_00_FM.indd Page vi 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page vi 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 10. vii Contents The Critical Analysis 105 Reading and Other Planning Strategies 106 Writing Strategies 107 Sample Essay for Critical Analysis 107 Chapter Summary 112 5 The Argumentative Essay 113 Everyday Arguments 114 Rhetoric and Argument 114 Aristotle and Argument 114 Argumentative Purpose 117 1. Defending Your Point of View 117 2. Seeking a Change 117 3. Promoting a Consensus 117 4. Drawing Attention to a Problem/Raising Awareness 117 5. Reaching a Common Understanding 118 6. Interpreting a Text 118 Combining Argumentative Purposes 118 Arguable Claims 120 Opinion, Facts, and Argument 120 Specific, Interesting, and Manageable Claims 122 Specific Claim 122 Interesting Claim 122 Manageable Claim 123 Kinds of Evidence 124 Working Your Claim: The Rational Basis of Argument 124 Inductive Reasoning 125 Deductive Reasoning 125 Solidifying the Claim through the Warrant 127 Strategies for Argument and Rebuttal 127 Strategies for Arguments 127 Strategies for Rebuttal 131 Categories of Faulty Reasoning 136 Logical, Emotional, and Ethical Fallacies 137 Slanted Language 140 Organizing an Outline for Argument 142 Rhetorical Function of Parts 142 Sample Argumentative Essays 143 1. Sample Student Argumentative Essay—MLA Style 144 2. Sample Student Argumentative Essay—APA Style 147 3. Sample Professional Essay 150 Chapter Summary 153 008612_00_FM.indd Page vii 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page vii 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 11. viii Contents 6 The Literary Essay 154 General Features of Literary Essays 155 Kinds of Literary Essays 156 Text-Centred and Context-Centred Approaches 156 On the Road to the Rough Draft 156 Method for Developing an Outline or a Draft 158 Two Tips for Analyzing Literature 159 Theory into Practice: A Sample Poetry Analysis 160 The Literary Genres: Poetry, the Short Story, the Novel, and Drama 163 How to Approach a Poem 163 Fictional Forms 169 How to Approach Drama 173 The Literary Research Essay 175 Primary and Secondary Sources 175 Drafting and Revising the Literary Essay 177 Sample Student Literary Research Essay–MLA Style 180 Chapter Summary 184 PART II Research Guide 185 7 Writing a Research Essay 186 Exposition, Synthesis, and Research 187 Stages in the Research Process 188 Research: Finding and Exploring 188 Synthesis (I): Assimilation 188 Organization: Arranging 189 Synthesis (II): Composing 190 Documenting: Following Procedures 190 What Is Research? 192 Reliability of Sources 193 Finding a Research Question 195 Researching Your Topic 197 The Research Proposal 199 A Simple Proposal: Purpose and Methodology 199 Sample Research Proposal 200 Research Note-Taking 201 Organizing Research Notes 201 Some Useful Research Strategies 202 The Search Is On: Locating and Using Sources 203 Primary and Secondary Sources 203 Online Searches 205 008612_00_FM.indd Page viii 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page viii 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 12. ix Contents The Value of Library Research 208 Alternative Information Sources 210 Using Sources in the Composing Stage 211 Summary 211 Paraphrase 212 The Annotated Bibliography 212 Source Citation and Plagiarism 213 Methods of Integrating Sources 217 Outline for a Research Essay 222 Sample Student Essay 225 The Scholarly Essay 228 Chapter Summary 237 8 Documentation Styles 238 Why Document Your Sources? 239 Choosing Your Documentation Style 240 The Major Documentation Styles: MLA and APA 241 MLA Documentation Style 241 APA Documentation Style 252 CMS Documentation (Notes) Style 263 Chapter Summary 270 PART III Handbook 271 9 Achieving Clarity and Depth in Your Writing 272 Effective Style: Clarity 273 Cutting for Concision 274 Writing Directly 280 Working toward Precision: Wise Word Choices 289 Revising for Concision, Directness, and Diction: A Sample Student Draft 294 Providing Depth: Variety and Emphasis 296 Sentence Variety 296 Sample Essay for Rhetorical Analysis 300 Chapter Summary 306 10 Sentence Essentials 307 Grammatical Groundwork 308 Introducing . . . the Parts of Speech 308 The Parts of Speech at Work 309 008612_00_FM.indd Page ix 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page ix 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 13. x Contents Introducing . . . the Sentence 316 What Is a Sentence? 316 The Invisible-Subject Sentence 317 Two Types of Sentence Fragments 318 Introducing . . . Phrases and Clauses 324 Phrases 324 Clauses 326 Sentence Types 327 Errors of Combining 330 Chapter Summary 334 11 Punctuation and Apostrophes 335 Commas: Do They Really Matter? 336 Rule Category 1: Items in a Series 336 Rule Category 2: Independent Clauses 337 Rule Category 3: Parenthetical Information 339 Rule Category 4: Conventional and “Comma Sense” Uses 340 Other Forms of Punctuation 345 Semicolon 345 Colon 348 Dashes and Parentheses 349 The Apostrophe 354 1. Apostrophe for Possessive Case 354 2. Apostrophe to Show Contraction 355 Chapter Summary 357 12 Agreement, Pronouns, Modifiers, and Parallelism 358 Agreement 359 Subject–Verb Agreement 359 Pronoun–Antecedent Agreement 363 Problematic Pronouns: Inclusive Language 364 Pronoun Reference 367 Pronoun Case 371 Personal Pronoun 371 Relative Pronoun 373 Interrogative Pronoun 374 Pronoun Consistency 375 Sentence Construction Errors 376 Misplaced Modifiers 376 Dangling Modifiers 379 The Parallelism Principle 381 Chapter Summary 386 008612_00_FM.indd Page x 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page x 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 14. xi Contents APPENDIX A Proofreading: Perfection Is Possible 387 Proofreading Methods 387 Guidelines for Proofreading 388 Common Errors 388 Essay Presentation 388 APPENDIX B The In-Class Essay or Examination Essay 390 Recall 390 Organization and Time Management 391 Adaptability 391 APPENDIX C A Checklist for EAL Writers 394 Adjectives 394 Adjectives as Participles 395 Adjectives and Present Participles versus Past Participles 395 Comparatives and Superlatives 395 Plural Nouns as Adjectival Phrases Concerning Distance, Money, and Time 395 Relative (Adjectival) Clauses 396 Adverbs 396 Adverbs with Adjectives 396 Comparative and Superlative of Adverbs 396 Articles—A, An, and The 396 The Indefinite Article 397 The Definite Article 398 Nouns 400 Every + Noun 401 Gerunds 401 Kind(s) of/Type(s) of + Noun 401 Uncountable and Countable Nouns 402 Prepositions 403 Verbs 403 Verbs as Modal Auxiliaries 404 Similar Verbs and Nouns 405 Verbs and Prepositions 405 Verbs and Their Subjects (subject–verb agreement) 411 Verb Tenses 411 008612_00_FM.indd Page xi 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page xi 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 15. xii Contents APPENDIX D Peer Edit Forms 412 Peer Edit Form: Formal Outline 412 Peer Edit Form: Research Essay First Draft 414 Peer Edit Form: Argumentative Essay First Draft 416 Peer Edit Form: Literary Essay First Draft 418 APPENDIX E Answers to Exercises 420 Glossary 437 Index 445 Credits 453 008612_00_FM.indd Page xii 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page xii 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 16. Readings SAMPLE PROFESSIONAL ESSAYS Daniel Wood, “Embrace the Mediocrity Principle” 19 Jeff Halperin, “House Plants Are Better Than Dogs” 96 Candace Savage, “Biodiversity” 103 Andrew Nikiforuk, “Tarmageddon: Dirty Oil Is Turning Canada into a Corrupt Petro-state” 107 David D. Perlmutter, “Why Politicians Should Be More Like Professors” 151 B. J. Casey and Kristina Caudle, “The Teenage Brain: Self Control” 229 Michael Ignatieff, excerpt from Fire and Ashes 300 SAMPLE STUDENT ESSAYS Tina Lalonde, “Critical Analysis of “Tarmageddon: Dirty Oil Is Turning Canada into a Corrupt Petro-state” by Andrew Nikiforuk” 110 Dalton Anderson, “The Gluten-Free Epidemic” 144 Brydon Kramer, “Should Veiling Be Banned in the Courtroom?” 147 Kaja Vessey, “Mystery or Mastery? Robert Frost’s ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’” 162 Kiyuri Naicker, “Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ and Roethke’s ‘My Papa’s Waltz’: An Exploration of Ambivalence” 181 Iain Lawrence, “The Impact of Sport on Levels of Inappropriate Childhood Aggression” 225 Kristen Carlton, Sample In-Class Student Essay 392 008612_00_FM.indd Page xiii 1/28/15 3:16 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page xiii 1/28/15 3:16 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 17. xiv Contents Oxford University Press is proud to bring you Writing by Choice, the definitive text on writing and com- position for today’s students. Developed not just to teach the basics of writing but to empower students to write well, Writing by Choice encourages students to make appropriate choices in their writing by giving them the tools and the knowledge to do so. This third edition is clearly divided into three parts: a rhetoric with an integrated reader, a research guide, and a grammar and style handbook. The new chapter structure includes learning objectives, marginal definitions and cross-references, current examples, and chapter summaries. The text contin- ues to give detailed treatment to expository, argumentative, and literary essays, illustrating key princi- ples through sample professional and student essays as well as individual and group exercises. Writing by Choice remains the first choice for engaging students in a comprehensive, widely applica- ble approach to developing their writing skills and thinking critically about how—and why—they write. From the Publisher L earning how to argue effectively is a skill that extends beyond university classrooms into the practical world of employment and into many walks of life. However, suc- cessful argument involves much more than just stating your opinion and backing it up, as is sometimes believed: it involves making choices depending on your purpose for ar- guing, your audience, and your topic. In this chapter, you will learn how to combine the critical-thinking skills discussed in chapter 1 with the strategies introduced here to produce convincing arguments. The Argumentative Essay LEARNING OBJECTIVES • to understand three important argumentative models and their contribution to written arguments today • to be aware of different argumentative purposes and to be able to plan your essay with both purpose and audience in mind • to understand that valid arguable claims are based on more than subjective standards and usually have an opposing viewpoint • to learn what kinds of evidence can contribute to a successful argument • to learn about argumentative strategies, including emotional and ethical appeals,availabletowriterstosupporttheirclaimsandstrengthentheirargument • to learn how to reason logically and avoid logical fallacies, which are catego- ries of false or invalid reasoning 5 008612_05_05.indd Page 113 1/27/15 5:42 PM s-w-149 008612_05_05.indd Page 113 1/27/15 5:42 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCTUR ... /201/PH01699/9780134038 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE THIRD EDITION The new chapter structure includes learning objectives, current examples, and end-of-chapter summaries. 386 PART III Handbook The sentences below contain parallelism errors. Identify each kind of error (series, com- pound, correlative conjunction, or comparison) and fix the errors. 1. A good journalist is inquisitive, persistent, and must be a good listener. 2. Music can directly affect your thoughts, emotions, and how you feel. 3. In this essay, I will be looking and writing about the role of women in the military. 4. There are three main qualities that a leader must possess: a leader must be enthusias- tic, organized, and have creativity. 5. Television can affect children in a variety of negative ways since children often lack judgment, are naturally curious, and easily influenced. 6. She was not only the best teacher I have ever had, but also I was impressed by her wardrobe. 7. Aman never has and never will be good at golf. 8. There are many reasons why people choose to or enjoy watching television. 9. We can help combat global warming by using renewable energy sources, researching car- bon sequestration, starting carbon taxes, and all the little things we can do as individuals. 10. Being imprisoned for a long time can result in a dependency on the institutional envi- ronment, a lack of meaningful relationships, and there can be a loss of personal identity. 11. When Jim has the choice of either jumping or to stay on the doomed ship, he chooses to jump. 12. Physical education teaches children not only to work well together but also patience and discipline. 13. Smoking should be banned because it raises health-care costs, physically harms both smokers and non-smokers, and because cigarette production damages the environment. 14. Allowing prostitution in controlled environments will reduce the risk of violence, de- crease drug abuse, and even combats disease through regular testing. 15. What made Beethoven’s music different from other composers was his expressive style. EXERCISE 12.12 Check answers to select questions CHAPTER SUMMARY Studying the topics covered in this chapter will enhance your ability to write grammat- ically. Applying the rules for agreement will prevent illogical errors in which a subject and its verb or a pronoun and the noun it replaces do not match up. Pronoun errors are often caused by misunderstanding the different categories of pronouns and their func- tions; the sections on pronouns clarify pronoun functions within sentences or clauses. Finally, modifier and parallelism errors can make a sentence more difficult to read or even mean something different from what the writer intended. 008612_12_12.indd Page 386 20/01/15 3:06 PM f-w-143 612_12_12.indd Page 386 20/01/15 3:06 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd 008612_00_FM.indd Page xiv 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 008612_00_FM.indd Page xiv 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 18. xv From the Publisher 324 PART III Handbook INTRODUCING . . . PHRASES AND CLAUSES Phrases and clauses are grammatical units within the sentence. Prepositions introduce phrases that as a unit join nouns and pronouns to the rest of the sentence. Phrases Phrases function as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. When they act as these parts of speech, it is important to remember that they do so as a unit, though each word within the unit may be made up of a different part of speech and have a function distinct from that of the unit itself. Phrases | function as a unit within the sentence. As a unit and within the sentence are functioning as adverbs, modifying the verb func- tion. (Recall that adverbs modify verbs.) The first phrase answers the question how while the second answers the question where of the verb. But though each phrase is acting adverbially, the individual words within the unit have distinct functions, none of which is adverbial. as 5 preposition within 5 preposition a 5 indefinite article the 5 definite article unit 5 noun (object of preposition as) sentence 5 noun (object of preposition within) Prepositional Phrases Prepositional phrase units act as either adverbs or adjectives. As you’ve seen above, a group of words that includes more than one part of speech can, as a unit, modify a verb. It is then said to be functioning adverbially (as an adverb) within the sentence. She drove me into town so I could do my laundry. The prepositional phrase into town begins with the preposition into and is followed by the noun town, the object of the preposition. But if you look at the phrase as a unit, you can see that into town is functioning as an adverb modifying the verb drove by explain- ing where the action took place: “Drove where? Into town.” Similarly, a group of words can modify a noun or pronoun, in which case it is func- tioning adjectivally (as an adjective). Consider the prepositional phrases (indicated by underlining) in these sentences: An obsession with Star Wars | led to her career as an astronomer. “With Star Wars” is a prepositional phrase that gives us more information about (i.e., modifies) the noun obsession. It is functioning as an adjective. with 5 preposition Star Wars 5 proper noun (object of preposition with) A PHRASE is a group of two or more grammatically linked words which, lacking a subject and/or predicate, can be thought of as functioning as a single part of speech. ADVERBIALLY means acting as an adverb. ADJECTIVALLY means acting as an adjective. ➔To find out more about conjunctions, see page 315. 008612_10_10.indd Page 324 19/01/15 8:48 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd ➔When you use transitional words or phrases to connect one idea to the next, be careful to punctuate correctly. See chapter 11, Semicolon (p. 345) for punctuation rules governing transitional words and phrases. /207/OUPB021/work/indd 144 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader 1. Sample Student Argumentative Essay—MLA Style SAMPLE STUDENT ESSAY The Gluten-Free Epidemic by Dalton Anderson [1] Gluten-free dieting has been one of the most popular health trends in the last de- cade. This diet has received plenty of attention from health enthusiasts who claim eating gluten-free is one of the easiest ways to lose weight. Even professional athletes, such as the NBA’s Steve Nash and tennis star Novak Djokavic, have jumped on the gluten-free bandwag- on (Gulli 58). Studies have confirmed that eating gluten-free benefits the small percentage of the population afflicted with Celiac Disease, but there is no indication that gluten-free is beneficial to the average, healthy consumer. In fact, evidence suggests that eating glu- ten-free can be detrimental to a consumer’s wallet and well-being. [2] There is only one rule to the gluten-free diet: consumers can eat whatever they wish, but their food cannot contain gluten. This problematic protein is constructed from gliadin and glutenin (Boissonneault et al. 13). Gluten is essential to many baking techniques because it supports the structure for pastries and other wheat products. Interestingly, glu- ten is also found in products that the average consumer wouldn’t imagine having a con- nection to gluten, such as soy sauce, hot dogs, beer, and toothpaste (Gulli 55). Therefore, the common availability of gluten-containing foods makes a gluten-free diet very diffi- cult to follow, especially considering that bread is the most consumed product in every country (Troncone, Auricchio, and Granata 330). [3] Dr. William Davis was the first pioneer for the gluten-free revolution. Davis’s book, Wheat Belly, promises that by removing wheat (and, therefore, gluten) from the reader’s diet, the reader will “lose 20, 30, or 50 pounds just within the first few weeks” (10). The solution is simple: “eliminate the wheat, eliminate the problem” (12). Since the release of Wheat Belly, the popularity of gluten-free dieting has skyrocketed. Twenty-five percent of consumers now look for gluten-free options when shopping (Boissonneault et al. 13). Gluten-free has grown into a $6.2 billion worldwide market that continues to expand every day with large companies like Kellogg’s, Campbell, and Domino’s all converting to get a share of the market. Gluten-free options make up a $90 million market in Canada alone (Gulli 55). In addition, the market is expected to grow 20% annually for the foreseeable future (Mitchell 9). [4] Most of the consumers who make up this emerging market are people who don’t have a medical requirement to eat gluten-free. Currently, the only portion of the population restricted to eating gluten-free for life is the small percentage suffering from Celiac Disease. Celiac Disease is a rare autoimmune disease that affects 1% of the population (Zannini et al. 13) and occurs in individuals who are genetically sensitive to gluten (Troncone & Jabri 582). The disease is caused by an irregular reaction of specialized white blood cell to the gliadin portion of gluten. Celiacs usually suffer from wheat allergy and gluten sensitivity as well, which are conditions that are more common in the general public (Boissonneault et al. 13). Celiacs who consume gluten may experience anemia, skin lesions, chronic diarrhea, osteopenia, and Anderson’s thesis expresses a value claim. However, in his conclusion, he goes beyond this to make a recommendation to his readers. Although this paragraph gives mostly background information, Anderson efficiently makes an argumentative point in the last sentence. Anderson uses four sources in this relatively short paragraph, carefully placing his citations so the reader is clear on where the information comes from. See chapter 7, page 213, and chapter 8 for more about citations. 008612_05_05.indd Page 144 24/01/15 2:22 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd 105 4 Responding to Texts: Summaries and Analyses SAMPLE STUDENT SUMMARY Summary of “Biodiversity” by Candace Savage Although only one word, “biodiversity” describes the wondrous variety of life on our unique planet surrounded by the barrenness of space. The author believes that life today is more diverse than ever, but our insatiable demands are degrading our biodiversity. Three over- lapping standards can measure species stability, beginning with simple numbers: many species—of birds, mammals, amphibians, and fish—are nearing extinction today. While an inevitable part of nature’s cycles, extinction becomes threatening when species loss is disproportionate to species gain. Second, species are losing their genetic variability, which aids in adaptation by encoding richness into species DNA. Third, planetary life, including human life, will become less adaptable and creative as ecosystems are less able to pro- vide for our basic needs. We must, therefore, safeguard biodiversity for our sake and our children’s. Use a dictionary and a thesaurus to help you change the wording of the original. Ensure that the word is the best replacement; otherwise, your summary could be unclear. r n l Concision and clarity are essential in effective summaries. You should experiment with different phrasing, ensuring that your prose can be understood by the average reader. In paragraph 2, the author expresses her point about biodiversity today as a probability, not as a fact. The summary phrasing acknowledges her rhetorical purpose. The summary writer uses parallel phrasing to improve clarity. Transitions are used sparingly to help with sentence flow. s v i s e into speci and creati efore, safe s e a Th to spa 008612_04_04.indd Page 105 19/01/15 8:27 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd The new signpost margin notes contain cross-references for easier navigation. Helpful margin notes include definitions of key terms and writing tips. Definitions also appear in the glossary at the end of the book. Examples of student writing provide readers with a peer-focused approach to honing their skills and developing technique. 008612_00_FM.indd Page xv 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 008612_00_FM.indd Page xv 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 19. xvi From the Publisher SAMPLE SCHOLARLY ESSAY The Teenage Brain: Self Control by B. J. Casey & Kristina Caudle Abstract Adolescence refers to the transition from childhood to adulthood that begins with the onset of puberty and ends with successful independence from the parent. A paradox for human adolescence is why, during a time when the individual is probably faster, stronger, of higher reasoning capacity, and more resistant to disease, there is such an increase in mortality relative to childhood. This is due not to disease but, rather, to preventable forms of death (accidental fatalities, suicide, and homicide) associated with adolescents putting themselves in harm’s way, in part because of diminished self-control—the abil- ity to suppress inappropriate emotions, desires, and actions. This article highlights how self-control varies as a function of age, context, and the individual and delineates its neurobiological basis. Introduction [1] During adolescence, people are probably the quickest that they will ever be; their crushes will never be better, and their thrills will never quite be the same. That’s the good news. The bad news is that during this time, relative to childhood, their chances of dying from putting themselves in harm’s way will increase by 200% (Dahl, 2001). This The abstract outlines the problem to be investigated and the focus of the article. Abstracts of scientific experiments often outline the stages of the experiment. However, this paper reports on the results of many experiments, not just the authors’ own. Although this definition of adolescence might seem unnecessary, the authors return to the idea that “successful independence” can be considered an adaptive mechanism that equips adolescents for adulthood. See paragraphs 3, 4, and 17. 008612_07_07.indd Page 229 22/12/14 10:28 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd Appendix E ANSWERS TO EXERCISES Note that your responses may vary from those given here. Chapter 1 Exercise 1.6 (p. 16) 1. b. The instructor announced class cancellation yesterday. 2. b. Todd is sarcastically voicing his displeasure (c is a possible inference). 3. c. The school has been designed for students with behavioural problems. 4. a. Meghan will likely face many challenges at the university, 5. d. No inference is possible. Chapter 2 Exercise 2.6 (p. 30) 1. high school history teachers: neutral? phys-ed teachers: positive high school students: mixed 2. NHL hockey fans: mixed? referees’ union: positive NHL team owners: negative 3. pet owners: mixed? city council: positive pet breeders: negative 4. a citizen’s rights group: negative RCMP officers: positive dentists: neutral 5. students who own laptops: positive students who do not own laptops: negative? neutral? instructors who have taught for 20 years or more: negative Exercise 2.7 (p. 34) 2. Borderline personality disorder is a controversial condition. It is a topic (it is not complete enough to serve as a thesis). Possible subject: personality disorders 008612_17_appE.indd Page 420 20/01/15 9:00 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd 151 5 The Argumentative Essay After reading the essay, consider • the writer’s audience • the journal in which it appeared (the name is given at the end of the essay) Access the home page of the journal to determine the suitability of the essay for the target audience. What inference can you make about argumentative purpose from this information? SAMPLE PROFESSIONAL ESSAY The writer introduces his topic in the first paragraph by means of a personal observation. While using the first person is not usually a good way to begin an argument, here it helps Perlmutter establish his credibility as an expert in “political communication.” In this logically developed paragraph, the writer begins with a topic sentence, follows with supporting examples, and concludes with a question that leads the reader into the next paragraph. Here Perlmutter makes a brief concession, acknowledging the partial truth of the stereotype. He places his simple thesis, a value claim, in the last sentence. By this statement, Perlmutter reveals argumentative purpose: raising awareness, or considering a new perspective on a familiar topic. The paragraph is developed partly through an illustration. However, like most of the paragraphs in the essay, compare and contrast is the primary organizational method. Why Politicians Should Be More Like Professors by David D. Perlmutter [1] As a professor of political communication, I find it fascinating that one of the most common negative criticisms of President Barack Obama by pundits and politicians is that he is too “professorial.” [2] Personal tone and style have always affected the public’s attitudes toward its leaders. From speeches by Pericles in Athens to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s fireside chats via radio, and, more recently, tweets from Mayor Cory Booker of Newark, N.J., during one of this winter’s Northeast blizzards, it’s clear that successful mass communication is that which best approximates successful personal communication. The politicians we call “great communicators” are those who can reach a person standing in a gigantic plaza, watching at home on television, or even reading an article shared on Facebook, and make that person feel (in the proverbial language of the focus-group response) as if they were “talking to me personally.” That said, what exactly is wrong with being professorial? [3] The intellectual distance and aloofness of some professors is often exaggerated as the signature characteristic of a profession practiced by tens of thousands of indi- viduals in different ways every day. I do know aloof scholars. But I also know charis- matic and charming ones. And rather than protest against a stereotype, I’d like to offer a counter-argument: We would live in a better world if our political leaders were more professorial. [4] Among good professors, facts matter. Take a familiar tale from academe: A professor is contacted by a legislative staff member to get information on a topic on behalf of a poli- tician. The professor soon discovers that facts are of minor importance, and that the staffer is interested only in those numbers, quotes, or cases that support the position already held by the politician, and will ignore any that contradict it. Instead of taking stances and making decisions based on careful investigation, as academic researchers do, politicians usually take stands based on cherry-picked research and pre-approved talking points that echo existing party ideologies and pander to donors and voting constituencies. 008612_05_05.indd Page 151 24/01/15 2:22 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd Add commas to the following sentences if required, and name the rule category that ap- plies. There is one comma rule to apply in each sentence. 1. After her inaugural speech several members of the House rose to congratulate her. 2. The optional package includes bucket seats dual speakers and air-conditioning. 3. We have collected more than $20,000 and there is a week remaining in our campaign. 4. Metaphors similes and personification all are examples of figurative language. 5. Although many are called few are chosen. 6. The magnificent country estate is hidden behind a long elegant row of silver birches. 7. “We can’t achieve peace in our time if we assume war is inevitable” he said. 8. As well as the Irish many Africans were forced to leave their families behind during times of famine. 9. Because of the humidity levels it feels hotter than the actual temperature. 10. Joe Clark the former prime minister has a famous wife. 11. Even though most people are aware of global warming and climate change fewer are aware of the term carbon footprint. 12. James Earl Jones who is the voice of Darth Vader in Star Wars is a well-known actor. 13. The Globe and Mail is a popular paper across Canada whereas the Toronto Star was created for the Toronto and area market. 14. Trust is important in any relationship and it always takes time to develop. 15. People have immigrated to Canada from countries in Asia Europe the Middle East and Central and South America. 16. Caffeine a stimulant is unregulated and completely legal. 17. Since climate change is a global problem it requires global solutions. EXERCISE 11.1 Check answers to select questions 008612_11_11.indd Page 342 24/12/14 7:22 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd Professional essays—almost all of them new—have been selected for currency and readability. The readings include paragraph numbers, encouraging students to refer to specific text in their analyses. Exercises, including both individual and collaborative activities, provide students with opportunities to practise their skills. An icon indicates which exercises have an answer key in the appendix. 008612_00_FM.indd Page xvi 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 008612_00_FM.indd Page xvi 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 20. xvii From the Publisher Does the word group contain a subject (tells who or what), and is there an action performed by the subject? If NO . . . it’s a fragment Does the word group consist of only nouns/pronouns preceded by prepositions? If YES . . . it’s a fragment Is the only identifiable verb form in the word group an infinitive (e.g., to be, to know, to learn)? If YES . . . it’s a fragment Does the only identifiable verb form in the word group end in -ing, -ed, or -en and is not preceded by a helping verb (e.g., is, were, has been)? If YES . . . it’s a fragment Does the word group begin with a subordinating conjunction (one of the words on p. 321), and express a incomplete thought? If YES . . . it’s a fragment Finding Fragments Using Citations Efficiently A Closer Look Parenthetical references are intended to give the reader as much information as possible about the source while interfering as little as possible with the essay’s content and readability. This is an especially important principle in the Modern Language Association (MLA); however, in both MLA and American Psychological Association (APA) documentation styles, you should not include unneeded citations. You can avoid citing the same source repetitively in one paragraph if it is clear you are referring to that one source throughout. Thus, you can combine references from the same source in one citation. For example, let’s say you used three pages from your source, Jackson; when you were finished drawing from that source, you could indicate your use of Jackson this way: (Jackson 87–89) This citation would tell the reader that you used that one source continuously for three of her pages—perhaps one idea from page 87, two facts from page 88, and a para- phrased passage from page 89. Another strategy for direct and economical docu- mentation is to use a signal phrase to indicate a forth- coming reference. After naming the source and following with the material from the source, for example, a direct quotation or paraphrase, provide the page number. The reader can then clearly see the beginning and end of the source material. Since you have named the author(s) in your own sentence, you do not repeat the name in the citation (see Signal Phrases in chapter 7 on p. 219). A third strategy is combining in one citation sources that contain the same point. This method is use- ful when you are summarizing the findings of several studies in the same paragraph and want to avoid exces- sive citations: (Drinkwater, 2010, p. 118; Hovey, 2009, p. 75). 008612_08_08.indd Page 239 19/01/15 8:48 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd The “Fast Track” feature in the grammar chapters presents a succinct recap of complex rules. The “A Closer Look” feature expands on topics of interest, including achieving objectivity in academic writing; reading for style and tone; identifying irony; conducting research in the humanities, the social sciences, and the sciences; and writing indirect thesis statements. Glossary absolute phrase A group of words that con- sists of a noun/pronoun and a partial verb form, modifying the entire sentence. abstract A condensed summary used in many scholarly essays; it is placed before the study begins, is written by the study’s author, and in- cludes its purpose, methods, and results. adjectivally Acting as an adjective in a sentence. adjectival modifier A word or phrase that describes or particularizes a noun and usually precedes it. adjective A word that modifies and precedes a noun or follows a linking verb; it answers the question Which?, What kind?, or How many? adverbially Acting as an adverb in a sentence. adverbial modifier A word or phrase that de- scribes or particularizes a verb; may also mod- ify an adjective or another adverb; a sentence adverb may modify the entire sentence. adverb A word that modifies a verb, an ad- jective, an adverb, or even an entire sentence; it often ends in –ly and answers the question When?, Where?, Why?, How?, To what degree?, or How much? alliteration Identical sounds at the beginning of closely placed words. allusion A historical, religious, mythic, liter- ary, or other kind of outside reference used thematically or to reveal another aspect of the work. analogy A logical comparison between two objects in order to help the reader understand the first object. See also metaphor. analysis The act of taking something apart or breaking it down in order to look at it closely. analytical Refers to the activity of breaking something down to see how it is put together and the relationship between the parts. anapest A foot of poetic metre consisting of two unstressed syllables and one stressed syllable. anaphora The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of lines or clauses. annotated bibliography An expanded bibli- ography that includes not only the informa- tion of standard bibliographies but also brief summaries of related works and, sometimes, appraisals of each work. antecedent The noun that the pronoun re- places in the sentence. apostrophe In poetry, an address to an absent or dead person or to a non-human object. appositive A word or phrase that is grammat- ically parallel to the previous noun or noun phrase and gives non-essential information. argument A rhetorical mode concerned with persuading a reader to adopt a specific point of view or course of action. aside In drama, a brief speech intended for the audience, not for other onstage characters. assonance The repetition of vowel sounds in the middle of closely placed words. audience Readers with common knowledge, interests, attitudes, reading habits, and/or expectations. audience orientation The attitudes and emotional/ethical positions that define a typ- ical reader; it could be positive (agreeing with your position), neutral (having no opinion), negative (disagreeing with your position), or mixed (including those who agree and those who disagree). bibliography A list at the end of the essay of all the sources used in the essay. The title of this list varies by citation style. blank verse Poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. block method A method of comparing and contrasting in which a writer considers all points related to one subject of comparison be- fore moving on to the second subject. Boolean operators Small words used to com- bine, include, or exclude specific search terms. 008612_18_gloss.indd Page 437 24/01/15 2:06 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd Appendix C A CHECKLIST FOR EAL WRITERS The following are some English idiomatic expressions and rules for usage, organized alphabetically by the parts of speech. Although they are not a major part of speech, articles can be confusing for EAL writers, so they have been allotted a separate section, beginning on page 396. For more complete information, many useful references, including oup’s general ESL dictionaries, can be consulted. Adjectives One-word adjectives usually precede the words they modify, except predicate adjectives that follow linking verbs (see p. 313). However, relative (adjectival) clauses follow the nouns they modify and present special challenges for writers (see p. 396). The following adjectives often give students trouble: Ago: When you want to refer to a time in the past and relate this time to today, you can use the adjective ago; it follows the noun. To refer to a specific point in the past, you can give the date (month, day, year) preceded by on. See “Times and dates,” below. The first truly successful cloning of an animal occurred more than ten years ago. The first truly successful cloning of an animal occurred on July 5, 1996. Few versus a few: Both can precede nouns that can be counted, but few means “not many,” and a few means “some.” So, few usually refers to fewer of something than a few! (Since a few has more letters than few, you can associate it with more of something than few.) Few Canadians know how to play cricket. However, a few people on my listserv said they would be interested in learning how to play it. Much versus many: Use much before nouns that cannot be counted and many before countable nouns. Similarly, use amount before uncountable nouns and number before countable nouns (see p. 302); use less before uncountable nouns and fewer before countable nouns (see p. 402). The Canadian television channel MuchMusic features many different kinds of music. 008612_15_appC.indd Page 394 24/12/14 4:45 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd The new glossary contains an alphabetical listing of the key-term definitions, providing a handy reference for students. Appendices include proofreading methods and guidelines, peer edit forms, and a checklist for EAL writers. 008612_00_FM.indd Page xvii 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 008612_00_FM.indd Page xvii 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 21. xviii From the Publisher ONLINE RESOURCES For Instructors • An instructor’s manual offers chapter overviews, review questions, discussion starters, collab- orative exercises and activities, and answer keys to selected exercises in the book. • A test bank provides multiple-choice and true-or-false questions to assess students’ under- standing of the chapters. For Students • A student study guide includes chapter summaries, interactive quiz questions, and links to additional online resources. www.oupcanada.com/Writing3e 008612_00_FM.indd Page xviii 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 008612_00_FM.indd Page xviii 29/01/15 8:17 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 22. By the time students begin post-secondary study, most are familiar with the do’s and don’ts of writing essays, having usually been taught rigid guidelines for the writing of essays. While guidelines are essential, they should not hamper thought or expression. They should not deprive writers of choices, but enhance their ability to make informed choices given the wide range of variables affecting different kinds of writing tasks. At the university level, student writers are capable of, and should assume responsi- bility for, making informed choices. Only by doing so can they take up the challenges offered by their studies and by the wide variety of workplace writing tasks that may lie ahead. In a world that increasingly values solutions to its problems, the knowledge- able, adaptable writer will always be in demand, since written forms of communication are likely to reach the widest possible readership—to be heard, considered, and acted on. This is true not only of formal academic essays written for professors but also of other communications designed for a specific purpose, such as applying for a student exchange or training opportunity. As the Contents pages reveal, the composition sections of Writing by Choice are not organized around the teaching of the traditional rhetorical modes. Detailed treatment is given to three kinds of essays: expository, argumentative, and literary—the kinds typically assigned in first-year composition and literature courses. Specialized writing contexts are also considered: the appendices include proofreading guidelines and hints; strategies for writing in-class or examination essays; and help for overcoming the chal- lenges of EAL student writers. The grammar and the composition sections stress the step-by-step approach of identifying, applying, and integrating. Almost all of the examples in the text, including the many exercises, are taken from students’ writing, which reinforce rules and concepts as they apply to realistic, everyday writing contexts—ones that have occurred and will occur to students as they write. The writing by students represents a wide variety of disciplines, reflecting the diverse interests of today’s students. Several selections from the academic and profes- sional worlds of the kind that students encounter in their research also are included as teaching/learning devices. Exercises are designed to engage students on their own as well as in group or collab- orative environments. Many instructors consider editing by peers an indispensable part of collaborative learning; peer edit forms are included in an appendix. An important fea- ture of this text, full-length student essays illustrate expository, argumentative, and lit- erary essays, as well as critical analyses and responses. The importance of summarizing Preface 008612_00_FM.indd Page xix 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page xix 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
- 23. xx Preface is reflected in the text as well. MLA and APA documentation styles are outlined in a separate chapter, along with the rudiments of the notes’ style. The third edition of Writing by Choice retains the core features of the first and sec- ond editions, as described above. However, much of the material has been rewritten and redesigned to meet the needs of today’s students (and instructors) to access relevant information quickly and efficiently. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Preparing the third edition of Writing by Choice has given me an opportunity to re- flect on the privilege of working with many knowledgeable and enthusiastic experts at Oxford University Press Canada in editorial, management, marketing, and sales over the last decade; I particularly want to thank developmental editor Leah-Ann Lymer, copyeditor Leslie Saffrey, and production manager Steven Hall for their proficiency and professionalism. I would like to express my gratitude to Chris Higgins, formerly of the University of British Columbia, for her pioneering work on Chapter 7 in the first edition. Several named and anonymous reviewers offered detailed comments, which proved invaluable in planning the many changes and additions for this third edition. I would like to thank the following reviewers, as well as those who elected to remain anonymous, for their thoughtful feedback: Rhonda Anderson, University of Saskatchewan Jay Timothy Dolmage, University of Waterloo Adam Lawrence, Cape Breton University Craig Melhoff, University of Regina James Christian Parsons, University of Ottawa Jennifer Payson, University of British Columbia Matte Robinson, St Thomas University Thea Todd, Camosun College I also thank the students in my composition and literature classes at the University of Victoria who agreed to have their work published here; I can show no greater appre- ciation than by noting their willingness to respond to my emails long after classes had ended! Some ten years ago, amid self-doubts occasioned partly, perhaps, by too many years teaching continuing education, I at last took up the suggestion of Madeline Sonik that a 40-page writing text called “The Gremlins of Grammar” could aspire to something more; for that challenge, I will always be grateful. Eric Henderson 008612_00_FM.indd Page xx 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 008612_00_FM.indd Page xx 1/27/15 8:45 PM s-w-149 /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT /201/PH01699/9780134038179_GADDIS/GADDIS_CONTROL_STRUCTURES_THROUGH_DATA_STRUCT
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- 26. When you enter a college or university, you can expect to do a lot of writing. Thus, the skills you have acquired from your previous schooling will be im- portant. For most students, however, these skills represent a beginning, not an end: they need to be expanded and refined in order to meet the variety of challenges—in writing, reading, and thinking—you will encounter. Educator Daniel J. Boorstin once defined education as “learning what you didn’t even know you didn’t know.” In addition to the review presented in Part I, you will be introduced to unfamiliar terms, concepts, and methods—“what you didn’t even know you didn’t know.” Learning to master them, with the aid of examples and exercises to practise your new skills, will be vital to success in all your courses. Although writing and organizational skills are fundamental to this success, many students are surprised by the amount of reading they have to do in their post-secondary courses. Many assignments will require you to read and comprehend challenging texts for various purposes, including discussing them with other students, respond- ing to them in writing, summarizing them, or analyzing them. This is where critical thinking often comes in: most of these activities require you to break down an idea, topic, argument, or passage of text to evaluate its validity or the author’s style, tech- niques, or use of rhetoric. Thus, we begin Part I by looking at the interconnections among reading, thinking, and writing. When you know the kinds of questions to ask about texts and the ways to ap- proach them, you will be ready for chapters 2 and 3, which focus on developing ba- sic skills in writing successful essays and paragraphs. Becoming familiar with these skills will enable you to build on them to write with a specific purpose in mind. Chapter 4 focuses on summarization and critical analyses. Chapters 5 and 6 high- light the development of more complex writing and critical-thinking skills to master the argumentative essay and the literary analysis, respectively. PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader 008612_01_01.indd Page 1 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 1 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 27. Many of the tasks ahead will require you to read challenging texts efficiently and thoughtfully. By using the strategies discussed in this chapter, you will be on your way to becoming a more confident reader and thinker. You will learn to use the reading strategy that best matches your reading purpose and to ask questions to facilitate the read- ing process. Specific techniques are given to help you understand what you are reading. What does it really mean to be a critical thinker? This chapter will help you develop your critical thinking skills so you can apply them successfully to a wide variety of texts. Foundations: Reading and Thinking LEARNING OBJECTIVES • to learn how a proactive approach to reading, thinking, and writing will help you acquire the skills for success • to be able to identify selective reading strategies and use them effectively when reading challenging works • to be able to ask appropriate questions at different stages of the reading pro- cess • to use strategies to help determine the meanings of unfamiliar words and expand your vocabulary • to understand the importance of critical thinking and use it to analyze essays 1 008612_01_01.indd Page 2 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 008612_01_01.indd Page 2 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 28. 3 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking A PROACTIVE APPROACH New challenges await us at every stage of our lives. When a student enters university or college, many of these challenges are connected to reading and thinking and, of course, writing. The various subjects you study will approach the acquisition of knowledge and skills differently, but responding to these challenges will be central to your progress. However, acquiring knowledge and skills is never a passive process. Crucial to your suc- cess is your ability to take a proactive approach to your learning. When you are proac- tive, you act with an awareness of a future problem or need, taking a first step toward a positive outcome. Once this outcome has been achieved, you are ready to tackle the next challenge, whether in reading, thinking, or writing—or all three—building the skills necessary for success. The proactive reader • Responds critically and analytically to challenging texts (see p. 8) • Employs selective reading practices, fitting reading strategy to reading purpose (see p. 7) • Reads carefully for meaning, using techniques to understand important words by context (see p. 12) • Understands that texts are designed for specific readers and purposes (see chap- ter 2, p. 18) The proactive thinker • Uses critical thinking in reading/writing tasks: questions, compares, (re)consid- ers, analyzes, responds (see p. 13) • Makes inferences (conclusions based on evidence) about what is being read (see p. 14) The proactive writer • Writes for a specific audience and purpose, for example, by using appropriate essay/paragraph organization and development (see chapters 2–7) • Understands the value of clear, grammatical writing and an effective style in communicating to an audience (see chapters 9–12) Chapters 1–3 stress the interconnections among reading, thinking, and writing, and, in this way, encourage a proactive approach to these three challenges. In this chap- ter, we discuss proactive strategies for reading and thinking. THREE-WAY READING Most of us read for pleasure, at least sometimes. We choose what, when, and where we want to read. This kind of reading is primarily a one-way activity; reading to grasp con- tent is essentially “passive reading.” But this one-way activity becomes two-way when you begin responding to the text. In a literary text, you may make personal associations— recollections, emotions, desires—or experience the simple pleasure of escaping into When you are proactive, you act with an awareness of a future problem or need. In this sense, you help to ensure a positive or problem- free outcome to something—for example, to the writing assignments in your university/ college courses. 008612_01_01.indd Page 3 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 3 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 29. 4 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader another world that is, in some way, like your own. Consider, for example, the beginning of the short story “Friend of My Youth,” by Alice Munro: I used to dream about my mother, and though the details in the dream var- ied, the surprise in it was always the same. . . . In the dream I would be the age I really was, living the life I was really living, and then I would discover that my mother was still alive. . . . Sometimes I would find myself in our old kitchen, where my mother would be rolling out piecrust on the table, or washing the dishes in the battered cream-colored dishpan with the red rim. But other times I would run into her on the street, in places where I would never have expected to see her. —Munro, Alice. Friend of My Youth. Toronto: Penguin, 1991. Print. In theory, someone could read this passage merely by focusing on the meanings of the words and trying to grasp the literal meaning of the passage. But most readers will find themselves connected in some deeper way, forming associations that depend on their own experiences and outlook. Engaging with a text this way can be considered two-way reading. Your engagement could be just as deep or meaningful as three-way reading, discussed below, but the nature of the engagement is different. Consider the beginning of another text, also about dreams, roughly the same length as the first: Religion was the original field of dream study. The earliest writings we have on dreams are primarily texts on their religious and spiritual significance. Long before psychoanalysts, sleep laboratory researchers, and content an- alysts arrived on the scene, religious specialists were exploring dreams in a variety of ways: using dreams in initiation rituals, developing techniques to incubate revelatory dreams and ward off evil nightmares, expressing nu- merous dream images in different artistic forms, and elaborating sophis- ticated interpretive systems that related dreams to beliefs about the soul, death, morality, and fate. —Doniger, W., & Bulkley, K. (1993). Why study dreams? A religious studies perspective. Dreaming: Journal of the Association of Dreams, 3(1), 69–73. Did you read this paragraph differently from the fictional one? There may have been specific words or phrases, such as content analysts or incubate revelatory dreams, that caused you to reach for a dictionary; in the first paragraph, the language was probably more familiar. Importantly, in reading the second paragraph, you likely went beyond one- or two- way reading. Though you may have formed some personal associations, you probably reacted more critically: the writers were making general statements about the use of dreams in religious societies and cultures. If you had continued to read the article, you would have drawn conclusions based on the writers’ statements and the way they were presented. You would have begun, perhaps, to ask, Is the claim valid? Is it truthful? 008612_01_01.indd Page 4 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 4 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 30. 5 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking Reliable? Is it consistent with previous claims? When you engage in this process and ask these kinds of questions, you are responding critically to a work. A writer may say something directly or may present evidence from which the reader can draw a conclusion. For example, Doniger and Bulkley provide factual evidence that ancient societies developed highly sophisticated methods for studying dreams—perhaps just as complex as the methods of today’s psychoanalysts and dream researchers. The writers don’t directly say that the ancient methods were as complex, but readers could make that inference. (See p. 14.) The main point is that while both passages above require you to react at some level beyond simple comprehension, the second passage calls forth a more critical response. In critical thinking, you read actively to test the validity of an author’s statements, by considering the logic and consistency behind them, and to determine whether the evi- dence supports the author’s claims. Three-Way Reading and Academic Writing In three-way reading you respond critically or analytically (or both) to the text. Three- way reading applies to fiction as well as nonfiction. In fact, when you study literature in university or college, analyzing and critical thinking are often stressed more than personal responses. For example, in an analysis of a literary work for your English class, you employ the vocabulary of literary criticism to analyze the writer’s theme and devices used to convey it. As part of an analysis of Munro’s story “Friend of My Youth,” you might consider her use of the first-person (I) point of view and its relation to the work’s theme. Similarly, if you were interested in creative writing, you could read the Munro text by focusing more on her writing techniques, generalizing on her use of first person and its specific value for fiction writers. In both cases, your analysis reflects skill acquisition relevant to the area you are studying (i.e., literature or creative writing). As a homework assignment, you may be asked to write an analysis based on a three- way reading of an essay you’ve studied (see chapter 4). As you write, you are completing a cycle: you read a text; you think about it critically and analytically; you write down your thoughts, making them conscious, thereby closing the cycle of learning that started with reading. You can then go back and begin the cycle again by rereading the piece, rethinking it, and, perhaps, using your more developed perceptions by writing about it again. Analyzing essays and other texts and thinking about the conscious choices that writers make will lead you to reflect on your own writing processes and enable you to make sound and conscious choices in your own writing. Three-way reading is essential to your success in responding to the kinds of chal- lenging texts you encounter in university. At times, your reading could focus on, for ex- ample, understanding if you need to summarize the main finding of a source to use it in a research essay. At other times, your instructor might ask you to respond to a text, using your personal experience or observations about a topic. More often than not, you will be asked to use the “high-level” critical and analytical skills that are the hallmark of academic writing. ➔See chapter 6 for information about writing responses and literary analyses. When a reader makes an INFERENCE, or infers, he or she draws a conclusion based on the evidence presented (i.e., the reader is not directly told what to conclude from the evidence). See Applying Critical Thinking, page 14. CRITICAL describes the activity of weighing or evaluating something, such as the validity of a statement. ANALYTICAL refers to the activity of breaking something down to see how it is put together and the relationship between the parts. 008612_01_01.indd Page 5 23/12/14 7:49 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 5 23/12/14 7:49 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 31. 6 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader FIGURE 1.1 Three-Way Reading (Re) writing (Re) reading One-way reading = reading to understand meaning (content) Two-way reading = reading to respond (associative/personal) Three-way reading = reading to analyze techniques (critical/analytical) (Re) thinking Objectivity and Academic Writing A Closer Look As you develop reading and critical-thinking skills, as dis- cussed above, the level and nature of your engagement with a text will become increasingly complex, and you will need to take a more impersonal approach to what you are analyzing, to “stand back” and use the tools and resources that abound for careful study of texts. It is natural, then, to express yourself differently than if you were responding to a text in a more personal way; thus, it will no longer reflect your deeper purpose to say I feel or I believe or emphasize your feelings or opinions about a work. The use of more objective forms of expression, or a more impersonal tone, goes hand-in-hand with this new engagement. For example, it is usually unnecessary to address your reader as you or to refer to yourself in the first person (I, me, my, etc.); doing so may even suggest a bias. Observing other forms of expression is important, too, in academic writing: you should avoid conversational- style writing and writing with a gender or other kind of bias. Collaborative Exercise: Writing Objectively In the following short passage, identify specific words and phrases that may not be suit- able for academic writing—because of subjective language, an overly conversational style, or gender bias. Some people have criticized full body scanners used at airports as an inva- sion of your privacy. However, I disagree, as the image generated blurs the face of a passenger, and you would have no possible idea who a person is just from the image. However, these machines cannot detect items hidden inside a passenger’s body, which, I admit, might be a downside to their use. But, overall, I believe the machine is a far cry from the invasiveness of a physical search, a.k.a., the infamous “pat down.” EXERCISE 1.1 008612_01_01.indd Page 6 24/01/15 2:04 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 6 24/01/15 2:04 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 32. 7 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking TYPES OF SELECTIVE READING University-level reading is not all detailed, close reading but is governed by choices; it is selective. In other words, how you read depends on both what you read and your pur- pose for reading. Scanning and focused reading are different types of selective reading suited to different purposes. When you scan, you read for the gist of an essay or its main points, or to identify specific features. To scan effectively, you often need to know where to look. For example, if you want to get the gist of a reading, you might scan the introduction to find the thesis; although not all introductions include a thesis, the introduction is the first place to look. For main ideas, you might look at the first sentences of paragraphs (they are often topic sentences). You could also scan a table of contents or list of references for key words. Note that scanning as defined here is not the same thing as idle browsing where you casually glance through a webpage or magazine to see what interests you. Like focused reading, scanning is reading with a purpose. When you practise focused reading, you concentrate on smaller blocks of text. You read for detail and sometimes for tone or style. In this sense, focused reading is special- ized reading—it asks you to become a specialist (historian, literary critic, sociologist, mathematician) in your reading of the text. Matching Reading Type and Purpose In university-level reading, scanning is often combined with focused reading, for exam- ple, in research. Following three stages will help you research effectively: 1. When you begin research, you need to scan catalogue entries, journal indexes, book content pages and indexes, reference books, databases, and other types of sources in order to find materials to develop your topic. 2. Once you have located most of your sources, scan the most valuable articles, books, and websites to identify the main ideas or concepts relevant to your topic. 3. After identifying these ideas/concepts, practise focused reading to understand them and see how they fit with your thesis or with the ideas of other writers. Scanning and focused reading are most effective when you employ them as delib- erate strategies, asking specific questions in order to get as much from the reading as possible without wasting your time. Guidelines and strategies for selective reading are discussed in Responding Critically and Analytically through Questions, page 8. Some basic strategies for scanning and focused reading are outlined in table 1.1. SCANNING is a reading strategy in which you look for key words or sections of a text. FOCUSED READING is a close and detailed (i.e., word-by-word) reading of a specific, relevant passage. SELECTIVE READING is a reading strategy designed to meet a specific objective, such as scanning for main points or reading for details. Find a one-sentence definition of a topic of interest in one of your textbooks. Begin by scanning the index (an alphabetical listing of content found at or near the end of a book) for the topic; for example, in a sociology text, you could look for sexuality or deviance; in a psychology text, you could look for depression or motivation. Scan the entries under the topic; finally, scan the referenced pages themselves to locate the definition. EXERCISE 1.2 008612_01_01.indd Page 7 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 7 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 33. 8 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader RESPONDING CRITICALLY AND ANALYTICALLY THROUGH QUESTIONS Focused reading can be triggered by asking questions about a written work. These can be asked before you read, while you read, after you have completed the first reading for content, or during later readings. Some questions relate to content, such as one asking for the specific date of a historical event; others require you to read critically or analyt- ically, such as one asking about the causes of a historical event. Active reading typically involves responding to different kinds of questions at different times. Before Reading If you wanted to go on a trip somewhere far away, you probably wouldn’t just head for the nearest terminal and purchase a ticket; you would learn about that place before you risked your money. Pre-reading questions can give you an agenda, just as planning a trip enables you to prepare an itinerary. Whether your topic involves the analysis of a literary work, the investigation of changes to municipal policies, or researching an aspect of Aboriginal culture, various pre-reading questions can help you determine the text’s usefulness. Questions about the writer could alert you to his or her qualifications, the audience for whom the book or essay was written, and possible biases of the writer. TABLE 1.1 Basic Strategies for Scanning and Focused Reading SCANNING FOCUSED READING Scanning begins when you know your purpose for reading and what you are looking for. Focused reading begins when you have identified important or relevant passages. Knowing where to look will help you scan efficiently. Breaking down the passage will help you access complex material—for example, separating main points from sub-points and claims from supporting details and examples. In scanning, skip irrelevant parts of the text. In focused reading, read the passage first for comprehension; then, apply active reading skills. With practice, scanning can be done quickly. Focused reading is a methodical process, but practice will enable you to read faster and more deeply. Activities associated with scanning include note-taking and cross-referencing (see chapter 7, Research Note-Taking, p. 201). Activities associated with focused reading include summarizing, paraphrasing, and direct quotation (see chapter 7, Using Sources in the Composing Stage, p. 211). 008612_01_01.indd Page 8 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 8 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 34. 9 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking However, the starting place for most readers is a work’s title, which can convey in- formation about content, organization, and other important features. For example, con- sider the assumptions you would make about works with the following titles, both of which refer to the settlement of Canada’s Prairies: Buckley, Helen. From Wooden Ploughs to Welfare: Why Indian Policy Failed in the Prairie Provinces. Owram, Doug. Promise of Eden: The Canadian Expansionist Movement and the Idea of the West, 1856–1900. Both titles contain words that inform their readers about purpose and content, as well as time and place. The first title suggests its author analyzes the causes of the failure of Indian policy. In the second title, the words Promise of Eden and idea suggest Owram focuses on perception and ideology behind the movement during the years indicated. As opposed to non-academic works, the titles of academic studies need to inform readers about content. Sometimes, as with the two titles above, the main title summarizes the work through an appealing image or stylistic device (Buckley uses the alliteration of “Wooden” and “Welfare”), while the subtitle (following the colon) gives specific infor- mation about content. Many of your textbooks include references to journal articles, books, and other media. These could be found in the content, or under Notes, Bibliography, or Suggestions for Further Reading. Using a textbook in your favourite subject, choose the titles of two jour- nal articles or books referred to and analyze them word for word. In at least one sentence for each title, describe what you think the work is about. EXERCISE 1.3 After you consider a work’s title, other pre-reading questions include the following: • How long is the text? Knowing the length of a text will help you form a realistic reading plan. • Is there an abstract that summarizes the entire essay? Usually, the abstract pre- cedes the essay, giving an overview of the writer’s hypothesis, method, and re- sults (see A Closer Look: Other Types of Summaries—The Abstract in chapter 7, p. 213). In a book, the Preface, Introduction, or Foreword might give you a sum- mary, thus saving you from unneeded reading. The editor of an essay collection may summarize each essay in an introduction or foreword. • Is the work divided into parts? Are there headings throughout the essay? • Who is the author? Do/should you know anything about him or her? (e.g., his or her profession? Nationality?) • Is the author a member of a specific organization, group, or community? • Does he or she seem to be an expert? • When was the work written? 008612_01_01.indd Page 9 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 008612_01_01.indd Page 9 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 35. 10 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader • To whom is the work addressed? The general public? Experts? A refereed journal contains many articles that have been evaluated by knowledgeable peers; it will be seen as more reliable by your instructors if you are writing a research essay. Similarly, a scholarly book publisher might be more reliable than a trade pub- lisher. • What is the level of language? Does it seem difficult, specialized? If the answer is “yes,” you may have to do a little background reading or exploratory research— and ensure you have your dictionary handy. Using the same material as in exercise 1.3, choose three of the above questions and further analyze the book or journal article. Write a short response to each question. EXERCISE 1.4 First Reading It’s a good idea to first read the essay or chapter for content and general impressions. You may prefer to leave highlighting until your second reading, when you have a better idea of the relative importance of the various passages. Some people prefer to make annotations—comments, thoughts, questions, or addi- tions—in the margin of the text (assuming they own the text!). Still other people prefer to keep their own responses and the source text apart. Responding in some way is the most natural way to make it relevant to you, even if that means you just write abbrevi- ations or symbols, such as ?, ??, !, N.B., or *, **, or ***, in the margin to denote levels of importance. Also see Research Note-Taking in chapter 7, page 201. Questions to ask yourself during and after the first reading might include • What are your impressions of the first few paragraphs? • Is there a distinct introductory section? • What kinds of words are used? More specifically, what is the vocabulary level (simple, sophisticated, general, specialized)? Is jargon used? • What is the purpose of the text (e.g., to persuade, explain, describe, analyze, combination of these)? • What is the work’s main point or thesis? • Are the work’s main points identifiable (in paragraph topic sentences, for example)? • Do the points seem well supported? Is enough detail provided? • Are secondary sources used? Does the writer use footnotes, endnotes, or paren- thetical references? • Is the text easy to follow? Are the points clearly expressed or is the meaning sometimes unclear? Note areas where the meaning is unclear. • Does the author seem to shift his or her focus or change his or her position at any point? Does he or she qualify points or contradict him- or herself? JARGON consists of words and expressions used within a designated group or in a particular discipline that its members would understand but that people outside the group would not necessarily understand. Jargon is a kind of specialized diction. 008612_01_01.indd Page 10 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 10 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 36. 11 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking • Does the work seem to build? Does it get stronger or weaker? • Is there a distinct concluding section? Is it satisfying? Second Reading In your second (and later) readings of a work, your ability to apply critical and analytical skills is crucial. With practice, these skills will become active in all your reading. • Is the introduction effective? Why or why not? • What specific strategies does the writer use to draw you into the work (e.g., ques- tion, quotation, anecdote, narration, description, analogy)? • Is the author’s purpose in writing clear from the start? • What is the work’s tone (i.e., the writer’s attitude to the subject matter—for exam- ple, familiar, objective, detached, casual, humorous, ironic, formal, informal)? • Can you put the thesis in your own words? • How are the points backed up? What kinds of evidence are used (e.g., examples, illustrations, facts, statistics, authorities, personal experience, analogies)? • How does the writer organize the work? Is one method used more than any other (compare/contrast, definition, cause and effect, narration, description, division, other)? • Does the author appear reliable? Fair? • How are the main points arranged? Is the strongest point placed near the begin- ning, middle, or end? Are the points arranged in the most effective order? • Does the work appeal more to logic or to emotion? • Does the writer appeal to a set of values or standards? • What inferences should readers make? Is reason used effectively? • Do specialized language, insufficient background, long or poorly constructed paragraphs, ineffective writing style, inconsistencies, or contradictions in the argument affect clarity at any time? • Is the conclusion effective? Why or why not? The questions above cover many different aspects of the writing process discussed in this textbook. For specific strategies for reading scholarly essays, see page 228. FOCUSED READING AND COMPREHENSION As mentioned, focused reading requires attention to specific words. In your readings, you will sometimes encounter unfamiliar words. At other times, al- though the word looks familiar, the way it is being used seems unfamiliar. This is a natural by-product of language and its evolution; in the process of reading, you will not only increase your vocabulary by learning new words and new uses for old words but come to appreciate the nuances of words and the way they contribute to the subtlety of a writer’s thought. Learning strategies that help you understand a word in the context of the sentence is a first step in becoming a proactive reader. Studying other writers’ language can improve your own writing as well as sharpen your critical-thinking skills, as discussed below, on page 14. 008612_01_01.indd Page 11 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 11 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 37. 12 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader Word Meanings Comprehension is vital as a starting point in just about everything you read. This section focuses on strategies to increase comprehension. Dictionaries are indispensable tools for writing, whether you are a professional writer or a student writer. They are also an essential part of reading. But while a good dictionary is part of the key to understanding challenging texts, it is certainly not the only one. Because the texts you read in university may be more challenging than those you are used to, looking up every unfamiliar word would be time-consuming and distracting. Thankfully, you don’t need to know the precise meaning of every word you read; you need to know the exact meanings of the most important words but only approximate meanings for others. Since relying only on a dictionary is inefficient, you should cultivate reading prac- tices that minimize the constant use of a dictionary. Refer to a dictionary when needed, for example, to confirm a word’s meaning; otherwise, try to determine meanings by • looking at surrounding words, which often give a clue to meaning • looking at the idea the writer is trying to express • noting similarities with words you do know Important words are often revealed through context—the words around them. If a writer does not define difficult words, he or she may use synonyms or rephrasing to make their meanings easy to grasp. Writers may also use an unfamiliar word in such a way that the surrounding words clarify its meaning. Using Context or Similarities to Determine Word Meanings In the following sentences from the essay at the end of this chapter, “Embrace the Mediocrity Principle” (p. 19), words before or after the italicized words can be used to determine their meanings: [The principle’s] acceptance as a guiding 21st century paradigm . . . just might save humankind from its own bloated sense of superiority and greed. A paradigm is something that guides, such as a pattern; 21st century could further suggest that a paradigm is an enduring pattern. [Homer-Dixon] describes how the current convergence of global crises can no lon- ger be dismissed by the “Don’t Worry, Be Happy” voices of hucksters promoting status, wealth, and consumption. With the words that follow hucksters, the writer appears to be criticizing people who sell consumer goods. You might conclude that the word refers to people who take advantage of others’ naivety to make a sale. Particularly important concepts may be defined. Early in the essay, two important principles are defined (p. 19): Welcome to The Mediocrity Principle . . . . Unlike the famous Peter Principle that says people rise to fulfill their incompetence, the new and very real Mediocrity 008612_01_01.indd Page 12 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 12 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 38. 13 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking Principle says that wherever astronomers look, the universe . . . sinks into trans- galactic commonness. When a writer does not define a word, you may be able to infer its meaning by ex- amining the idea the writer is trying to express. In the following example, it is apparent that Gould has challenged a major finding of Charles Darwin. . . . the late Harvard University paleontologist Stephen Gould pilloried Darwin’s theory, saying evolution comes about, in part, through fluke and global catastro- phe, not just through a species’ inherent superiority. In fact, the verb to pillory means something stronger than simply “challenge”: “to hold up to public ridicule.” Since Darwin’s theories are publicly accepted, the choice of pilloried seemed a suitable one. The meanings of words can often be determined because they look like other, fa- miliar words. One could guess that ghettoization, part of the phrase regional economic ghettoization in paragraph 13 of the essay on page 19, is related to ghetto, a place in which a minority group lives, cut off from the more privileged. Reading carefully to determine both the immediate context and the encompassing idea of the sentence can help you determine a word’s meaning. Remember that the ob- ject is not necessarily to make the word part of your writing vocabulary but to enable you to know how the author is using it—to recognize its connotation. However, the discovery of a word’s connotation can be an opportunity to learn more about the word’s meanings and make it part of your writing vocabulary. Thus, learning a word’s conno- tations can help expand your vocabulary and make you a stronger reader and writer. CRITICAL THINKING What Is Critical Thinking? Responding actively to a text develops your critical-thinking abilities. One meaning of the adjective critical is “making a negative comment, criticizing.” However, the root of critical comes from a Greek word that means “to judge or discern, to weigh and evaluate evidence.” When you apply critical thinking, you weigh the evidence and come to a con- clusion. Critical thinking can be defined as a series of logical mental processes that lead to a conclusion. Critical thinking may involve • analyzing • comparing • evaluating • questioning • rethinking • synthesizing (putting together) Much of what we do today is done quickly. This is true not only of video games, texting, tweeting, and other forms of social messaging, but also in business, where “instant” decisions are often valued (especially if they turn out to be good decisions!). A word’s CONNOTATION is its associations or implications, whereas a word’s denotation is its basic, or dictionary, meaning. Connotation may depend on context. CRITICAL THINKING can be defined as a series of logical mental processes that lead to a conclusion. 008612_01_01.indd Page 13 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 008612_01_01.indd Page 13 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 39. 14 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader However, because critical thinking involves many related activities, speed is not an as- set. In fact, since critical thinking is a process, the best way to succeed is to slow down, to be more deliberate in your thinking so you can complete each stage of the process. This section is not designed to make you think critically, since you probably would not be at university or college if you did not use critical thinking daily. Rather, it is meant to make you more conscious of the process, especially when you read and analyze an essay or when you write one. Critical-thinking skills are triggered whenever you read a work in order to comment on it, such as during a classroom discussion or debate, or to use it for support in your essay. The previous section, Responding Critically and Analytically through Questions, provided guidelines to help you become a careful reader who asks important, relevant questions. Applying Critical Thinking Critical-thinking skills also apply to many everyday situations—from deciding what courses to take to what clothes to wear. Although choosing clothes might seem trivial, con- sider the importance of comparing, questioning, weighing, and rethinking if you were de- ciding on an outfit for an important job interview. What factors might affect your choice? These could range from the type of job you are applying for, the dress code of the company, the clothes you feel most confident in, or the weather on the day of the interview. Critical thinking, then, involves making choices, but the most highly developed criti- cal thinking is more than simple choice-making: it involves making the best choice from a range of possibilities. When you read an essay or a book, or evaluate a real-life situation, you are often not directly told what to think. You might be given evidence and left to infer the meaning. When you infer, you arrive at a probable conclusion based on what you read (or see). The best inference (or choice) is the most probable one after all the evidence is weighed. Much research relies on inferences: astronomers, for example, study the phenome- non of black holes by observing the behaviour of matter that surrounds the black hole. They know that before gas is swallowed up by a black hole, it is heated to extreme tem- peratures and accelerates. In the process, X-rays are created, which escape the black hole and reveal its presence. Scientists cannot actually see black holes, but they can infer their existence through the emission of X-rays. Consider the following situation: You invite a new friend for a coffee, but she does not show up. The next day, you meet her unexpectedly and ask her what happened. She pauses for a few seconds and then says matter-of-factly, “Well, actually, I was abducted by aliens, and they just released me.” What do you make of her statement? What inferences are possible? Which are more likely? What could you say or do to ensure that your conclusion was the most probable one? Possible inferences: Probable inferences: How to ensure that your inference is correct: EXERCISE 1.5 008612_01_01.indd Page 14 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 008612_01_01.indd Page 14 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 40. 15 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking You use critical thinking as you read whenever you evaluate and draw conclusions about claims and about the evidence or sources of these claims. It is important to re- member that critical thinking is a process of engagement with a text (or a situation) that may change as you read (or learn more about the situation). The critical thinker questions assumptions, tests the evidence, and accepts (or re- jects) conclusions after careful analysis. When questions arise, the critical thinker seeks answers within the text itself but may also seek relevant outside sources. For example, in the case of the coffee invitation described in the box above, you might ask the woman’s friends about her belief in aliens—or about her sense of humour. In analyzing arguments, the critical thinker should carefully evaluate the writer’s claims and look for failures in logic or misuse of emotion (see Logical, Emotional, and Ethical Fallacies in chapter 5, p. 137). He or she should also consider points that the writer does not raise. Is the writer avoiding certain issues by not mentioning them? Ex- pository (fact-based) writing can also produce disagreement and contradictory findings. For example, researchers determining the effectiveness of a new drug or investigating the connection between television viewing and violence may arrive at different conclu- sions. What can account for the differing results? Attempting to answer this question involves critical thinking, too. Breaking Down Critical Thinking Controversial topics often evoke a strong, emotional response. However, for the critical thinker, they are an opportunity to exercise one’s reasoning skills. Take, for example, the claim that cats are smarter than dogs. Here are some areas to evaluate when you analyze a writer’s argument: • Consider the writer’s credibility. Is the writer regarded as an expert? For exam- ple, is he or she a researcher into animal behaviour? A veterinarian? An animal trainer? Someone who has owned both dogs and cats? Owned cats only? Could the writer have a bias against dogs? Are there any errors in logic, such as “My Using critical thinking in arguments involves breaking down the arguer’s use of reason and questioning what is both said and not said. Using critical thinking in exposition could involve analyzing why researchers’ findings are different from one another. Critical Thinking in Literature Classes A Closer Look Learning how to analyze literary works means applying specific reading strategies to interpret literature, arriving at the best inferences to make your reading more com- plex and/or subtle. When you read a poem, short story, or novel, the writer doesn’t tell you the work’s theme, explain how a symbol is being used, or list the traits of the main character. Instead, he or she embeds theme, symbol, and character within the work, enabling you, the reader, to draw conclusions about their significance. Training and practice in critical thinking will help you read literature more deeply. Interpreting literary works often requires a sensitivity to irony, indirection, subtext, and style—one reason why reading good literature can be challenging yet rewarding. See A Closer Look: Reading for Style and Tone, below (p. 18), and the sample student es- say by Kiyuri Naicker on page 181. 008612_01_01.indd Page 15 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 008612_01_01.indd Page 15 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 41. 16 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader neighbour’s dog jumps up on me all the time; therefore, dogs are not smart”? Has fact been carefully distinguished from opinion? • Consider the nature of the thesis/main points. Specific claims are more convinc- ing than general ones. Since there are many different dog breeds, it would be difficult to generalize about the intelligence of all dogs. • Consider the basis of the statement. You can look beyond the statement to ask what it is based on—for example, a definition. There are various ways to define and measure intelligence: physiologically (e.g., the weight of the brain in proportion to the weight of the body) and behaviourally (e.g., trainability, adaptability, indepen- dence). Those who think dogs are more intelligent may point to trainability as the intelligence factor, while cat fanciers may point to adaptability or independence. • Consider the method. How does the writer attempt to prove his or her claim? Since intelligence can be measured, a method that measured it scientifically would be more credible than one that relied on personal experience—especially since many pet-lovers may be opinionated about their pets’ intelligence. • Consider the support. In critical thinking, you must evaluate the nature of the evidence and the way the writer uses it. Typical questions might include, What kind of evidence does the writer use? Does the writer rely too much on one kind of evidence or one source? How many sources are used? Are they current sources (recent studies may be more credible than older ones)? Does the writer ignore some sources (e.g., those that found dogs more intelligent than cats)? • Draw your conclusion. While analyzing and questioning are important during your reading of the work, synthesizing (putting together) is the final-stage activity that leads to your conclusion(s). Your goal is to determine whether the weight of evidence supports the writer’s claim. You might consider how weaker points affect the validity of the findings. Are there any gaps or inconsistencies in the chain of reasoning? ➔In argument, a warrant provides the basis for a claim. This term is discussed in chapter 5, page 115. As discussed in this section, we use critical thinking and inferences every day. The follow- ing scenarios call for critical-thinking skills by asking us to make inferences. A. What inferences could be made in each case? B. Is there a best (i.e., most probable) inference? Justify your choice of the most proba- ble inference. If you believe no inference can be made, explain what kind of informa- tion you would need to make an inference. 1. You arrive at your 8:30 a.m. class after missing yesterday’s class because you over- slept. You are surprised to see an empty classroom. As well, there is no one you rec- ognize from class hanging around outside, and there is nothing posted on the wall or door to show that the instructor is ill. Inferences: a. You have mistaken either the time or the room. b. The instructor announced class cancellation yesterday. c. The instructor is ill, but no one put up a notice. d. No inference is possible. (What further information is needed?) EXERCISE 1.6 Check answers to select questions 008612_01_01.indd Page 16 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 16 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 42. 2. It was Todd’s roommate’s turn to cook dinner, but when Todd got home, his room- mate was glued to the TV and the kitchen looked untouched. “Wow! Something smells great,” enthused Todd. Inferences: a. Todd has a poor sense of smell. b. Todd is sarcastically voicing his displeasure. c. Todd is trying to give his roommate a hint that he should start dinner. d. No inference is possible. (What further information is needed?) 3. The students at the school work in isolated workstations; their desks face the walls. Social interaction is structured and supervised. Time-out rooms are small, window- less areas without furniture or carpeted floors; the doors have keyed locks. The cells are painted bright colours: pink, yellow, and blue; the light switch for each cubicle is on the outside. Inferences: a. The students at the school are thoroughly dedicated to their studies. b. School designers have provided the optimal conditions for study. c. The school has been designed for students with behavioural problems. d. No inference is possible. (What further information is needed?) 4. All was not eager anticipation for Meghan. She chose to attend the largest univer- sity in the province, and she found herself frequently feeling lost, both geograph- ically and socially. She had to take a campus bus to get to some of her classes on time. Most of her classes were large with well over 100 students; one class had 250 students. She was used to smaller class sizes in high school with support from her resource teacher. Although she arranged for support through the uni- versity’s Office of Disability Services, Meghan realized that she would have to ap- proach the professors to describe her learning problems and request accommo- dations. Meghan also felt disorganized. Although her roommates had purchased their texts, yearly organizational calendars, and other materials, Meghan had no idea where to begin; her fear of failure was increasing by the moment. Inferences: a. Meghan will likely face many challenges at the university. b. Meghan will likely give up and go home. c. Meghan’s fears are likely unfounded, as the many resources available at the uni- versity will help her adjust to her new life. d. No inference is possible. (What further information is needed?) 5. Binkley paid for all the travel and expenses, and what was only 12 months ago a very new and controversial transaction has today left Binkley a healthy man—and the first of 16 people who have successfully received organs through MatchingDonors.com. Inferences: a. The author believes that this method of soliciting donors is wrong. b. The author believes that this method of soliciting donors is, at the very least, ethically questionable. c. The author sees nothing wrong with this method of soliciting donors. d. No inference is possible. (What further information is needed?) 17 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking 008612_01_01.indd Page 17 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 17 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 43. 18 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader Reading for Style and Tone A Closer Look Straightforward, direct writing is rightly praised (especially by writing instructors!). However, a writer may employ a more complex or indirect style than that needed for sim- ple communication. Why would a writer choose to use indirect means to get his or her points across? Such a style can make writing more interesting or the thesis more convincing. Alert readers will understand that the writer’s indirectness is serving a purpose and read the essay in light of that pur- pose. Readers who do not notice this may be confused by the essay or misinterpret it. A writer’s style consists of features that (1) make the writ- ing distinctive—for example, a descriptive style might use many adjectives—and (2) reflect the audience or purpose in writing. For example, an infor- mal style could indicate familiarity with average readers or their values; if a writer’s purpose was to parody (make fun of) someone, the style might reflect this through exag- geration. Features of style, then, can include diction (word choice), sentence structure and length, and the use of liter- ary devices, such as imagery or metaphors. (Note that style also has other meanings in writing—see chapters 8 and 12). Sometimes readers need to use their critical-thinking skills to “read between the lines” and understand the au- thor’s tone—his or her attitude toward the subject matter or audience. Tone is usually revealed through language and style, including features like diction or specific stylis- tic choices, like the use of metaphors or humour. For ex- ample, in satire, a writer uses humour and an ironic tone to poke fun at an individual, a group, or society itself—the target of the satire. TONE is the writer’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience and can be determined by the writer’s language and style. In SATIRE, a writer uses humour and an ironic tone to poke fun at an individual, a group, or society itself—the target of the satire. Collaborative Exercise: Determining Tone What is the author’s tone in the following passage? Is it one more of amusement or of con- tempt? What, specifically, shows you the writer’s attitude? As you practise focused reading on this passage, pay particular attention to the author’s word choices. They’re the impulse buys piled up next to the cash register. They’re the books stocked by Urban Outfitters and hipster gift stores. They’re the books you pick up, laugh at, and figure would be just about right for that co-worker who’s into sci-fi (The Space Tourist’s Handbook) [or] the friend who watches too much TV (Hey! It’s That Guy!: The Fametracker.com Guide to Character Actors). . . . Pop-culture-inspired handbooks for situations you’re never going to face featuring information you’re never going to need, these gimmicky, kooky, sometimes just plain stupid books have at least one thing in common: There are more and more of them out there, because they sell. —Hal Niedzviecki, The Globe and Mail, 2005 EXERCISE 1.7 008612_01_01.indd Page 18 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 008612_01_01.indd Page 18 19/01/15 8:26 PM f-w-143 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 44. 19 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking SAMPLE PROFESSIONAL ESSAY Before reading the essay below, consider any relevant questions on pages 9–10 that might apply to this essay. After reading “Embrace the Mediocrity Principle,” answer the ques- tions that follow, focusing on making inferences based on content and credibility, along with tone and style, where applicable. Think of a recent episode of a TV comedy, an article in a magazine, or a website in which satire was used. Can you identify the target of the satire (i.e., whom it was directed against)? Was the target announced or did a reader/viewer have to infer it? Consider spe- cific features that contributed to the satire and write a short response in which you iden- tify the target of the satire, along with passages, images, dialogue, and so on, that pointed to the target. EXERCISE 1.8 SAMPLE PROFESSIONAL ESSAY Embrace the Mediocrity Principle by Daniel Wood [1] The shoe has dropped. But few are inclined to embrace the implications of the dis- coveries in the last few years that there are, almost certainly, millions of Earths out there and that the big rock you inhabit is as ordinary as phlegm. [2] Welcome to The Mediocrity Principle—astrophysicists’ scary gift to the third millen- nium. Unlike the famous Peter Principle that says people rise to fulfill their incompetence, the new and very real Mediocrity Principle says that wherever astronomers look, the universe— and, by extension, all its constituents—sinks into trans-galactic commonness. [3] The Earth isn’t the least unique. Ipso facto: neither are you. You’re unalterably average. [4] It’s an idea that, cosmologically speaking, has been a long time coming. But, its ac- ceptance as a guiding 21st century paradigm, say pundits of impending environmental and economic apocalypse, just might save humankind from its own bloated sense of superiority and greed. [5] Welcome to 2012: Year of the Hairshirt. The year the 99 per cent got mad. The year that sardines trump swordfish and mediocrity begins to replace excess. Frugalism is the new black. [6] In a Very Brief History of Time (169 words), this is how the Earth and its occupants have fallen into disgrace. A few centuries ago, people in the West thought this planet was the centre of the universe, that it began in 4004 BC (on Saturday, Oct. 22, to be exact), and that humans were made in the image of God. Copernicus, Galileo, and Darwin put large holes in these beliefs. [7] In the early 20th century, astronomer Edwin Hubble said a lot of those stars out there aren’t stars at all. They’re distant galaxies—billions of them, each containing billions of stars. [8] To make matters worse for humankind’s sense of uniqueness, it soon became clear that time didn’t start with The Big Guy in 4004 BC, but with The Big Bang in 15 billion BC. 008612_01_01.indd Page 19 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 19 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 45. 20 PART I Rhetoric with Integrated Reader [9] Now, using information from the Hubble and Kepler telescopes, 707 of what’s- predicted-to-be millions of distant exoplanets have been identified—including newly found Kepler-22b that sits in the so-called Goldilocks Zone, neither too far nor too near to its Sun to make it a good candidate for warmth-loving, carbon-based life. In fact, there are almost certainly tens of millions of life-sustaining, Earth-like rocks out there. We live, it appears, on a commonplace hunk of granite, Coca-Cola, and chop suey surrounded by 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars and innumerable solar systems. [10] “Why should we assume there is anything special about us? Mediocrity is the universal rule,” says Alexander Vilenkin, the Boston cosmologist who in 1995 coined the phrase The Mediocrity Principle. [11] As this was happening, the late Harvard University paleontologist Stephen Gould pilloried Darwin’s theory, saying evolution comes about, in part, through fluke and global catastrophe, not just through a species’ inherent superiority. Now, humans can no longer claim to be Heavenly or even evolutionarily blessed; we’re the result—in part—of rene- gade luck. Headed for newt status? [12] Goodbye creationism. Goodbye self-importance. Goodbye security. That might have been the appropriate reaction were it not for one thing. The Earth today is facing one of those planetary catastrophes that Gould and his doom-saying associates have often spoken about. And the catastrophe is us. [13] The planet’s systems are breaking down: global warming, economic disintegration, energy and food crises, the accelerating extinction of species, rampant pollution, AIDS, regional economic ghettoization, and the threat of worldwide terror. The list is long and familiar. [14] Sixty-five million years ago, the dinosaurs failed to adapt to change and became, in time, newts. Mediocrity was forced on them. Today, there are creepy species waiting in the wings—rats, blackberries, cockroaches, lawyers—ready to claim humanity’s position atop the Pig Pile. (Remember, the planet’s dominant life-form throughout history is slime.) [15] It’s beginning to look as if the wackos carrying the placards reading “The End Is Nigh‚” are right. Unless . . . UNLESS: This planet’s brainiest inhabitants accept that The Mediocrity Principle applies to them. With apologies to Marshall McLuhan, medium is the message. [16] Tad Homer-Dixon is no wacko. He’s a University of Waterloo professor of interna- tional affairs and author of the 2001 Governor-General award-winning book The Ingenuity Gap. [17] In it he describes how the current convergence of global crises can no longer be dismissed by the “Don’t Worry, Be Happy” voices of hucksters promoting status, wealth, and consumption. [18] “The conceit of sustainable development,” says Homer-Dixon, “is you can have your cake and eat it, too. You can’t. There’s only so much. The cliff-edge is out there.” [19] As Homer-Dixon sees it, there are two human options for the future: 1) capitulation to drastic worldwide regulations and limits . . . or 2) chaos. [20] To achieve the former, there’d have to be restrictions on consumption and on free- doms that—to use Homer-Dixon’s phrase, “would be Holland—times 10.” It would be a world of unimaginable technocratic order, enforced mediocrity, and eco-police. Flagrant extrava- gance would be a crime. 008612_01_01.indd Page 20 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 20 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 46. 21 1 Foundations: Reading and Thinking [21] That is the good option. To achieve the latter—chaos—Earthlings just have to keep doing what we’re doing now. This route leads to fortified enclaves of wealth scattered amid widespread political and environmental collapse, plus the quarantine of entire sections of the planet. It would be—again using Homer-Dixon’s analogy, “a patchwork of global anar- chy—like many, many Haitis.” [22] Which option would you choose? Selling mediocrity [23] The point man for global mediocrity is Vancouver’s Kalle Lasn, the founder of award-winning Adbusters magazine, and creator of the unlikely “Buy Nothing Day.” His is not an easy task. In a world of exceptionalism, glitz, and vacuous spectacle, the satisfactions of the ordinary are, he knows, made to appear third-rate. [24] For example, recent ad copy hyping the Nissan Altima read: “May Promote Feelings of Superiority.” There are no ads anywhere promoting the virtues of mediocrity. Lasn knows this because he has produced 25 anti-commercials and sought to air them on the three big American TV networks. His success rate? Zero for 25. [25] “Consumption is the mother of all evils,” he says as he studies the foyer of a big- box Toys ‘R’ Us near his office. Colourful, inflated swimming pool animals float overhead. “People think business and technology will save us. But that’s science fiction. Calamities lie ahead. Ordinariness will be resisted. In time, there’ll be hell to pay. This over-consumptive culture of ours is going to die very hard.” [26] As he leaves the store, he admits that he doesn’t have much hope for the future. But he does, he says, have faith . . . in the potato. He’d dug one that morning in his backyard garden and fried it up for breakfast. At the memory, he smacks his lips. Embrace our boringness [27] There are, cynics acknowledge, a few hopeful signs that mediocrity might take root amid a society that has, since the corporate scandals and economic turmoil of recent years, grown disenchanted with excess. [28] But it’s a long descent from taking million-dollar golden handshakes from Fannie Mae to finding happiness in wearing bunny slippers and watching reruns of Celebrity Pets. That is a fall too far. Mediocrity is not about tastelessness. It’s not about bad. It’s not the Lada or car- pet bowling or people who say, “Yo!” Mediocrity eschews the snobbishness of Calvin Klein for the practicality of Sears. Mediocrity does not go ga-ga over miniature summer squashes, when there are plenty of zucchinis—grown locally, of course. [29] Mediocrity embraces home haircuts, tap water, elbow patches, Scrabble nights, and naps. Mediocrity celebrates the winners of the annual Darwin Awards for their fatal stupidity. They are the true heroes! [30] Mediocrity looks for guidance to Despair, Inc.—a real business whose motto is: “In- creasing Success by Lowering Expectations” and whose logo features the Leaning Tower of Pisa. [31] Mediocrity has as its most respected voice the man who gave the commencement address at his Yale University alma mater in 2001 and said there was nothing wrong with get- ting Cs. He’d done it himself. The usual venue for his speeches has been The White House. [32] There are some who’d argue that the Truth is out there and that extraterrestrials lurk at the periphery of our vision. The Mediocrity Principle provides a simpler explanation. 008612_01_01.indd Page 21 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 008612_01_01.indd Page 21 19/12/14 3:36 PM f403 /207/OUPB021/work/indd /207/OUPB021/work/indd
- 47. Another Random Scribd Document with Unrelated Content
- 48. XX LUKU. Lähellä tuota mustankiiltävää, epämääräistä hornan esikartanoa, missä Charles Courtierin pöpö, auktoriteetin puoli-totuus asusti, hänellä oli parihuoneet, joista maksoi viisitoista shillingiä viikossa. Niiden pääviehätys oli siinä, että tuo suuri vapauden puoli-totuus oli niitä suositellut. Ne eivät velvoittaneet häntä mihinkään ja olivat aina hänen käytettävissään, kun hän oli Lontoossa, sillä hänen kortteerirouvansa, vaikk'ei ollutkaan tehnyt siitä mitään sopimusta, vuokrasi ne aina sillä lailla, että saattoi häätää asukkaan viikon irtisanomisella. Hän, tuo rouva, oli suopea olento, naimisissa erään levysepän kanssa, joka oli häntä kaksikymmentä vuotta vanhempi. Tuo arvon mies oli tehnyt hänelle kaksi pientä poikaa, ja nuo kolme aiheuttivat hänelle niin paljon jatkuvaa puuhaa, että Courtierin läsnäolo tuotti hänelle mitä suurinta huvia. Kun Courtier läksi tavanomaisille retkilleen, niin mrs Benton, hänen kortteerirouvansa, pani hänen kimsunsa ja kamsunsa kahteen läkkilaatikkoon ja asetti ne astiakaappiin, mikä tuoksui hieman hiirille. Kun Courtier palasi, niin nuo laatikot avattiin, ja niistä pääsi ilmoille voimakas kuivuneiden ruusunlehtien tuoksu. Sillä oivaltaen inhimillisten olentojen kuolevaisuuden mrs Benton hankki joka kesä sisareltaan, joka oli markkinapuutarhurin vaimo, tätä kauppatavaraa, minkä neuloi pieniin pusseihin ja sijoitti Courtierin laatikkoihin. Tämä ja
- 49. leivän paahtaminen — hyvin kuivaksi — ja hänen vaatteittensa kuivaaminen oli kaikki, mitä hän saattoi tehdä tuon miehen hyväksi, joka luonteeltaan niin suuresti rakasti riippumattomuutta ja oli tottunut pitämään huolta omasta itsestään. Kun mrs Benton huomasi Courtierilla olevan matka-aikeita, niin hän sulkeutui johonkin vaatekomeroon itkeäkseen siellä rauhassa läkkisepältä ja kahdelta lapseltaan, mutta Courtierin läsnäollessa hän ei tahtonut ilmaista suruaan — yhtä vähän kuin hän olisi tahtonut itkeä kuoleman tai syntymisen tai jonkun muun traagillisen tai huvittavan tapauksen sattuessa. Elämän todellisuus oli opettanut hänet tuntemaan tuon yksinkertaisen verbin "sto — stare" — "kestää lujana" arvon. Ja Courtier merkitsi hänelle todellisuutta, elämän päätodellisuutta, hänen toiveittensa keskityskohtaa, oli hänen ilta- ja aamutähtensä. Kun Courtier — viisi päivää hyvästijättövierailunsa jälkeen mrs Noelin luona — pyysi elefantinnahkaista matkalaukkuaan, mikä seurasi häntä hänen matkoillaan, niin siitä aiheutui mrs Bentonin vetäytyminen yksinäisyyteen, minkä jälkeen hän ilmestyi Courtierin työhuoneeseen lasku kädessä ja muutamia ruusunlehtipusseja tarjottimella. Hän tapasi Courtierin paitahihasillaan, pakkaamasta tavaroitaan. "Niin, mrs Benton, minä matkustan taas!" Mrs Benton risti kätensä, sillä hän ei ollut vielä kokonaan menettänyt pikku tyttöjen tapoja, ja vastasi litteällä ja kirkkaalla äänellä:
- 50. "Niin, herra, mutta minä toivon, että tällä kertaa ette antaudu mihinkään perin vaaralliseen. Minä luulen aina teidän menevän vaarallisiin paikkoihin." "Tällä kertaa Persiaan, mistä mattoja saadaan." "Oh! Teidän pesunne on juuri tullut." Hänen näennäisesti alakuloisissa silmissään oli oikea yksityiskohtien rikkaus, ne näkivät Courtierin tukan kasvun, hänen selkänsä käyristymisen ja housunkannattimiinsa värin. Mutta äkkiä hän sanoi hämmästyttävällä äänellä: "Teillä ei ole valokuvaa, jonka voisitte jättää? Mr Benton sanoi minulle tässä eilispäivänä, että meillä ei ole mitään, mistä muistaisimme, minkä näköinen hän on, jos hän ei sattuisi enää tulemaan takaisin." "Tässä on eräs vanha valokuva." Mrs Benton otti sen. "Oh!" hän sanoi, "tästä kyllä näkee, kenenkä kuva tämä on". Ja pidellen sitä kenties liian lujasti, sillä hänen sormensa vapisivat: "Tässä on teille kirje, johon lähettipoika odottaa vastausta." Sillä aikaa kuin Courtier luki kirjettä, mrs Benton pani osaaottavasti merkille, miten tavarain pakkaus oli nostanut veren hänen päähänsä… Kun Courtier vastaukseksi tuohon kirjeeseen astui Gustardin hyvintunnettuun kondiittoriin, ei ollut vielä teen aika, ja aluksi
- 51. hänestä tuntui siltä, kuin huoneessa ei olisi ollut muita kuin kolme keski-ikäistä naista panemassa makeisia laatikkoihin Sitten hän näki eräässä nurkassa Barbaran. Veri ei pysytellyt enää hänen päässään, vaan hän oli kalpea kulkiessaan tuon mahonginvärisen huoneen läpi, mikä oli täynnänsä hääkakun hajua. Barbara oli myöskin kalpea. Olla niin lähellä häntä, Barbaraa, että saattoi lukea hänen silmäripsensä ja hengittää hänen hiustensa ja vaatteittensa tuoksua — kuunnella hänen kertomustaan Miltounista, niin epäröivää ja niin hiljaisesti kerrottua, tuntui melkein siltä, kuin nuora kaulassa olisi kuunnellut esitystä jonkun hammassärystä. Tämä tuntui hänestä tarpeettomalta kohtalon puolelta! Ja hänen, Courtierin, mieleen muistui itsepäisesti tuo ratsastus auringon lämmittämällä kanervakankaalla, jolloin hän oli vapaasti tulkinnut vanhaa sisilialaista laulua: "Näin minä tahdon istua ja laulaa." Mutta nyt häntä ei suinkaan laulattanut, liioin hänellä ei ollut armastaan käsivarsilla. Hänen kädessään oli vain teekuppi, hänen sieraimissaan kakun haju ja silloin tällöin sitruunaveden tuoksu. "Kas niin", hän sanoi, kun Barbara oli lopettanut esityksensä: "Vapaus on loistava juhla! Te tahdotte, että menisin tapaamaan veljeänne ja siteeraisin Burnsia? Te tiedätte, tietenkin, että hän pitää minua vaarallisena." "Kyllä, mutta hän kunnioittaa teitä ja pitää teistä." "Ja minä kunnioitan häntä ja pidän hänestä", vastasi Courtier. Yksi noista keski-ikäisistä naisista meni ohitse, suuri, valkea pahvikotelo kädessä. Hänen kenkänsä narina katkaisi hiljaisuuden.
- 52. "Te olette ollut hyvin suosiollinen minua kohtaan", sanoi Barbara äkisti. Courtierin sydän kiihtyi, aivan kuin se olisi kääntynyt hänen sisässään. Ja tuijottaen teekuppiinsa hän vastasi: "Kaikki miehet ovat säädyllisiä iltatähteä kohtaan. Minä lähden heti tapaamaan teidän veljeänne. Milloin saan tuoda teille uutiset?" "Minä olen kotona huomenna kello viisi." Toistaen sanoja "huomenna kello viisi" Courtier nousi. Katsahtaen taakseen ovella hän näki, miten Barbaran kasvot olivat hämmentyneet ja melkein nuhtelevat, ja meni ulos synkkänä. Kakun ja sitruunaveden tuoksu, naisen kenkien narina ja mahongin väri pysyi yhä hänen nenässään, korvissaan ja silmissään, mutta hänen sisällään kiehui tumma hämmentynyt raivo. Miksi hän ei ollut käyttänyt mahdollisimman suuressa määrässä hyväkseen tätä odottamatonta tilaisuutta, miksi hän ei ollut esittänyt toivotonta rakkauttaan? Hän oli oikea hullu! Ja kuitenkin — tuo koko asia oli mieletöntä! Barbara oli niin nuori! Jumala ties, vaikka hän, Courtier, olisi saanut olla iloinen päästessään hänestä eroon. Jos hän viipyi, niin hän sai pelätä näyttelevänsä hullun osaa. Mutta hänen sanojensa: "Te olette ollut hyvin suosiollinen minua kohtaan!" ja hänen niin hämmentyneiden ja moittivien kasvojensa muisto ei jättänyt häntä rauhaan. Niin, jos hän viipyi, niin hän tuli näyttelemään hullun osaa! Hän tuli pyytämään häntä sellaisen miehen vaimoksi, joka oli häntä kaksi kertaa vanhempi, jolla ei ollut mitään muuta kuin oma hankkimansa asema ja jolla ei ollut penniäkään. Ja hän tuli kosimaan häntä sellaisella tavalla, että Barbaran oli mahdollisesti hieman vaikea antaa kieltävä vastaus. Hänen oli lähdettävä. Ja Barbara oli — huolimatta maailmannaisen
- 53. ilmeestään, vain lapsi! Ei! Hän, Courtier, tuli olemaan hänelle hyödyllinen, jos mahdollista, tämän kerran, ja sitten menemään tiehensä!
- 54. XXI LUKU. Kun Miltoun läksi Valleys Housesta, niin hän kulki Westminsteriin päin. Niinä viitenä päivänä, jotka hän oli taas ollut Lontoossa, hän ei ollut vielä mennyt alahuoneeseen. Sairauden aiheuttaman eristäytymisen jälkeen hän tunsi melkein tuskallista ikävää kaupungin liikettä ja kiihdykettä kohtaan. Kaikki se, mitä hän kuuli ja näki, teki häneen elävän vaikutuksen. Trafalgar Squaren leijonat, Whitehallin suuret rakennukset täyttivät hänet eräänlaisella riemulla. Hän oli sellaisen miehen kaltainen, joka pitkän merimatkan jälkeen saa nähdä maata ja seisoo, silmiään jännittäen, tuskin hengittäen, tarkaten yksitellen edessään olevan näyn piirteitä. Hän kulki Westminster Bridgelle, ja mentyään erääseen sen keskellä olevaan syrjäsyvennykseen hän katsahti taakseen. On sanottu, että noiden tornien rakastaminen menee vereen. On sanottu, että ne, jotka ovat istuneet niiden alla, eivät jää koskaan aivan samoiksi. Miltoun tiesi sen todeksi — toivottoman todeksi häneen itseensä nähden. Mieskohtaisesti hän oli istunut siellä kolme viikkoa, mutta hänen sielunsa tuntui istuneen siellä satoja vuosia. Ja nyt hän ei tulisi enää istumaan siellä! Hänessä syntyi melkein hullu halu vapautua tästä kahleesta. Olla kaikkein salaisimman vaistonsa, auktoriteettivaistonsa vankina! Olla kykenemätön edustamaan
- 55. auktoriteettia, sillä auktoriteetin edustaminen oli auktoriteetin loukkaamista. Hyvä Jumala! Tämä oli ankarata! Hän käänsi selkänsä torneihin päin ja haki huvitusta ohikulkevain kasvoista. Jokainen näistä, sen hän tiesi, sai ponnistella itsekunnioituksensa säilyttämiseksi. Tai oliko niin, että he eivät huomanneet tätä taistelua tai eivät tienneet mitään itsekunnioituksesta ja antoivat sen tähden asiain mennä menojaan? He näyttivät siltä, useimmat heistä! Ja kaikki hänen sisäinen halveksimisensa keskinkertaista ja tavallista kohtaan kuohui hänessä. Niin, he näyttivät sellaisilta! Oli kohtalon ivaa, että noiden henkilöiden näkeminen, josta hän oli toivonut sovituksen lohdutusta, sen sijaan oli omiaan kiihoittamaan sitä puolta hänessä, mikä kielsi häntä sovittelemasta. He näyttivät pehmeiltä, vettyneiltä olennoilta, joilla ei ollut ylpeyttä eikä tahtoa, ikäänkuin olisivat tietäneet, että elämä oli liikaa heille, ja senvuoksi häpeällisesti hyväksyivät tämän tosiasian. Heille piti ilmeisesti sanoa, mitä he saattoivat tehdä ja minne mennä. He tulivat hyväksymään määräykset samalla lailla kuin he hyväksyivät työnsä ja huvituksensa. Ajatus, että hän nyt tuli olemaan estettynä antamasta heille määräyksiä, sai hänet hirveästi raivoamaan. He loivat vuorostaan satunnaisen katseen hänen pitkään vartaloonsa, joka nojasi sillankaidetta vastaan, tietämättä, miten heidän kohtalonsa hoippui vaa'assa. Hänen ohuet, kellahtavat kasvonsa ja nälkäiset silmänsä herättivät kenties yhdessä tahi kahdessa heistä mielenkiinnon tai epämukavuuden tunteen, mutta useimpien mielestä hän ei varmastikaan ollut enempää kuin joku muu mies tahi nainen tässä hyörinässä ja pyörinässä. Tuo synkkä olento, joka tietoisesti ponnisteli kahleissa, jotka hänen oma uskonsa valtaan olivat takoneet, oli veistotaiteen tuote, jota he eivät tahtoneet oppia ymmärtämään tahi johon heillä ei ollut aikaa, heillä kun ei ollut
- 56. traagillista aistia — aistia havaita ihmishenkeä, joka ponnisti seinää vastaan. Kello oli viisi, ennenkuin Miltoun läksi sillalta ja kulki maanpakolaisen tavoin kirkon ja valtion ovien ohitse, matkalla enonsa klubiin. Hän pysähtyi sähköttämään Audreylle ajan, jolloin hän seuraavana päivänä saapuisi hänen luokseen, ja jättäessään postitoimiston hän huomasi erään vieressä olevan kaupan ikkunassa muutamien italialaisten mestarien jäljennösten joukossa erään Botticellin taulun "Venuksen synty". Hän ei ollut koskaan nähnyt tätä maalausta, ja muistaessaan, että Audrey oli sanonut sitä lempitaulukseen, hän pysähtyi tarkastamaan sitä. Ollen kastinsa mukaisesti kohtalaisesti perillä näissä asioissa Miltounilla ei ollut voimaa antaa taideteoksen petollisesti varastaa hänen omaa yksityistä itseään hänen sielustaan ja sallia koko maailman astua sen tilalle. Ja hän tutki tätä pakanallisen jumalattaren kuuluisaa kuvaa pidättyväisyydellä, vieläpä kiihtymykselläkin. Vartalon hahmoittelu näytti hänestä karkealta, koko kuva hieman litteältä ja pikaiselta. Hän ei pitänyt Floran kuvasta. Kultainen kirkkaus ja hellyys, joista Audrey oli puhunut, jättivät hänet kylmäksi. Sitten hän huomasi tarkastelevansa noita kasvoja ja vähitellen, vaikkakin salaperäisen varmasti, alkoi tuntea katselevansa Audreyn kasvoja. Hiukset olivat kultaiset ja erilaiset, silmät harmaat ja erilaiset, suu hieman täyteläisempi. Kuitenkin — ne olivat hänen kasvonsa, samat munanmuotoiset kaarevine kulmakarvoineen ja oudon helline, kaihtavine henkineen. Ja ikäänkuin loukkaantuneena hän kääntyi ja kulki eteenpäin. Tuon pienen kaupan ikkunassa oli sen henkilön kuva, jonka vuoksi hän luopui elämästä — oli passiivisen ja kietoutuvan rakkauden, tuon hienon olennon ilmestysmuoto, olennon, joka oli antautunut hänelle niin täydellisesti ja jolle rakkaus, kukat, puut, linnut, musiikki, taivas ja nopeasti kulkeva virta oli
- 57. kaiken sisällys ja joka, kuvassa olevan jumalattaren tavoin, tuntui ihmettelevän omaa olemassaoloaan. Hänen päänsä läpi kävi ymmärryksen välähdys, mikä oli outoa hänelle, jolla oli niin vähän kykyä nähdä toisten sydämiin. Olisiko Audreyn pitänyt koskaan syntyä maailmaan sellaisena? Mutta näkemyksen välähdys haihtui pian hänen oman asemansa hivuttavan tietoisuuden tieltä, joka ei jättänyt häntä nykyään koskaan. Mitä ikänänsä hän tekikin, hänen piti päästä eroon tästä sairaudesta! Mutta mitä hän tuli tekemään myöhemmin? Kirjoittamaan kirjoja? Millaisia kirjoja hän saattoi kirjoittaa? Vain sellaisia, jotka ilmaisivat hänen käsityksensä kansalaisesta, hänen poliittiset ja yhteiskunnalliset katsantokantansa. Yhtä hyvä jäädä istumaan ja puhumaan noiden tornien alle! Hän ei saattanut koskaan liittyä taiteilijain onnelliseen seuraan, noihin pehmeihin ja epämääräisiin henkiin, joille raja-aidat eivät merkinneet mitään ja jotka olivat tyytyväisiä, kun ymmärsivät ja saivat tulkita ja luoda. Mitä tehtävää hänellä olisi voinut olla tuossa galeijassa? Tuo ajatus oli käsittämätön. Ruveta asianajajaksi — niin, siksi hän saattoi ryhtyä, mutta mitä varten? Tulla tuomariksi! Yhtä hyvä jäädä istumaan noiden tornien alle! Liian myöhäistä antautua diplomaattiuralle. Liian myöhäistä liittyä armeijaan. Sitäpaitsi hänellä ei ollut pienintäkään sotilasloiston halua. Hautautua maaseudulle Dennis-enon tavoin ja hoitaa jotakin isänsä maatilaa? Se olisi merkinnyt kuolemaa. Ryhtyä työskentelemään köyhien hyväksi? Hetken aikaa hän luuli keksineensä itselleen uuden kutsumuksen. Mutta millä lailla — pitikö hänen järjestää heidän elämäänsä, kun ei pystynyt järjestämään omaansakaan, tai pitikö hänen olla vain putkena, jota myöden rahan piti virrata heille, hän kun uskoi, että armeliaisuus turmeli kansan sen sisintä sydäntä myöten? Jokaisen lehtokujan päässä seisoi enkeli tahi piru paljastetuin miekoin. Ja sitten hänen päähänsä tuli toinen ajatus. Koska kerta hänet kirkko ja
- 58. valtio tuli hylkäämään, niin eikö hän saattanut näytellä langenneen enkelin osaa — olla Lucifer ja hävittää! Ja hengessään hän näki, miten hän palasi noiden tornien luokse, mitenkä hän kulki poikki lattian ja yhtyi vallankumouksellisiin, radikaaleihin, vapaa- ajattelijoihin ja kuritti omaa puoluettaan, auktoriteetin ja institutsionien puoluetta. Tämä ajatus tuntui hänestä ylen koomilliselta, ja hän nauroi ääneen kadulla… Klubi, missä lordi Dennisillä oli tapana käydä, oli St. Jamesissa, eikä siihen ollut vaikuttanut muotivesien luode ja vuoksi — se seisoi kiinteästi, kieppuen ankkurinuorassaan, hiljaisessa umpivedessä, ja Miltoun tapasi enonsa kirjastosta. Hän luki Burtonin matkakertomusta ja joi teetä. "Kukaan ei tule tänne", hän sanoi, "niin että, huolimatta ovella olevista sanoista, me voimme jutella. Tarjoilija, tuokaa hieman lisää teetä, olkaa hyvä." Kärsimättömänä, vaikkakin tuntien eräänlaista sääliä, Miltoun tarkasteli lordi Dennisin sieviä liikkeitä, missä vanhat vuodet pateettisesti koettivat tehdä kaikki pienimmätkin asiat tärkeiksi, vaikk'ei muiden, niin ainakin tekijän omasta mielestä. Mikään siitä, mitä hänen enonsa saattoi sanoa, ei voinut painaa enemmän kuin hänen vanhan maalauksellisen olentonsa antama neuvo! Olla syrjästäkatsojana, nähdä kaiken menevän ohitse, antaa miekkansa ruostua tupessaan, kuten tämä vanha toveri oli tehnyt! Miltounista oli erittäin kiusallista esittää, mitä varten oli tullut, mutta koska hän oli antanut sanansa, niin hän jännitti itseään ja alkoi: "Minä lupasin äidilleni kysyä sinulta jotakin. Minä luulen, että sinä tunnet minun suhteeni!"
- 59. Lordi Dennis nyökäytti päätään. "Niin, minä olen liittänyt elämäni tähän ladyyn. Siitä ei tule mitään häväistysjuttua, mutta minä katson velvollisuudekseni jättää edustajapaikkani ja poliittisen urani. Onko tämä väärin vai oikein sinun mielestäsi?" Lordi Dennis katseli Miltouniin ääneti. Pieni puna nousi hänen harmaille poskipäilleen. Hän näytti siltä, kuin olisi muistellut menneitä. "Väärin, luulen", hän sanoi lopulta. "Miksi, jos saan kysyä?" "Minulla ei ole iloa tuntea tuota ladyä ja olen sentähden jonkun verran tietämätön, mutta minusta tuntuu, että päätöksesi ei ole hänelle mieluinen." "Tämä on minusta käsittämätöntä", sanoi Miltoun. Lordi Dennis vastasi lujasti: "Sinä olet kysynyt minulta suoraan, ja minä oletan, että sinä kaipaat suoraa vastausta!" Miltoun nyökkäsi. "Sitten, rakkaani, älä moiti minua, jos sanonkin jotakin epämiellyttävää." "Sitä en tee."
- 60. "Hyvä! Sinä sanot aikovasi luopua julkisesta elämästä omantuntosi tähden. Minulla ei voisi olla mitään sitä vastaan, jos asia päättyisi siihen." Hän pysähtyi ja jäi joksikin aikaa äänettömäksi, hakien ilmeisesti sanoja, joilla olisi ilmaissut sekavat ajatuksensa. "Se ei vetele, Eustace, sillä julkinen toimihenkilö on sinussa paljon vahvempi kuin tuo toinen. Sinä kaipaat tilaisuutta johtaa enemmän kuin rakkautta. Sinun uhrauksesi on tappava sinun mieltymyksesi. Se, mitä sinä luulet vahingoksi ja haitaksi itsellesi, on lopulta osoittautuva siksi tuolle ladylle." Miltoun hymyili. Lordi Dennis jatkoi hyvin kuivasti, ja hänen äänessään oli hieman pahanilkisyyttä: "Sinä et kuuntele minua, mutta minä näen selvästi, että kehitys on jo alkanut sinun sisälläsi. Sinussa, Eustace, on omituinen jesuiittamainen piirre. Mitä sinä et tahdo nähdä, sitä sinä et tahdo tarkastaakaan." "Sinä kehoitat minua sitten tekemään kompromissin?" "Päinvastoin, minä huomautan, että sinä teet kompromissin, jos koetat pitää kiinni sekä omastatunnostasi että rakkaudestasi. Sinä koetat silloin kulkea molempia teitä." "Tämä on mielenkiintoista." "Ja sinä tulet huomaamaan, että menetät molemmat", sanoi lordi Dennis terävästi.
- 61. Miltoun nousi. "Toisin sanoen sinä kehoitat minua, kuten muutkin, luopumaan tästä naisesta, joka rakastaa minua ja jota minä rakastan. Ja kuitenkin, enoni, sanotaan, että omassa tapauksessasi — —" Mutta lordi Dennis oli myöskin noussut, menetettyään vanhuuden kaikki ominaisuudet ja tavat. "Minun omasta tapauksestani", hän sanoi tylysti, "meidän on tarpeetonta puhua. Minä en kehoita sinua jättämään ketään, sinä ymmärrät minua väärin. Minä kehoitan sinua tuntemaan itsesi. Ja minä sanon sinulle käsitykseni sinusta — luonto on tehnyt sinusta valtiomiehen, mutt'ei rakastajaa! Sinussa on jotakin kuivunutta, Eustace, enkä minä ole varma, vaikka sitä olisi meidän koko kastissamme. Me olemme olleet liian kauan tekemisissä muotojen ja seremoniain kanssa. Meidän ei sovi asettua lyyrilliselle kannalle." "Onnettomuudeksi", sanoi Miltoun, "minä en voi sopeutua sinun teoriaasi enkä menetellä ala-arvoisesti". Lordi Dennis alkoi kävellä edestakaisin, puristaen huuliaan lujasti yhteen. "Mies, joka neuvoo toista", hän sanoi lopulta, "on aina jotenkuten hullu. Kuitenkin kaikitenkin sinä olet ymmärtänyt minua väärin. Minä en ole niin julkea, että yrittäisin tunkeutua sinun henkesi sisimpään sopukkaan. Minä olen vain sanonut sinulle, että minun mielestäni olisi rehellisempää itseäsi kohtaan ja mieluisampaa tuolle naiselle, jos sopisit omantuntosi kanssa ja säilyttäisit rakkautesi ja asemasi julkisessa elämässä, kuin että luulottelet voivasi uhrata heikomman hyväksi sen, jonka minä tiedän vahvemmaksi elementiksi sinussa. Luulen, että muistat Demokritoksen sanat: ethos andrópo daimon —
- 62. jokaisen miehen luonne on hänen kohtalonsa tai Jumalansa. Minä suositan niitä sinulle." Miltoun seisoi kokonaisen minuutin vastaamatta ja sanoi sitten: "Pyydän anteeksi, että olen vaivannut sinua, enoni. Keskitien kulkeminen ei sovi minulle. Hyvästi!" Ja ojentamatta kättään hän meni ulos.
- 63. XXII LUKU. Joku nousi hallin sohvalta ja tuli häntä vastaan. Se oli Courtier. "Viimeinkin tapaan teidät", hän sanoi, "toivon, että tulisitte kanssani päivällisille. Minä lähden Englannista huomisyönä, ja minulla on jotakin sanottavaa teille." Miltounin pään läpi välähti ajatus: Tietääkö hän? Hän myöntyi kuitenkin, ja he menivät ulos yhdessä. "On vaikea löytää rauhallista paikkaa", sanoi Courtier, "mutta tämä saattaa olla". Se oli pieni ravintola, missä kävi paljon kilpa-ajajia ja mikä oli tunnettu mainioista paisteistaan. Ja kun he istuutuivat vastapäätä toisiaan melkein tyhjään huoneeseen, niin Miltoun ajatteli: Kyllä, hän tietää! Voinko minä enää kestää tätä? Hän odotti melkein raivoissaan hyökkäystä, jonka tunsi olevan tulossa. "Niin, te aiotte siis luopua paikastanne?" sanoi Courtier. Miltoun katsoi häneen muutamia sekunteja ennenkuin vastasi: "Keltä kuuluttajalta te olette saanut tämän tietää?"
- 64. Mutta Courtierin kasvoissa oli jotakin, joka hillitsi hänen suuttumistansa. Niiden ystävällisyys oli ilmeinen. "Minä olen melkein Audreyn ainoa ystävä", jatkoi Courtier vakavasti, "ja tämä on minun viimeinen tilaisuuteni — puhumatta mitään tunteistani teitä kohtaan, jotka ovat, uskokaa minua, hyvin sydämelliset". "Jatkakaa sitten", mutisi Miltoun. "Suokaa anteeksi, että esitän asian suorasti. Oletteko ajatellut, mikä hänen asemansa oli, ennenkuin hän tapasi teidät?" Miltoun tunsi veren ryntäävän kasvoilleen, mutta hän istui hiljaa, painellen kynsiään kämmenpohjiin. "Niin, niin", sanoi Courtier, "mutta tuo mielentila — joka teissäkin on ilmennyt — joka määrää elävänä kuolemisen tai henkisen aviorikoksen naisille, saa minun vereni kiehumaan. Te ette voi kieltää sitä, että nämä kaksi vaihtoehtoa ovat tässä olemassa ja minä sanon, että teillä oli oikeus perinpohjin protesteerata niitä vastaan ei vain sanoissa, vaan teoissakin. Te protesteerasitte, sen minä tiedän, mutta tämä teidän nykyinen päätöksenne on askel alaspäin, se merkitsee sitä, että teidän vastalauseenne oli väärä." Miltoun nousi istuimeltaan. "Minä en voi keskustella tästä", hän sanoi. "Hänen vuokseen teidän täytyy. Jos te luovutte valtiollisesta toiminnastanne, niin te turmelette hänen elämänsä toisen kerran." Miltoun istuutui uudestaan. "Täytyy" sana terästi häntä, ja hänen silmänsä alkoivat muistuttaa vanhan kardinaalin silmiä. "Meidän
- 65. luonteemme, Courtier", hän sanoi, "ovat liian erilaiset, me emme tule koskaan ymmärtämään toisiamme". "Älkää huoliko siitä", vastasi Courtier. "Myöntäkäämme, että nämä vaihtoehdot ovat hirveitä, ja niistä te ette olisi hyväksynyt kumpaakaan, jos ette olisi joutunut mieskohtaisesti suhtautumaan niihin —" "Sitä", sanoi Miltoun jäätävästi, "teillä ei ole oikeutta sanoa". "Joka tapauksessa te myönnätte ne — jos uskotte, että teillä ei ollut oikeutta pelastaa häntä, niin mille periaatteelle te perustatte tämän uskonne?" Miltoun pani kyynärpäänsä pöydälle ja, nojaten leukaansa käsiinsä, katseli menetettyjen asiain puoltajaa puhumatta mitään. Hänen sisässään kävi senlainen meteli, että hän vain vaivoin saattoi pakottaa huulensa tottelemaan. "Millä oikeudella kysytte minulta tätä?" hän sanoi lopulta. Hän näki Courtierin kasvojen käyvän tulipunaisiksi ja hänen sormiensa kiertävän raivoisasti noita tulenkarvaisia viiksiä. Mutta hänen vastauksensa oli yhtä kiinteän ivallinen kuin tavallisesti. "Kas niin, minä voin tuskin istua hiljaa tänä viime iltana Englannissa, kohottamatta sormea, kun te uhraatte naisen, johon minä suhtaudun veljen tavoin. Minä sanon teille, millainen teidän periaatteenne on: auktoriteettia, oikeaa tai väärää, mieleistä tai vastenmielistä, täytyy ehdottomasti totella. Rikkoa lakia, tapahtui se sitten mistä syystä tai kenen hyväksi tahansa, on teistä samaa kuin rikkoa — —" "Älkää epäröikö — sanokaa vain Jumalan käskyt."
- 66. "Erehtymättömän, voimassaolevan esivallan. Onko tämä teidän periaatteenne oikea määritelmä?" "Kyllä", sanoi Miltoun hampaittensa välistä, "niin luulen". "Poikkeukset vahvistavat sääntöä." "Pakkotapaukset synnyttävät huonoja lakeja." Courtier hymyili: "Minä tiesin, että tulisitte vastaamaan täten. Minä väitän, että niin ei ole tämän lain laita, joka on kokonaan aikaansa jäljessä. Teillä oli oikeus vapauttaa tämä nainen." "Ei, Courtier, jos meidän täytyy taistella, niin taistelkaamme paljailla tosiasioilla. Minä en ole vapauttanut ketään. Minä olen vain varastanut voidakseni päästä nälkää näkemästä. Ja siinä syy, miksi minä en voi esiintyä enää mallina. Jos se tiedettäisiin, niin minä en voisi pitää edustajapaikkaani tuntiakaan. Minä en voi käyttää hyväkseni satunnaista salassapysymistä. Voisitteko te?" Courtier vaikeni, ja Miltoun ahdisti häntä silmillään, ikäänkuin olisi tahtonut katseellaan saada hänet lähtemään. "Minä voisin", sanoi Courtier lopulta. "Kun tämä laki, pakottamalla ne, jotka ovat joutuneet vihaamaan miehiään, henkiseen aviorikokseen, hävittää aviosäädyn pyhyyden — tuon saman pyhyyden, jota se on ylläpitävinään, niin teidän täytyy toivoa, että kaikki järkevät miehet ja naiset tekevät sen tyhjäksi ilman itsekunnioituksensa menettämistä." Miltounissa heräsi syvä ja notkea halu väitellä, mihin hän oli luonnostaan niin taipuisa. Hän oli melkein unhottanut sen, että hänen omasta tulevaisuudestaan keskusteltiin. Hän näki tässä
- 67. edessään olevassa kiihkeässä miehessä, jonka äänessä ja silmissä oli sellainen vaaleankuuma kaiku ja katse, kaiken sen ilmenemisen, jota hän luonnostaan vastusti. "Tämä", hän sanoi, "on pirun asianajoa. Minä en hyväksy ketään yksityistä tuomariksi omassa asiassaan." "Ah! Siihenkö me nyt tulemme? Sivumennen sanoen, emmekö lähde ulos tästä kuumuudesta?" Tuskin he olivat viileällä kadulla, kun Courtierin ääni alkoi uudestaan: "Epäluulo ihmisluontoa kohtaan, pelko — siinä teidänlaisten miesten toiminnan pohja. Te kiellätte yksilöiltä oikeuden arvostella, koska te ette luota ihmisten olennaiseen hyvyyteen, vaan uskotte heidän olevan pahoja sydämeltään. Te ette anna heille mitään vapautta, te ette suo heille mitään myönnytyksiä, koska te uskotte, että heidän päätöksensä veisi heidät alas- eikä ylöspäin. Kas niin, siinä on aristokraattisen ja demokraattisen elämänkatsomuksen ero, te vihaatte ja pelkäätte joukkoja, kuten kerta sanoitte minulle." Miltoun katsoi karsaasti näitä kiihkeitä kasvoja. "Niin", hän sanoi, "minä uskon, että ihmiset kohoavat heistä itsestään huolimatta". "Te olette rehellinen. Kenen toimesta?" Miltoun tunsi uudestaan eräänlaisen raivon syntyvän itsessään. Hän tahtoi kerta kaikkiaan surmata tuon punatukkaisen kumouksellisen. Hän vastasi melkein julman ivallisesti:
- 68. "Omituista kylläkin, tuon olennon toimesta, jonka mainitsemista te vastustatte — olennon, joka vaikuttaa, käyttäen parhaimpia välikappaleinaan." "Ylimmäinen pappi! Katsokaapas tuota tyttöä, joka hiipii tuolla ja katsoo meihin. Jos olettaisimme, että vetämättä vyötänne kireämmälle menisitte hänen luokseen, puhuttelisitte häntä ja saisitte hänet kertomaan teille, mitä hän oikeastaan tuntee ja ajattelee, niin saisitte kuulla asioita, jotka hämmästyttäisivät teitä. Pohjaltaan on ihmiskunta loistava. He kohoavat, arvoisa herra, pyrkimysten kautta, jotka ilmenevät heissä kaikissa. Ettekö ole koskaan huomannut, että yleinen mielipide on aina lakia edistyneempi?" "Ja te", sanoi Miltoun, "olette mies, joka ei ole koskaan enemmistön puolella?" Menetettyjen asiain puolustaja naurahti. "Älkäämme olko niin loogillisia", hän vastasi. "Tuuli puhaltaa vielä, eikä elämä ole mikään kokoelma viraston seinälle ripustettuja sääntöjä. Missäs me oikeastaan olemme?" He olivat pakotetut pysähtymään käytävällä olevan tungoksen vuoksi, Queen's Hallin kohdalla. "Menemmekö sisään, kuulemaan musiikkia ja jäähdyttämään kieliämme?" Miltoun nyökkäsi ja he menivät sisään. Suuri valaistu halli oli täynnä kansaa lattiasta kattoon asti, heikon, sinertävän huurun sisällä, mikä läksi sadoista pienistä tupakanlehtikääröistä.
- 69. Asetuttuaan olkihattuiseen väkijoukkoon Miltoun kuuli kiinteän, ivallisen äänen sanovan takanaan: "Profanum vulgus! Tulla kuuntelemaan hienointa musiikkia, mitä koskaan on kirjoitettu! Ja tämä on kansaa, jonka te ette usko ollenkaan tietävän mikä sille sopii! Säälittävä näky, eikö totta?" Hän ei vastannut mitään. Beethovenin seitsemännen symfonian ensimmäiset, hitaat sävelet olivat alkaneet kulkea kukkaspenkkien poikki, ja lukuunottamatta tuon sinertävän huurun jatkuvaa kohoamista, huurun, mikä tuntui sävelten jumalalle suitsutettavalta savulta, kaikki oli tullut kuolon hiljaiseksi, aivan kuin yksi mieli, yksi henki olisi vallannut jokaisen kalpeat kasvot, jotka olivat taipuneet musiikkia kohden, mikä nousi ja laski tuulten huokausten tavoin, mitkä lausuivat tervetulleeksi kuolleista heränneet kauneuden henget. Kun viimeiset sävelet olivat häipyneet, niin hän kääntyi ja meni ulos. "Kas niin", sanoi tuo ääni hänen takanaan, "eikö tämä ole osoittanut teille, miten asiat kohoavat ja kasvavat, miten loistava maailma on?" Miltoun hymyili. "Se on näyttänyt minulle, miten suloiseksi suuri mies voi tehdä maailman." Ja äkkiä, ikäänkuin musiikki olisi päästänyt jonkun siteen irti, hänessä pääsi vallalle sanatulva:
- 70. "Katsokaapas kansanjoukkoa tällä kadulla, Courtier, joukkoa, joka kaikista maailman joukoista voidaan parhaiten jättää omiin hoteisiinsa, joukkoa, joka on turvassa rutoilta, maanjäristyksiltä, hirmumyrskyiltä, kuivuudelta, kylmän ja kuuman liiallisuuksilta, maailman suurimman ja turvallisimman kaupungin keskuksessa, ja kuitenkin — katsokaapas tuota poliisia! Jos tarkastamme tämän joukon käyttäytymistä, niin huomaamme, että, niin varmalta ja vapaalta kuin se näyttääkin, aina täytyy olla jokin keskeinen voima, mikä pitää sitä koossa. Mistä tämä keskeinen voima saadaan? Joukosta itsestään, te sanotte. Minä vastaan: Ei. Katsokaa taaksepäin inhimillisten valtioiden syntyyn. Aina asiain alusta alkaen paras mies on ollut auktoriteetin tiedoton väline, on ollut johtavan periaatteen, jumalallisen voiman väline, on tuntenut tuon voiman itsessään — aluksi fyysillisenä — käyttänyt sitä ja ottanut johdon käsiinsä, mitä on siitä saakka pitänyt ja mitä hänen täytyy aina pitää. Kaikki teidän vaalitoimituksenne, tuo teidän niinsanottu demokraattinen koneistonne on vain verho tarkastajan silmällä, nälkäisen tyynnytyskeino ja kapinallisen ylpeyden voide. Ne ovat vain pintakoneistoa, ne eivät voi estää parasta miestä pääsemästä johtoon, sillä paras mies on lähinnä jumaluutta, on ensimmäinen, joka saa hänestä tulevat vaikutukset. Minä en puhu perinnöllisyydestä. Parhaan miehen ei tarvitse välttämättömästi syntyä minun luokastani, enkä minä suinkaan luule, että hän useammin ilmestyisi tästä kuin muista luokista." Hän pysähtyi yhtä äkisti kuin oli alkanutkin. "Teidän ei tarvitse pelätä", vastasi Courtier, "että pitäisin teitä keskinkertaisena olentona. Te kuulutte toiseen ja minä toiseen päähän — ja olemme molemmat hyvinkin yhtä kaukana kultaisesta keskitiestä. Mutta maailmaa ei hallitse valta eikä pelko, jonka valta
- 71. aiheuttaa, kuten te luulette, vaan sitä hallitsee rakkaus. Yhteiskunta pysyy koossa ihmisessä asuvan hyväntapaisuuden ja yhteistunteen avulla. Demokraattinen periaate, jota te halveksitte, ei merkitse pohjaltaan mitään muuta. Vapaudessa elävä ihminen pyrkii ylöspäin. Jos niin ei olisi, niin luuletteko, että teidän 'siniset poikanne' voisivat hetkeäkään ylläpitää järjestystä? Ihminen tietää tiedottomasti, mitä hän voi tehdä ja mitä ei menettämättä itsekunnioitustaan. Hän imee sisäänsä tätä tietoa jokaisella henkäyksellä. Lait ja auktoriteetit eivät merkitse kaikkea ja kaiken päämäärää, ne ovat vain mukavuuksia, koneistoja, vesijohtotorvia, valtamaanteitä. Ne eivät ole rakennuksen olemus — ne ovat vain telineitä." Miltoun teki seuraavan huomautuksen: "Joita ilman mitään rakennusta ei voida rakentaa." Courtier väisti. "Se on kokonaan toista, ystäväni, kuin pitää niitä itse rakennuksena? Ne ovat esineitä, jotka on revittävä alas niin pian kuin mahdollista, jotta jäisi tilaa rakennukselle, joka alkaa maasta eikä taivaasta. Kaikki lain telineet ovat olemassa vain ajan säästämiseksi ja siksi, että tuo temppeli ei menettäisi suuntaansa eikä kohotessaan poikkeaisi pois suunnitelmasta." "Ei", sanoi Miltoun, "ei! Mainitsemanne telineet ovat arkkitehdin ymmärryksen tuotteita, joita ilman tuo temppeli ei kohoa eikä voi kohota, ja tuo arkkitehti on Jumala, joka vaikuttaa niiden henkien ja sielujen kautta, jotka ovat Häntä lähinnä." "Me olemme nyt alkukalliolla", huudahti Courtier. "Teidän Jumalanne on tämän maailman ulko-, minun Jumalani sen
- 72. sisäpuolella." "Ja nuo kaksi eivät tule koskaan kohtaamaan toisiaan!" Seurasi vaitioloja Miltoun huomasi, että he olivat tulleet Leicester Squarelle — mikä oli rauhallinen ennen teatterien tyhjenemistä, rauhallinen, mutta odottava, ja missä lyhtyjen valo synkältä taivaalta pudonneiden keltaisten tähtien tavoin tarttui konserttisalien ja kahviloiden vaaleihin haamuihin, eräänlaisen välkkyvän hohteen langetessa plataanipuiden hiljaisille lehdille. "'Vaalea irstailija' — tämä Square!" sanoi Courtier: "elävä kuin kasvot, eikä sen omituisella kauneudella ole rajaa! Ja, Jupiterin kautta, jos tunkeudutte kyllin syvälle, niin tulette löytämään hyvyyttä täältäkin." — "Ja turmeltuneisuutta — teidän piti sanoa!" Hän tunsi itsensä väsyneeksi, halukkaaksi pääsemään asuntoonsa, haluttomaksi jatkamaan tätä sanakiistaa, mikä ei tuottanut hänelle mitään huojennusta. Oudon väsyneesti hän kuuli tuon äänen yhä puhuvan: "Meidän täytyy viettää tätä yötä, sillä huomenna me kuolemme… Te haluatte hillitä vapautta ulkoapäin — minä sisältäpäin. Kun minä nousen ja kun minä menen vuoteeseen, kun minä hengitän tai näen jotkut kasvot tai kukan tai puun — jos minä en näissä tuntisi katselevani jumaluutta, niin minä luulen, että jättäisin tämän kirjavan paikan pelkästä rasittuneisuudesta. Te ette, minun luullakseni, voi katsella Jumalaanne, ellette vetäydy jollekin kukkulalle. Eikö siellä ole hieman ikävä?"
- 73. Mutta Miltoun ei vastannut, niin että he kulkivat ääneti, kunnes hän äkisti puhkesi puhumaan: "Te puhutte tyranniasta! Mikä tyrannia voisi olla teidän vapautenne tyrannian vertainen? Mikä tyrannia koko maailmassa voisi vetää vertoja tälle 'vapaan', alhaisen-ahtaan kadun tyrannialle sen kaikkine satoine sanomalehtineen, mitkä kiehuvat mehiläispesän tavoin — ja mitä varten? Teidän vapautenne olennon sisustassa, Courtier, ei ole tilaa innostukselle, ei kurille eikä uhraavaisuudelle, vaan ainoastaan kaupalle ja vallattomuudelle." Hetken aikaan ei kuulunut mitään vastausta, ja noista korkeista rakennuksista, joiden valaistuja ikkunoita hän oli ankarasti arvostellut, Miltoun kääntyi jokea kohden. "Ei", sanoi tuo ääni, "sen virheistä huolimatta tuuli puhaltaa tällä kadulla, ja täällä on mahdollisuutta kaikkeen. Jumaliste, minä tahtoisin kernaammin nähdä muutamien tähtien riitelevän tummalla taivaalla kuin mitään teidän täydellisistä, keinotekoisista valoistanne." Ja äkkiä tuntui Miltounista siltä, että hän ei koskaan voinut vapautua tuon äänen kaiusta — sitä ei kannattanut edes yrittääkään. "Me toistamme mielipiteitämme", hän sanoi kuivasti. Joen tumma vesi juoksi hiljakseen ja hitaasti puolikuun valossa. Yön vaipan alla joen äyräällä oleva kaaos, nostolaitosten, korkeiden rakennusten, laiturien päiden ja muutamien nukkuvien kuormavenheiden muodot ja miljoonat omituiset synkät haamut olivat täynnänsä liikutusta. Kaikki oli harrasta, suloista ja outoa. Ja tämän kaiken yläpuolella lamput — nuo yön nöyrät kukkaset loivat heikkoa, yhtämittaista varisseiden terälehtien hohdetta, ja suloisentuoksuva länsituuli löyhytteli hitaasti, tuoden mukanaan
- 74. niiden lukemattomien puiden ja kenttien tuoksun, joita joki oli rakastanut ohikulkeissaan. Mutina, joka ei ollut mitään todellista ääntä, vaan ikäänkuin toisen sydämen kuiskausta toiselle, seurasi tätä synkän veden kulkua. Sitten tuli esiin kömpelö kuormavenhe kahden miehen soutamana, airojen molskahdellessa ja vinkuessa. "Siis 'huomispäivänä me kuolemme'?" sanoi Miltoun. "Te tarkoitatte, luulen, että julkinen elämä on minun sierainteni ilmaa ja että minun pitää kuolla siksi, että luovun siitä?" Courtier nyökäytti päätään. "Olenko oikeassa ajatellessani, että nuorin sisareni on saanut teidät tälle ristiretkelle." Courtier ei vastannut. "Ja niin", jatkoi Miltoun, katsahtaen häneen pitkään, "huomispäivä on myöskin teidän viimeinen päivänne? Kas niin, olette oikeassa, kun lähdette. Hän ei ole mikään ilkeä sorsanpoika, joka voisi elää ulkopuolella yhteiskunnallista lammikkoa, hän on aina kaipaava alkuperäistä elementtiään. Ja nyt me sanomme toisillemme hyvästi! Mitä ikänänsä meille tapahtuukin, niin minä tulen muistamaan tämän illan." Hymyillen hän ojensi kätensä: "Moriturus te saluto."
- 75. XXIII LUKU. Courtier istui Hyde Parkissa odottaen kello viittä. Päivä oli jossain määrin kirkastunut harmaasta aamusta, ikäänkuin tuon pitkän, kuuman kesän hehku olisi ollut liiaksi palanut kiinni ilmaan antaakseen perään ensi hyökkäyksille. Aurinko, joka pisti esiin kaartuvien pilvien, noiden taivaallisten kyyhkysten rintasulkien läpi, lennätti säteitään meheville lehdille ja sirotti maahan niiden suloisten varjojen täpliä. Liian aikaisin putoamaisillaan olevien lehtien haju tunkeutui sydämeen asti. Ja surulliset, suloiset linnut virittelivät syyspillejään, puhallellen niihin vapaudelle omistettuja kevään laulunpätkiä. Courtier ajatteli Miltounia ja hänen mielitiettyään. Mikä outo kohtalo oli saattanut nuo kaksi yhteen, mitä tarkoitusta varten heidän rakkautensa oli herännyt? Surun siemenet olivat jo kylvetyt, mitä synkkyyden ja tuskan kukkia oli puhkeava esiin? Hän näki Audreyn taas pienenä, vakavana, miettivänä lapsena, jolla oli pehmeät silmät levällään tummien, kaarevien kulmakarvojen alla ja pieni poimu suupielessä, kun hän härnäsi häntä. Ja tälle hennolle olennolle, joka olisi ennemmin kuollut kuin pakottanut ketään mihinkään, oli annettu tämä omituinen rakastaja, tämä ylimys
- 76. syntynsä ja luonteensa puolesta, ylimys, jolla oli kuivunut, hehkuva sielu ja jonka jokainen syy oli kasvatettu ja harjoitettu palvelemaan auktoriteettia, tämä elämän sopusoinnun kieltäjä ja tämä vanhan Jumalan palvelija! Jumalan, joka seisoi ruoska kädessä ja ajoi ihmisiä kuuliaisuuteen, Jumalan, jonka Courtier saattoi nähdä katselevan itseään lastenkamarinsa seiniltä, Jumalan, johon hänen oma isänsä oli uskonut, Vanhan Testamentin Jumalan, joka ei ollut myötätuntoinen eikä ymmärtäväinen. Oli outoa, että Hän oli vielä hengissä: että piti olla tuhansia, jotka vielä palvelivat Häntä. Ei kuitenkaan niin outoa, jos, kuten sanotaan, ihminen loi Jumalan oman kuvansa mukaiseksi! Tässä oli tosiaankin omituisesti yhtynyt se, mitä filosofit sanoivat rakkauden- ja vallanhaluksi! Eräs sotamies tuli esiin tyttöineen ja istuutui penkille lähelle häntä. He katsahtivat syrjäsilmällä tuota vankkaa ja suoraa olentoa, jolla oli taistelijan kasvot; sitten, kun joku pikkuseikka ilmaisi heille, että hän ei kuulunut noihin häiritseviin, upseereiksi sanottuihin olentoihin, he taukosivat tarkastamasta häntä ja jättäytyivät äänettömän ja selittämättömän onnen valtaan. Koskettaessaan toisiaan, ollessaan siinä käsityksin, he näyttivät Courtierista hyvin hauskoilta, heillä kun oli sellainen ilme, kuin olisivat kokonaan eläneet siinä hetkessä, mikä aina vaikutti Courtierin kaltaiseen, jonka veri juoksi liian kiinteästi salliakseen hänen tuumia paljon tulevia tai hautoa paljon menneitä tapahtumia. Eräs lehti, joka oli irtaantunut puusta auringon suudelmien vaikutuksesta, putosi keltaisena hänen jalkoihinsa. Lehdet läksivät hyvin pian! Oli ominaista tälle miehelle, joka niin helposti kiihtyi muiden menetettyjen asiain vuoksi, että hän, istuessaan siinä puolta tuntia
- 77. ennen oman asiansa lopullista kadottamista, saattoi olla niin tyyni ja melkein tunteeton. Tämä tunteettomuus johtui osittain toivottomuudesta, jonka luonto oli kauan sitten huomannut koettaessaan saada hänet tuntemaan itsensä sorretuksi, mutta myöskin sellaisen miehen tavoista, joka on parantumattomasti tottunut pitämään omaa onneaan omassa ja avonaisessa kädessään. Hänestä ei tuntunut todelliselta, että oikeastaan tuli kärsimään tappion, että oli pakotettu tunnustamaan tavoitelleensa tätä tyttöä näinä viime viikkoina ja että huomispäivänä kaikki oli oleva mennyttä ja Barbara hänestä yhtä kuollut kuin ei olisi häntä koskaan nähnytkään. Ei, se ei ollut oikeastaan alistumista kohtaloonsa, vaan pikemminkin kaupallisen vaiston pelkkää puutetta. Jospa tämä olisi ollut jonkun toisen henkilön menetetty asia, miten urheasti hän olisi rynnistänytkään ja ottanut Barbaran väkirynnäköllä! Jos vain hän itse olisi saattanut olla tuo toinen henkilö, niin miten helposti, miten kiihkeästi hän olisi ajanut tuota asiata, päästänyt suustaan kaikki ne sanat, jotka olivat pyrkineet esiin hänen hampaittensa välistä siitä saakka, kun tutustui häneen, ja jotka olisivat tuntuneet niin naurettavilta ja arvottomilta, jos hän olisi käyttänyt niitä omaksi hyväkseen. Niin, tuon toisen vuoksi hän olisi hakenut hänet vaikka vihollisen kanuunain suusta, olisi temmannut hänet parhaimpana palkintona. Ja omituisen reippaalta näyttävän tunteettomuuden vallassa — mistä toivottomuus ei ollut kaukana — hän istui ja katseli lehtien putoilemista ja silloin tällöin huitaisi kepillään ilmaa, missä jo näkyi syksyn jäljet. Ja mielikuvituksessaan hän näki kuljettavansa häntä, Barbaraa, pois erämaahan ja tekevänsä hänet onnelliseksi hartaudellaan, mutta tämä oli niin korkeata lentoa, että hymy hiipi hänen huulilleen ja että hän pari kolme kertaa puri huultaan.
- 78. Sotamies ja hänen naisensa nousivat ja kulkivat hänen ohitseen ratsastusradalle päin. Hän tarkasti heidän tulipunaisia ja sinisiä vartaloitaan, jotka liikkuivat aurinkoa kohden, ja näki toisen parin lähellä ristikkoaitaa menevän poikittain noiden poistuvien suuntaan. Siinä tavassa, millä tuo suora ja hoikka pari kieppui eteenpäin, pää pystyssä, toisiaan vastaan kääntyneenä, hymyn tahi sanan vaihtamista varten, oli jotakin virkistävää. Näin pitkänkin matkan päästä saattoi huomata heidän kuuluvan yläluokkaan, sillä heidän ryhdissään oli melkein uhkamielistä tärkeyttä, mitä tavataan ihmisissä, jotka maailman silmissä ovat varmoja esiintymisestään. Tytön puku oli kellahtavan ruskea, hänen hiustensa ja hattunsa väri oli sama, ja auringon valo loi häneen himmeän loisteen. Sitten Courtier näki, keitä he olivat — tämä pari! Lukuunottamatta hänen hampaittensa tiedotonta kiristystä hän ei päästänyt mitään ääntä, joten he menivät ohitse huomaamatta häntä. Tytön äänen hän erotti selvästi, vaikk'eikaan sanoja. Hän näki hänen kätensä kohoavan Harbingerin käsikoukussa ja laskeutuvan nopeasti alas. Hänen huulilleen ilmestyi hymy hänen huomaamattaan. Hän nousi, ravisti itseään kuten kuritettu koira ja meni pois, huulet lujasti yhteenpuristettuina.
- 79. XXIV LUKU. Jäätyään yksin Gustardin mahonkipöytien keskelle, missä kakun ja sitruunaveden tuoksu täytti ilman, Barbara oli istunut muutamia minuutteja, katse luotuna maahan — kuten tyttö, jolta leikkikalu on otettu pois, tarkastaa maata, tietämättä tarkkaan, mitä tuntee. Maksettuaan laskunsa eräälle noista keski-ikäisistä naisista hän meni ulos. Katusoittokunta soitti Delibes'in Coppéliaa; huonosti soitettu sävel rasitti häntä sopimattomuudellaan. Hän meni suoraa päätä Valleys Houseen. Samassa huoneessa, missä hän lunchin jälkeen oli ollut kahden kesken Harbingerin kanssa, kolme tuntia sitten, hänen sisarensa istui ikkunalla, näyttäen selvästi kiihtyneeltä. Agathalla oli juuri ollut kamala tunti. Jouduttuaan sattumalta pikku Ann'in kanssa sokerileipuriin, mistä luuli parhaiten saavansa eräitä tahmeita makeisia, joita luuli terveellisiksi lapsilleen, hän oli pyytänyt saada niitä naulan, katsonut alas Anniin ja nähnyt hänen seisovan, nenä käännettynä myymälään, suu selällään. Luotuaan katseensa noiden suorien, tutkivien silmien suuntaan Agatha näki hämmästyksekseen sisarensa ja erään miehen, jonka hän tunsi Courtieriksi. Hänelle ominaisella ketteryydellä hän pisti makeisen Ann'in suuhun ja sanottuaan keski- ikäiselle naiselle: "Lähettäkää nämä, olkaa hyvä. Tule, Ann!" läksi