Wt module 2

Cellular Concept
The design objective of early mobile radio systems was to achieve a large coverage area by
using a single, high powered transmitter with an antenna mounted on a tall tower While this
approach achieved very good coverage, it also meant that it was impossible to reuse those same
frequencies throughout the system, since any attempts to achieve frequency reuse would result
in interference. For example, the Bell mobile system in New York City in the 1970s could only
support a maximum of twelve simultaneous calls over a thousand square miles [Cal88]. Faced
with the fact that government regulatory agencies could not make spectrum allocations in
proportion to the increasing demand for mobile services, it became imperative to restructure
the radio telephone system to achieve high capacity with limited radio spectiurn, while at the
same time covering very large areas.
2.1 Introduction
The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the problem of spectral congestion
and user capacity. It offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation without any
major technological changes. The cellular concept is a system level idea which calls for
replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power transmitters (small
cells), each providing coverage to only a small portion of the service area. Each base station is
allocated a portion of the total number of channels available to the entire system, and nearby
base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that all the available channels are
assigned to a relatively small number of neighboring base stations. Neighboring base stations
are assigned different groups of channels so that the interference between base stations (and
the mobile users under their control) is minimized. By systematically spacing base stations and
their channel groups throughout a market, the available channels are distributed throughout the
geographic region and may be reused as many times as necessary, so long as the interference
between co-channel stations is kept below acceptable levels.
As the demand for service increases (i.e., as more channels are needed within a particular
market), the number of base stations may be increased (along with a corresponding decrease in
transmitter power to avoid added interference), thereby providing additional radio capacity
with no additional increase in radio spectrum. This fundamental principle is the foundation for
all modem wireless communication systems, since it enables a fixed number of channels to
serve an arbitrarily large number of subscribers by reusing the channels throughout the
coverage region. Furthermore, the cellular concept allows every piece of subscriber equipment
within a country or continent to be manufactured with the same set of channels, so that any
mobile may be used anywhere within the region.
2.2 Frequency Reuse
Cellular radio systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region [0et83]. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be
used within a small geographic area called a cell.
Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups which contain completely different
channels than neighboring cells. The base station antennas are designed to achieve the desired
coverage within the particular cell. By limiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a
cell, the same group of channels may be used to cover different cells that are separated from
one another by distances large enough to keep interference levels within tolerable limits. The

design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular base stations
within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the concept of cellular frequency reuse, where cells labeled with the same
letter use the same group of channels. The frequency reuse plan is overlaid upon a map to
indicate where different frequency channels are used. The hexagonal cell shape shown in
.Figure 2.1 is conceptual and is a simplistic model of the radio coverage for each base station,
but it has been universally adopted since the hexagon permits easy and manageable analysis of
a cellular system. The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint and is determined
from field measurements or propagation prediction models.
Although the real footprint is amorphous in nature, a regular cell shape is needed for systematic
system design and adaptation for future growth. While it might seem natural to choose a circle
to represent the coverage area of a base station, adjacent circles cannot be overlaid upon a map
without leaving gaps or creating overlapping regions. Thus, when considering geometric
shapes which cover an entire region without overlap and with equal area, there are three
sensible choices: a square; an equilateral triangle; and a hexagon. A cell must be designed to
serve the weakest mobiles within the footprint, and these are typically located at the edge of
the cell. For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest perimeter points,
the hexagon has the largest area of the three. Thus, by using the hexagon geometr3ç the fewest
number of cells can cover a geographic region, and the hexagon closely approximates a circular
radiation pattern which would occur for an omni-directional base station antenna and free space

propagation. Of course, the actual cellular footprint is determined by the contour in which a
given transmitter serves the mobiles successfully.
When using hexagons to model coverage areas, base station transmitters are depicted as either
being in the center of the cell (center-excited cells) or on three of the six cell vertices (edge-
excited cells). Normally, omni-directional antennas are used in center-excited cells and
sectored directional antennas are used in corner-excited cells. Practical considerations usually
do not allow base stations to be placed exactly as they appear in the hexagonal layout. Most
system designs permit a base station to be positioned up to one-fourth the cell radius away from
the ideal location.
Consider cellular system with S duplex channels available, let each cell be allocated a group
of k channels (k<s) and if the S channels are divided among N cells.
Available radio channels can be expressed as
S = KN
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called a cluster.
If it is replicated M times within the system, total no. of duplex channels:
C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given by
C = MKN
= MS
N = Cluster size and typically equal to 4,7,12.
From geometry of hexagons is such that the number of cells per
Cluster, N, can only have the values which satisfy equation
N = i2
+ ij + j2
i and j are non-negative integers.
N can have the values of 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 19, …

Example:
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular telephone system
which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels,
compute the number of channels available per cell if a system uses (a) 4-cell reuse, (b) 7-cell
reuse (c) 12-cell reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels,
determine an equitable distribution of control channels and voice channels in each cell for each
of the three systems.
Given:
Total bandwidth =33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
Total available channels = 33,000/50 = 660 channels
(a) For N= 4,
Total number of channels available per cell = 660/4 = 165 channels.
(b)For N=7,
(c) For N = 12,
1 MHz spectrum for control channels implies that there are 1000/50 = 20 control channels out
of the 660 channels available. 'ft evenly distribute the control and voice channels, simply
allocate the same number of channels in each cell wherever possible. Here, the 660 channels
must be evenly distributed to each cell within the cluster. In practice, only the 640 voice
channels would be allocated, since the control channels are allocated separately as 1 per cell.
(a) For N = 4, we can have 5 control channels and 160 voice channels per cell. In practice,
however, each cell only needs a single control channel (the control channels have a greater

reuse distance than the voice channels). Thus, one control channel and 160 voice channels
would be assigned to each cell.
(b) For N = 7, 4 cells with 3 control channels and 92 voice channels, 2 cells with 3 control
channels and 90 voice channels, and 1 cell with 2 control channels and 92 voice channels could
be allocated. In practice, however, each cell would have one control channel, four cells-4vould
have 91 voice channels, and three cells would have 92 voice channels.
(c) For N = 12, we can have 8 cells with 2 control channels and 53 voice channels, and 4 cells
with 1 control channel and 54 voice channels each. In an actual system, each cell would have
1 control channel, 8 cells would have 53 voice channels, and 4 cells would have 54 voice
channels.
2.3 Channel Assignment Strategies
For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme that is consistent with
the objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing interference is required. A variety of
channel assignment strategies have been developed to achieve these objectives. Channel
assignment strategies can be classified as either fixed or dynamic. The choice of channel
assignment strategy impacts the performance of the system, particularly as to how calls are
managed when a mobile user is handed off from one cell to another [Thk911, [LiC93], [Sun94J,
[Rap93b].
In a fixed channel assignment strategy; each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice
channels. Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in that
particular cell. If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is blocked and the subscriber
does not receive service. Several variations of the fixed assignment strategy exist. In one
approach, called the borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a
neighboring cell if all of its own channels are already occupied. The mobile switching center
(MSC) supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures that the borrowing of a channel does
not disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in the donor cell.
In a dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently. Instead, each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a
channel from the MSC. The switch then allocates a channel to the requested cell following an
algorithm that takes into account the likelihood of fixture blocking within the cell, the
frequency of use of the candidate channel, the reuse distance of the channel, and other cost
functions.
Accordingly, the MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not presently in use
in the cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of frequency
reuse to avoid co-channel interference. Dynamic channel assignment reduce the likelihood of
blocking, which increases the trunking capacity of the system, since all the available channels
in a market are accessible to all of the cells. Dynamic channel assignment strategies require the
MSC to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution, arid radio signal
strength indications (RSSI) of all channels on a continuous basis. This increases the storage
and computational load on the system but provides the advantage of increased channel
utilization and decreased probability of a blocked call.

2.4 Handoff Strategies
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station. This handoff
operation not only involves a new base station, but also requires that the voice and control
signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base station.
Processing handoffs is an important task in any cellular radio system. Many handoff strategies
prioritize handoff requests over call initiation requests when allocating unused channels in a
cell site. Handofts must be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible, and be
imperceptible to the users. In order to meet these requirements, system designers must speci&
an optimum signal level at which to initiate a handoff. Once a particular signal level is specified
as the minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality at the base station receiver (normally
taken as between —90 dBm and —100 dBm), a slightly stronger signal level is used as a
threshold at which a handoff is made.
If A is too large, unnecessary handoffs which burden the MSC may occur, and if A is too small,
there may be insufficient time to complete a handoff before a call is lost due to weak signal
conditions. Therefore, A is chosen carefully to meet these conflicting requirements. Figure 2.3
illustrates a handoff situation. Figure 2.3(a) demonstrates the case where a handoff is not made
and the signal drops below the minimum acceptable level to keep the channel active. This
dropped call event can happen when there is an excessive delay by the MSC in assigning a
handoff, or when the threshold z is set too small for the handoff time in the system.
Excessive delays may occur during high traffic conditions due to computational loading at the
MSC or due to the fact that no channels are available on any of the nearby base stations (thus
forcing the MSC to wait until a channel in a nearby cell becomes free). In deciding when to

handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop in the measured signal level is not due to
momentary fading and that the mobile is actually moving away from the serving base station.
In order to ensure this, the base station monitors the signal level for a certain period of time
before a handoff is initiated. This running average measurement of signal strength should be
optimized so that unnecessary handoffs are avoided, while ensuring that necessary handoffs
are completed before a call is terminated due to poor signal level.
The length of time needed to decide if a handoff is necessary depends on the speed at which
the vehicle is moving. If the slope of the short-term average received signal level in a given
time interval is steep, the handoff should be made quickly. Information about the vehicle speed,
which can be useful in handoff decisions, can also be computed from the statistics of the
received short-term fading signal at the base station.
The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell, without handoff, is called the dwell
time [Rap93b]. The dwell time o In first generation analog cellular systems, signal strength
measurements are made by the base stations and supervised by the MSC. Each base station
constantly monitors the signal strengths of all of its reverse voice channels to determine the
relative location of each mobile user with respect to the base station tower. In addition to
measuring the RSSI of calls in progress within the cell, a spare receiver in each base station,
called the locator receiver, is used to determine signal strengths of mobile users which are in
neighboring cells. The locator receiver is controlled by the MSC and is used to monitor the
signal strength of users in neighboring cells which appear to be in need of handoff and reports
all RSSI values to the MSC. Based on the locator receiver signal strength information from
each base station, the MSC decides if a handoff is necessary or not.
In second generation systems that use digital TDMA technology, handoff decisions are mobile
assisted. In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile station measures the received
power from surrounding base stations and continually reports the results of these measurements
to the serving base station. A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station
of a neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current base station by a
certain level or for a certain period of time. The MAHO method enables the call to be handed
over between base stations at a much faster rate than in first generation analog systems since
the handoff measurements are made by each mobile, and the MSC no longer constantly
monitors signal strengths. MAHO is particularly suited for microcellular environments where
handoffs are more frequent.
During the course of a call, if a mobile moves from one cellular system to a different cellular
system controlled by a different MSC, an intersystem handoff becomes necessary An MSC
engages in an intersystem handoff when a mobile signal becomes weak in a given cell and the
MSC cannot find another cell within its system to which it can transfer the call in progress.
There are many issues that must be addressed when implementing an intersystem handoff. For
instance, a local call may become a long-distance call as the mobile moves out of its home
system and becomes a roamer in a neighboring system. Also, compatibility between the two
MSCs must be determined before implementing an intersystem handoff.
Different systems have different policies and methods for managing handoff requests. Some
systems handle handoff requests in the same way they handle originating calls. In such systems,
the probability that a handoff request will not be served by a new base station is equal to the
blocking probability of incoming calls. However, from the user's point of view, having a call

abruptly terminated while in the middle of a conversation is more annoying than being blocked
occasionally on a new call attempt. To improve the quality of service as perceived by the users,
various methods have been devised to prioritize handoff requests over call initiation requests
when allocating voice channels. A particular user is governed by a number of factors, which
include propagation, interference, distance between the subscriber and the base station, and
other time varying effects.
2.4.1 Prioritizing Handoffs
One method for giving priority to handoffs is called the guard channel concept, whereby a
fraction of the total available channels in a cell is reserved exclusively for handoff requests
from ongoing calls which may be handed off into the cell. This method has the disadvantage
of reducing the total carried traffic, as fewer channels are allocated to originating calls. Guard
channels, however, offer efficient spectrum utilization when dynamic channel assignment
strategies, which minimize the number of required guard channels by efficient demand based
allocation, are used.
Queuing of handoff requests is another method to decrease the probability of forced termination
of a call due to lack of available channels. There is a tradeoff between the decrease in
probability of forced termination and total carried traffic. Queuing of handoffs is possible due
to the fact that there is a finite time interval between the time the received signal level drops
below the handoff threshold and the time the call is terminated due to insufficient signal level.
The delay time and size of the queue is determined from the traffic pattern of the particular
service area. It should be noted that queuing does not guarantee a zero probability of forced
termination, since large delays will cause the received signal level to drop below the minimum
required level to maintain communication and hence lead to forced termination.
2.5 Interference and System Capacity

Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio systems. Sources
of interference include another mobile in the same cell, a call in progress in a neighboring cell,
other base stations operating in the same frequency band, or any noncellular system which
inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency band. Interference on voice channels
causes cross talk, where the subscriber hears interference in the background due to an undesired
transmission. On control channels, interference leads to missed and blocked calls due to errors
in the digital signaling. Interference is more severe in urban areas, due to the greater HF noise
floor and the large number of base stations and mobiles. Interference has been recognized as a
major bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls. The two
major types of system- generated cellular interference are co-channel interference and adjacent
channel interference. Even though interfering signals are often generated within the cellular
system, they are difficult to control in practice (due to random propagation effects). Even more
difficult to control is interference due to out-of-band users, which arises without warning due
to front end overload of subscriber equipment or intermittent intermodulation products. In
practice, the transmitters from competing cellular carriers are often a significant source of out-
of-band interference, since competitors often locate their base stations in close proximity to
one another in order to provide comparable coverage to customers.
2.5.1 Co-channel Interference and System Capacity
Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several cells that use the same
set of frequencies. These cells are called co-channel cells, and the interference between signals
from these cells is called co-channel interference.
Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing the signal-to noise ratio (SNR), co-
channel interference cannot be combated by simply increasing the carrier power of a transmitter
This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases the interference to neighboring
co-channel cells. To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically
separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation.
When the size of each cell is approximately the same, and the base stations transmit the same
power, the co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted power and becomes
a function of the radius of the cell (B) and the distance between centers of the nearest co-
channel cells (D). By increasing the ratio of DIR, the spatial separation between co-channel
cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased. Thus interference is reduced from
improved isolation of HF energy from the co-channel cell. The parameter Q, called the
A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is small, whereas a large
value of Q improves the transmission quality, due to a smaller level of co-channel interference.
A trade-off must be made between these two objectives in actual cellular design.

Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-to interference ratio (S/I
or SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors a forward channel can be expressed as
where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and is the interference power
caused by the i th interfering co-channel cell base station. If the signal levels of co-channel
cells are known, then the S/I ratio for the forward link can be found using equation (2.5).
Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the average received signal
strength at any point decays as a power law of the distance of separation between a transmitter
and receiver. The average received power P. at a distance d from the transmitting antenna is
approximated by
where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field region of the antenna
at a small distance d0 from the transmitting antenna, and n is the path loss exponent. Now
consider the forward link where the desired signal is the serving base station and where the
interference is due to co-channel base stations. If D. is the distance of the i th interferer from
the mobile, the received power at a given mobile due to the i th interfering cell will be
proportional to (Di)-n
.
When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent is the same
throughout the coverage area, S/I for a mobile can be approximated as

Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the interfering base stations are
equidistant from the desired base station and if this distance is equal to the distance D between
cell centers, then equation (2.8) simplifies to
Equation (2.9) relates S/I to the cluster size N, which in turn determines the overall capacity of
the system from equation (2.2). For example, assume that the six closest cells are close enough
to create significant interference and that they are all approximately equal distance from the
desired base station. For the U.S. AMPS cellular system which uses FM and 30 kHz channels,
subjective tests indicate that sufficient voice quality is provided when S/I is greater than or
equal to 18 dB. Using equation (2.9) it can be shown in order to meet this requirement, the
cluster size N should be at least 6.49, assuming a path loss exponent ii = 4. Thus a minimum
cluster size of 7 is required to meet an S/I requirement of 18 dB. It should be noted that equation
(2.9) is based on the hexagonal cell geometry where all the interfering cells are equidistant
from the base station receiver, and hence provides an optimistic result in many cases. For some
frequency reuse plans (e.g. N = 4), the closest interfering cells vary widely in their distances
from the desired cell.
From Figure 2.5, it can be seen for a 7-cell cluster, with the mobile unit is at the cell boundary,
the mobile is a distance D — 1 from the two nearest co-channel interfering cells and
approximately D + R/2, LI, D — R/2, and D + R from the other interfering cells in the first tier
[Lee86]. Using equation (2.9) and assuming n equals 4, the signal-to-interference ratio for the
worst case can be closely approximated.
Equation (2.10) can be rewritten in terms of the co-channel reuse ratio Q, as
For N = 7, the co-channel reuse ratio Q is 4.6, and the worst case S/I is approximated as 49.56
(17 dB) using equation (2.11), whereas an exact solution using equation (2.8) yields 17.8 dB
[Jac94]. Hence for a 7-cell cluster, the S/I ratio is slightly less than 18 dB for the worst case.
To design the cellular system for proper performance in the worst case, it would be necessary

to increase N to the next largest size, which from equation (2.3)is found to be 12 (corresponding
to i = j = 2). This obviously entails a significant decrease in capacity, since 12- cell reuse offers
a spectrum utilization of 1/12 within each cell, whereas 7-cell reuse offers a spectrum
utilization of 1/7. In practice, a capacity reduction of 7/12 would not be tolerable to
accommodate for the worst case situation which rarely occurs. From the above discussion it is
clear that co-channel interference determines link performance, which in turn dictates the
frequency reuse plan and the overall capacity of cellular systems.
Adjacent Channel Interference
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is
called adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect
receiver filters which allow nearby frequencies to leak into the passband. The problem can be
particularly serious if an adjacent channel user is transmitting in very close range to a
subscriber's receiver, while the receiver attempts to receive a base station on the desired
channel. This is referred to as the near-far effect, where a nearby transmitter (which may or
may not be of the same type as that used by the cellular system) captures the receiver of the
subscriber. Alternatively, the near-far effect occurs when a mobile close to a base station
transmits on a channel close to one being used by a weak mobile.
The base station may have difficulty in discriminating the desired mobile user from the
"bleedover" caused by the close adjacent channel mobile. Adjacent channel interference can
be minimized through careful filtering and channel assignments. Since each cell is given only
a fraction of the available channels, a cell need not be assigned channels which are all adjacent
in frequency.
By keeping the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as large as possible,
the adjacent channel interference may be reduced considerably. Thus instead of assigning
channels which form a contiguous band of frequencies within a particular cell, channels are
allocated such that the frequency separation between channels in a given cell is maximized. By
sequentially assigning successive channels in the frequency band to different cells, many
channel allocation schemes are able to separate adjacent channels in a cell by as many as N
channel bandwidths, where N is the cluster size. Some channel allocation schemes also prevent
a secondary source of adjacent channel interference by avoiding the use of adjacent channels
in neighboring cell sites.
If the frequency reuse factor is small, the separation between adjacent channels may not be
sufficient to keep the adjacent channel interference level within tolerable limits. For example,
if a mobile is 20 times as close to the base station as another mobile and has energy spill out of
its passband, the signal-to interferenceratio for the weak mobile (before receiver filtering) is
approximately
Eor a path loss exponent n = 4, this is equal to —52 dB. If the intermediate frequency (IF) filter
of the base station receiver has a slope of 20 dB/octave, then an adjacent channel interferer
must be displaced by at least six times the passband bandwidth from the center of the receiver

frequency passband to achieve 52 dB attenuation. Here, a separation of approximately six
channel bandwidths is required for typical filters in order to provide 0 dB SIR from a close-in
adjacent channel user. This implies that a channel separation greater than six is needed to bring
the adjacent channel interference to an acceptable level, or tighter base station filters are needed
when close-in and distant users share the same cell. In practice, each base station receiver is
preceeded by a high Q cavity filter in order to reject adjacent channel interference.
Power Control for Reducing Interference
In practical cellular radio and personal communication systems the power levels transmitted
by every subscriber unit are under constant control by the serving base stations. This is done to
ensure that each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to maintain a good quality link
on the reverse channel. Power control not only helps prolong battery life for the subscriber unit,
but also dramatically reduces the reverse channel S/I in the system. Power control is especially
important for emerging CDMA spread spectrum systems that allow every user in every cell to
share the same radio channel.
First- and Second-Generation Cellular Systems

The first- and second-generation cellular systems are the WWAN. The first public cellular
telephone system (first-generation, 1G), called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
[8,21], was introduced in 1979 in the United States. During the early 1980s, several
incompatible cellular systems (TACS, NMT, C450, etc.) were introduced in Western Europe.
The deployment of these incompatible systems resulted in mobile phones being designed for
one system that could not be used with another system, and roaming between the many
countries of Europe was not possible. The fi rst-generation systems were designed for voice
applications. Analog frequency modulation (FM) technology was used for radio transmission.
In 1982, the main governing body of the European post telegraph and telephone (PTT), la
Conférence européenne des Administrations des postes et des télécommunications (CEPT), set
up a committee known as Groupe Special Mobile (GSM) [9], under the auspices of its
Committee on Harmonization, to define a mobile system that could be introduced across
western Europe in the 1990s. The CEPT allocated the necessary duplex radio frequency bands
in the 900 MHz region. The GSM (renamed Global System for Mobile communications)
initiative gave the European mobile communications industry a home market of about 300
million subscribers, but at the same time provided it with a significant technical challenge. The
early years of the GSM were devoted mainly to the selection of radio technologies for the air
interface. In 1986, field trials of different candidate systems proposed for the GSM air interface
were conducted in Paris. A set of criteria ranked in the order of importance was established to
assess these candidates.
The interfaces, protocols, and protocol stacks in GSM are aligned with the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) principles. The GSM architecture is an open architecture which provides
maximum independence between network elements such as the Base Station Controller (BSC),
the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), the Home Location Register (HLR), etc. This approach
simplifies the design, testing, and implementation of the system. It also favors an evolutionary
growth path, since network element independence implies that modification to one network
element can be made with minimum or no impact on the others. Also, a system operator has
the choice of using network elements from different manufacturers.

GSM 900 (i.e., GSM system at 900 MHz) was adopted in many countries, including the major
parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, many east Asian countries, and Australia. In
most of these cases, roaming agreements exist to make it possible for subscribers to travel
within different parts of the world and enjoy continuity of their telecommunications services
with a single number and a single bill. The adaptation of GSM at 1800 MHz (GSM 1800) also
spreads coverage to some additional east Asian countries and some South American countries.
GSM at 1900 MHz (i.e., GSM 1900), a derivative of GSM for North America, covers a
substantial area of the United States. All of these systems enjoy a form of roaming, referred to
as Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) roaming, between them and with all other GSM-based
systems. A subscriber from any of these systems could access telecommunication services by
using the personal SIM card in a handset suitable to the network from which coverage is
provided. If the subscriber has a multiband phone, then one phone could be used worldwide.
This globalization has positioned GSM and its derivatives as one of the leading contenders for
offering digital cellular and Personal Communications Services (PCS) worldwide.
A PCS system offers multimedia services (i.e., voice, data, video, etc.) at any time and
anywhere. With a three band handset (900, 1800, and 1900 MHz), true worldwide seamless
roaming is possible. GSM 900, GSM 1800, and GSM 1900 are second-generation (2G) systems
and belong to the GSM family. Cordless Telephony 2 (CT2) is also a 2G system used in Europe
for low mobility.
Two digital technologies, Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA) (see Chapter 6 for details) [10] emerged as clear choices for the
newer PCS systems. TDMA is a narrowband technology in which communication channels on
a carrier frequency are apportioned by time slots. For TDMA technology, there are three
prevalent 2G systems: North America TIA/EIA/IS-136, Japanese Personal Digital Cellular
(PDC), and European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) Digital Cellular System
1800 (GSM 1800), a derivative of GSM. Another 2G system based on CDMA (TIA/EIA/IS-
95) is a direct sequence (DS) spread spectrum (SS) system in which the entire bandwidth of

the carrier channel is made available to each user simultaneously for details). The bandwidth
is many times larger than the bandwidth required to transmit the basic information. CDMA
systems are limited by interference produced by the signals of other users transmitting within
the same bandwidth.
The global mobile communications market has grown at a tremendous pace. There are nearly
one billion users worldwide with two-thirds being GSM users. CDMA is the fastest growing
digital wireless technology, increasing its worldwide subscriber base significantly. Today,
there are already more than 200 million CDMA subscribers. The major markets for CDMA
technology are North America, Latin America, and Asia, in particular Japan and Korea. In total,
CDMA has been adopted by almost 50 countries around the world.
The reasons behind the success of CDMA are obvious. CDMA is an advanced digital cellular
technology, which can offer six to eight times the capacity of analog technologies (AMP) and
up to four times the capacity of digital technologies such as TDMA. The speech quality
provided by CDMA systems is far superior to any other digital cellular system, particularly in
diffi cult RF environments such as dense urban areas and mountainous regions. In both initial
deployment and long-term operation, CDMA provides the most cost effective solution for
cellular operators. CDMA technology is constantly evolving to offer customers new and
advanced services. The mobile data rates offered through CDMA phones have increased and
new voice codecs provide speech quality close to the fixed wireline. Internet access is now
available through CDMA handsets. Most important, the CDMA network offers operators a
smooth migration path to third-generation (3G) mobile systems.
Cellular Communications from 1G to 3G
Mobile systems have seen a change of generation, from first to second to third, every ten years
or so (see Figure 1.3). At the introduction of 1G services, the mobile device was large in size,
and would only fi t in the trunk of a car. All analog components such as the power amplifier,

synthesizer, and shared antenna equipment were bulky. 1G systems were intended to provide
voice service and low rate (about 9.6 kbps) circuit-switched data services. Miniaturization of
mobile devices progressed before the introduction of 2G services (1990) to the point where the
size of mobile phones fell below 200 cubic centimeters (cc). The first-generation handsets
provided poor voice quality, low talk-time, and low standby time. The 1G systems used
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) technology and analog frequency modulation.
The 2G systems based on TDMA and CDMA technologies [6] were primarily designed to
improve voice quality and provide a set of rich voice features. These systems supported low
rate data services (16–32 kbps).
For second-generation systems three major problems impacting system cost and quality of
service remained unsolved. These include what method to use for band compression of voice,
whether to use a linear or nonlinear modulation scheme, and how to deal with the issue of
multipath delay spread caused by multipath propagation of radio waves in which there may not
only be phase cancellation but also a significant time difference between the direct and reflected
waves.
The swift progress in Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) was probably fuelled by the rapid
development of voice codecs for mobile environments that dealt with errors. Large increases
in the numbers of cellular subscribers and the worries of exhausting spectrum resources led to
the choice of linear modulation systems.
To deal with multipath delay spread, Europe, the United States, and Japan took very different
approaches. Europe adopted a high transmission rate of 280 kbps per 200 kHz RF channel in
GSM [13,14] using a multiplexed TDMA system with 8 to 16 voice channels, and a mandatory
equalizer with a high number of taps to overcome inter-symbol interference (ISI) (see Chapter
3). The United States used the carrier transmission rate of 48 kbps in 30 kHz channel, and
selected digital advanced mobile phone (DAMP) systems (IS-54/IS-136) to reduce the
computational requirements for equalization, and the CDMA system (IS-95) to avoid the need
for equalization. In Japan the rate of 42 kbps in 25 kHz channel was used, and equalizers were
made optional.
Taking into account the limitations imposed by the finite amount of radio spectrum available,
the focus of the third-generation (3G) mobile systems has been on the economy of network and
radio transmission design to provide seamless service from the customers’ perspective. The
third-generation systems provide their users with seamless access to the fixed data network.
They are perceived as the wireless extension of future fixed networks, as well as an integrated
part of the fixed network infrastructure. 3G systems are intended to provide multimedia
services including voice, data, and video.
One major distinction of 3G systems relative to 2G systems is the hierarchical cell structure
designed to support a wide range of multimedia broadband services within the various cell
types by using advanced transmission and protocol technologies. The 2G systems mainly use
one-type cell and employ frequency reuse within adjacent cells in such a way that each single
cell manages its own radio zone and radio circuit control within the mobile network, including
traffic management and handoff procedures. The traffic supported in each cell is fixed because
of frequency limitations and little flexibility of radio transmission which is mainly optimized

for voice and low data rate transmissions. Increasing traffic leads to costly cellular
reconfiguration such as cell splitting and cell sectorization.
The multilayer cell structure in 3G systems aims to overcome these problems by overlaying,
discontinuously, pico- and microcells over the macrocell structure with wide area coverage.
Global/satellite cells can be used in the same sense by providing area coverage where macrocell
constellations are not economical to deploy and/or support long distance traffic.

With low mobility and small delay spread profiles in picocells, high bit rates and high traffic
densities can be supported with low complexity as opposed to low bit rates and low traffic load
in macrocells that support high mobility. The user expectation will be for service selected in a
uniform manner with consistent procedures, irrespective of whether the means of access to
these services is fixed or mobile. Freedom of location and means of access will be facilitated
by smart cards to allow customers to register on different terminals with varying capabilities
(speech, multimedia, data, short messaging).
The choice of a radio interface parameter set corresponding to a multiple access scheme is a
critical issue in terms of spectral efficiency, taking into account the ever-increasing market
demand for mobile communications and the fact that radio spectrum is a very expensive and
scarce resource. A comparative assessment of several different schemes was carried out in the
framework of the Research in Advanced Communications Equipment (RACE) program. One
possible solution is to use a hybrid CDMA/TDMA/FDMA technique by integrating advantages
of each and meeting the varying requirements on channel capacity, traffic load, and
transmission quality in different cellular/PCS layouts. Disadvantages of such hybrid access
schemes are the high-complexity difficulties in achieving simplified low-power, low-cost
transceiver design as well as efficient flexibility management in the several cell layers.
CDMA is the selected approach for 3G systems by the ETSI, ARIB (Association of Radio
Industries and Business — Japan) and Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). In
Europe and Japan, Wideband CDMA (WCDMA/UMTS [Universal Mobile
Telecommunication Services]) was selected to avoid IS-95 intellectual property rights. In
North America, cdma2000 uses a CDMA air-interface based on the existing IS-95 standard to
provide wireline quality voice service and high speed data services at 144 kbps for mobile
users, 384 kbps for pedestrians, and 2 Mbps for stationary users. The 64 kbps data capability
of CDMA IS-95B provides high speed Internet access in a mobile environment, a capability
that cannot be matched by other narrowband digital technologies.
Mobile data rates up to 2 Mbps are possible using wide band CDMA technologies. These
services are provided without degrading the systems’ voice transmission capabilities or
requiring additional spectrum. This has tremendous implications for the majority of operators
that are spectrum constrained. In the meantime, DSPs have improved in speed by an order of
magnitude in each generation, from 4 MIPs (million instructions per second) through 40 MIPs
to 400 MIPs.
Since the introduction of 2G systems, the base station has seen the introduction of features such
as dynamic channel assignment. In addition, most base stations began making shared use of
power amplifiers and linear amplifiers whether or not modulation was linear. As such there has
been an increasing demand for high-efficiency, large linear power amplifiers instead of
nonlinear amplifiers.
At the beginning of 2G, users were fortunate if they were able to obtain a mobile device below
150 cc. Today, about 10 years later, mobile phone size has reached as low as 70 cc.
Furthermore, the enormous increase in very large system integration (VLSI) and improved
CPU performance has led to increased functionality in the handset, setting the path toward
becoming a small-scale computer.
Road Map for Higher Data Rate Capability in 3G

The fi rst- and second-generation cellular systems were primarily designed for voice services
and their data capabilities were limited. Wireless systems have since been evolving to provide
broadband data rate capability as well.
GSM is moving forward to develop cutting-edge, customer-focused solutions to meet the
challenges of the 21st century and 3G mobile services. When GSM was fi rst designed, no one
could have predicted the dramatic growth of the Internet and the rising demand for multimedia
services. These developments have brought about new challenges to the world of GSM. For
GSM operators, the emphasis is now rapidly changing from that of instigating and driving the
development of technology to fundamentally enable mobile data transmission to that of
improving speed, quality, simplicity, coverage, and reliability in terms of tools and services
that will boost mass market take-up.
People are increasingly looking to gain access to information and services whenever they want
from wherever they are. GSM will provide that connectivity. The combination of Internet
access, web browsing, and the whole range of mobile multimedia capability is the major driver
for development of higher data speed technologies.
GSM operators have two nonexclusive options for evolving their networks to 3G wide band
multimedia operation: (1) they can use General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) [also known as 2.5G] in the existing radio spectrum,
and in small amounts of new spectrum; or (2) they can use WCDMA/UMTS in the new 2 GHz
bands. Both approaches offer a high degree of investment flexibility because roll-out can
proceed in line with market demand and there is extensive reuse of existing network equipment
and radio sites.
The first step to introduce high-speed circuit-switched data service in GSM is by using High
Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD). HSCSD is a feature that enables the co-allocation of
multiple full rate traffic channels (TCH/F) of GSM into an HSCSD configuration. The aim of
HSCSD is to provide a mixture of services with different user data rates using a single physical
layer structure. The available capacity of an HSCSD configuration is several times the capacity
of a TCH/F, leading to a significant enhancement in data transfer capability.
Ushering faster data rates into the mainstream is the new speed of 14.4 kbps per time slot and
HSCSD protocols that approach wire-line access rates of up to 57.6 kbps by using multiple
14.4 kbps time slots. The increase from the current baseline 9.6 kbps to 14.4 kbps is due to a
nominal reduction in the error-correction overhead of the GSM radio link protocol, allowing
the use of a higher data rate.
The next phase in the high speed road map is the evolution of current short message service
(SMS), such as smart messaging and unstructured supplementary service data, toward the new
GPRS, a packet data service using TCP/IP and X.25 to offer speeds up to 115.2 kbps. GPRS
has been standardized to optimally support a wide range of applications ranging from very
frequent transmissions of medium to large data volume. Services of GPRS have been
developed to reduce connection set-up time and allow an optimum usage of radio resources.
GPRS provides a packet data service for GSM where time slots on the air interface can be
assigned to GPRS over which packet data from several mobile stations can be multiplexed.
A similar evolution strategy, also adopting GPRS, has been developed for DAMPS (IS-136).
For operators planning to offer wide band multimedia services, the move to GPRS packet-

based data bearer service is significant; it is a relatively small step compared to building a
totally new 3G network. Use of the GPRS network architecture for IS-136 packet data service
enables data subscription roaming with GSM networks around the globe that support GPRS
and its evolution.
The IS-136 packet data service standard is known as GPRS-136. GPRS-136 provides the same
capabilities as GSM GPRS. The user can access either X.25 or IP-based data networks. GPRS
provides a core network platform for current GSM operators not only to expand the wireless
data market in preparation for the introduction of 3G services, but also a platform on which to
build UMTS frequencies should they acquire them.
GPRS enhances GSM data services significantly by providing end-to-end packet switched data
connections. This is particularly efficient in Internet/intranet traffic, where short bursts of
intense data communications actively are interspersed with relatively long periods of inactivity.
Since there is no real end-to-end connection to be established, setting up a GPRS call is almost
instantaneous and users can be continuously on-line. Users have the additional benefits of
paying for the actual data transmitted, rather than for connection time.
Because GPRS does not require any dedicated end-to-end connection, it only uses network
resources and bandwidth when data is actually being transmitted. This means that a given
amount of radio bandwidth can be shared efficiently between many users simultaneously. The
significance of EDGE (also referred to as 2.5G system) for today’s GSM operators is that it
increases data rates up to 384 kbps and potentially even higher in good quality radio
environments that are using current GSM spectrum and carrier structures more efficiently.
EDGE will both complement and be an alternative to new WCDMA coverage. EDGE will also
have the effect of unifying the GSM, DAMPS, and WCDMA services through the use of dual-
mode terminals.
GSM operators who win licenses in new 2 GHz bands will be able to introduce UMTS
wideband coverage in areas where early demand is likely to be greatest. Dual-mode EDGE/
UMTS mobile terminals will allow full roaming and handoff from one system to the other,
with mapping of services between the two systems. EDGE will contribute to the commercial
success of the 3G system in the vital early phases by ensuring that UMTS subscribers will be
able to enjoy roaming and interworking globally.
While GPRS and EDGE require new functionality in the GSM network with new types of
connections to external packet data networks, they are essentially extensions of GSM. Moving
to a GSM/UMTS core network will likewise be a further extension of this network. EDGE
provides GSM operators — whether or not they get a new 3G license — with a commercially
attractive solution for developing the market for wide band multimedia services. Using familiar
interfaces such as the Internet, volume-based charging and a progressive increase in available
user data rates will remove some of the barriers to large-scale take-up of wireless data services.
The move to 3G services will be a staged evolution from today’s GSM data services using
GPRS and EDGE. Table 1.1 provides a comparison of GSM data services.
The use of CDMA technology began in the United States with the development of the IS-95
standard in 1990. The IS-95 standard has evolved since to provide better voice services and
applications to other frequency bands (IS-95A), and to provide higher data rates (up to 115.2
kbps) for data services (IS-95B). To further improve the voice service capability and provide

even higher data rates for packet and circuit switched data services, the industry developed the
cdma2000 standard in 2000. As the concept of wireless Internet gradually turns into reality, the
need for an efficient high-speed data system arises. A CDMA high data rate (HDR) system was
developed by Qualcomm. The CDMA-HDR (now called 3G 1X EV-DO, [3G 1X Enhanced
Version Data Only]) system design improves the system throughput by using fast channel
estimation feedback, dual receiver antenna diversity, and scheduling algorithms that take
advantage of multi-user diversity. 3G 1X EV-DO has significant improvements in the downlink
structure of cdma2000 including adaptive modulation of up to 8-PSK and 16-quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM), automatic repeat request (ARQ) algorithms and turbo coding.
With these enhancements, 3G 1X EV-DO can transmit data in burst rates as high as 2.4 Mbps
with 0.5 to 1 Mbps realistic downlink rates for individual users. The uplink design is similar to
that in cdma2000. Recently, the 3G 1X EV-Data and Voice (DV) standard was finalized by the
TIA and commercial equipment is currently being developed for its deployment. 3G 1X EV-
DV can transmit both voice and data traffic on the same carrier with peak data throughput for
the downlink being confirmed at 3.09 Mbps.
As an alternative, Time Division-Synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA) has been developed by
Siemens and the Chinese government. TD-SCDMA uses adaptive modulation of up to
quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) and 8-PSK, as well as turbo coding to obtain downlink
data throughput of up to 2 Mbps. TD-SCDMA uses a 1.6 MHz time-division duplex (TDD)
carrier whereas cdma2000 uses a 2 1.25 MHz frequency-division duplex (FDD) carrier (2.5
MHz total). TDD allows TD-SCDMA to use the least amount of spectrum of any 3G
technologies.
Table 1.2 lists the maximum data rates per user that can be achieved by various systems under
ideal conditions. When the number of users increases, and if all the users share the same carrier,
the data rate per user will decrease. One of the objectives of 3G systems is to provide access
“anywhere, any time.” However, cellular networks can only cover a limited area due to high
infrastructure costs. For this reason, satellite systems will form an integral part of the 3G
networks. Satellite will provide extended wireless coverage to remote areas and to aeronautical
and maritime mobiles. The level of integration of the satellite system with the terrestrial cellular
networks is under investigation. A fully integrated solution will require mobiles to be dual
mode terminals to allow communications with orbiting satellite and terrestrial cellular
networks. Low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites are the most likely candidates for providing
worldwide coverage. Currently several LEO satellite systems are being deployed to provide
global telecommunications.
Wireless 4G Systems
4G networks can be defined as wireless ad hoc peer-to-peer networking with high usability and
global roaming, distributed computing, personalization, and multimedia support. 4G networks
will use distributed architecture and end-to-end Internet Protocol (IP). Every device will be
both a transceiver and a router for other devices in the network eliminating the spoke-and-hub
architecture weakness of 3G cellular systems. Network coverage/capacity will dynamically
change to accommodate changing user patterns. Users will automatically move away from
congested routes to allow the network to dynamically and automatically self-balance.
Recently, several wireless broadband technologies [20] have emerged to achieve high data rates
and quality of service. Navini Networks developed a wireless broadband system based on TD-

SCDMA. The system, named Ripwave, uses beamforming to allow multiple subscribers in
different parts of a sector to simultaneously use the majority of the spectrum bandwidth.
Beamforming allows the spectrum to be effectively reused in dense environments without
having to use excessive sectors. The Ripwave system varies between QPSK, 16 and 64-QAM,
which allows the system to burst up to 9.6 Mbps using a single 1.6 MHz TDD carrier. Due to
TDD and 64-QAM modulation the Ripwave system is extremely spectrally efficient. Currently
Ripwave is being tried by several telecom operators in the United States. The Ripwave
Customer Premise Equipment is about the size of a cable modem and has a self-contained
antenna. Recently, PC cards for laptops have become available allowing greater portability for
the user.
Flarion Technologies is promoting their proprietary Flash-orthogonal frequency-division
multiple (OFDM) as a high-speed wireless broadband solution. Flash-OFDM uses frequency
hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) to limit interference and allows a reuse pattern of one in an
OFDM access environment. Flarion’s Flash-OFDM system uses 1.25 MHz FDD carriers with
QPSK and 16-QAM modulation. Peak speeds can burst up to 3.2 Mbps with sustained rates
leveling off at 1.6 Mbps on the downlink. Flarion has not implemented an antenna enhancement
technology that may further improve data rates.
BeamReach is a wireless broadband technology based on OFDM and beamforming. It uses
TDD duplexed 1.25 MHz paired carriers. Spread spectrum is used to reduce interference over
the 2.5 MHz carriers allowing a frequency reuse of one. Individual users can expect downlink
rates of 1.5, 1.2, and 0.8 Mbps using 32-QAM, 16-QAM, and 8-PSK modulation respectively.
The aggregate network bandwidth is claimed to be 88 Mbps in 10 MHz of spectrum or 220
Mbps in 24 MHz of spectrum, which equates to a high spectral efficiency of 9 bps/Hz. It should
be noted that the system uses either 4 or 6 sectors and these claims are based on those sectoring
schemes. For any technology with a reuse number of 1 to achieve 9 bps/Hz per cell with 4 or
6 sectors, the efficiency in each sector would need to be a reasonable 2.3 or 1.5 bps/Hz,
respectively.
IPWireless is the broadband technology based upon UMTS. It uses either 5 or 10 MHz TDD
carriers and QPSK modulation. The theoretical peak transmission speeds for a 10 MHz
deployment is 6 Mbps downlink and 3 Mbps uplink. The IPWireless system only uses QPSK
modulation and no advanced antenna technologies. With the inclusion of advanced antenna
technologies and the development of High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA),
IPWireless has significant potential.
SOMA networks has also developed a wireless broadband technology based on UMTS. Like
UMTS, SOMA’s technology uses 5 MHz FHSS carriers. Peak throughput is claimed to be as
high as 12 Mbps, making SOMA one of the faster wireless broadband technologies. Table 1.3
compares the wireless broadband technologies and their lowest order modulation data
throughput.
Future Wireless Networks
As mobile networks evolve to offer both circuit and packet-switched services, users will be
connected permanently (always on) via their personal terminal of choice to the network. With
the development of intelligence in core network (CN), both voice and broadband multimedia
traffic will be directed to their intended destination with reduced latency and delays.

Transmission speeds will be increased and there will be far more efficient use of network
bandwidth and resources. As the number of IP-based mobile applications grows, 3G systems
will offer the most flexible access technology because it allows for mobile, office, and
residential use in a wide range of public and nonpublic networks. The 3G systems will support
both IP and non-IP traffic in a variety of modes, including packet, circuit-switched, and virtual
circuit, and will thus benefit directly from the development and extension of IP standards for
mobile communications. New developments will allow parameters like quality of service
(QoS), data rate, and bit error rate (BER) — vital for mobile operation — to be set by the
operator and/or service provider.
Wireless systems beyond 3G (e.g., 4G) will consist of a layered combination of different access
technologies:
 Cellular systems (e.g., existing 2G and 3G systems for wide area mobility) WLANs for
dedicated indoor applications (such as IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g)
 Worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMAX) (IEEE 802.16) for
metropolitan areas
 WPANs for short-range and low mobility applications around a room in the offi ce or
at home (such as Bluetooth)
These access systems will be connected via a common IP-based core network that will also
handle interworking between the different systems. The core network will enable inter- and
intra-access handoff.
The peak data rates of 3G systems are around 10 times more than 2G/2.5G systems. The fourth-
generation systems may be expected to provide a data rate 10 times higher than 3G systems.
User data rates of 2 Mbps for vehicular and 20 Mbps for indoor applications are expected. The
fourth-generation systems will also meet the requirements of next generation Internet through
compliance with IPv6, Mobile IP, QoS control, and so on.
Global System Mobile (GSM)
Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a second generation cellular system standard that was
developed to solve the fragmentation problems of the first cellular systems in Europe. GSM is
the world's first cellular system to specify digital modulation and network level architectures
and services. Before GSM, European countries used different cellular standards throughout the
continent, and it was not possible for a customer to use a single subscriber unit throughout
Europe. GSM was originally developed to serve as the pan-European cellular service and
promised a wide range of network services through the use of ISDN.
GSM's success has exceeded the expectations of virtually everyone, and it is now the world's
most popular standard for new cellular radio and personal communications equipment
throughout the world. It is predicted that by the year 2000, there will be between 20 and 50
million GSM subscribers worldwide.
The task of specifying a common mobile communication system for Europe in the 900 MHz
band was taken up by the GSM (Groupe spe'cial mobile) committee which was a working
group of the Confe'rence Europe'ene Postes des et Te'le'communication (CEPT). Recently,
GSM has changed its name to the Global System for Mobile Communications for marketing

reasons [Mou92]. The setting of standards for GSM is currently under the aegis of the European
Technical Standards Institute (ETSI).
GSM was first introduced into the European market in 1991. By the end of 1993, several
nonEuropean countries in South America, Asia, and Australia had adopted GSM and the
technically equivalent offshoot, DCS 1800, which supports Personal Communication Services
(PCS) in the 1.8 GHz to 2.0 GHz radio bands recently created by governments throughout the
world.
GSM Services and Features
GSM services follow ISDN guidelines and are classified as either tele-services or data services.
Teleservices include standard mobile telephony and mobile-originated or base-originated
traffic, Data services include computer-to-computer communication and packet-switched
traffic. User services may be divided into three major categories:
• Telephone services, including emergency calling and facsimile. GSM also supports Videotex
and Teletex, though they are not integral parts of the GSM standard.
• Bearer services or data services which are limited to layers 1, 2, and 3 of the open system
interconnection (OSI) reference model (see Chapter 9). Supported services include packet
switched protocols and data rates from 300 bps to 9.6 kbps. Data may be transmitted using
either a transparent mode (where GSM provides standard channel coding for the user data) or
nontransparent mode (where GSM offers special coding efficiencies based on the particular
data interface).
• Supplementary ISDN services, are digital in nature, and include call diversion, closed user
groups, and caller identification, and are not available in analog mobile networks.
Supplementary services also include the short messaging service (SMS) which allows GSM
subscribers and base stations to transmit alphanumeric pages of limited length (160 7 bit ASCII
characters) while simultaneously carrying normal voice traffic. SMS also provides cell
broadcast, which allows GSM base stations to repetitively transmit ASCII messages with as
many as fifteen 93-character strings in concatenated fashion.
SMS may be used for safety and advisory applications, such as the broadcast of highway or
weather information to all GSM subscribers within reception range.
From the user's point of view, one of the most remarkable features of GSM is the Subscriber
Identity Module (SIM), which is a memory device that stores information such as the
subscriber's identification number, the networks and countries where the subscriber is entitled
to service, privacy keys, and other user-specific information. A subscriber uses the SIM with a
4-digit personal ID number to activate service from any GSM phone. SIM's are available as
smart (credit card sized cards that may be inserted into any GSM phone) or plugin modules,
which are less convenient than the SIM cards but are nonetheless removable and portable.
Without a SIM installed, all GSM mobiles are identical and nonoperational. It is the SIM that
gives GSM subscriber units their identity.
Subscribers may plug their SIM into any suitable terminal — such as a hotel phone, public
phone, or any portable or mobile phone — and are then able to have all incoming GSM calls
routed to that terminal and have all outgoing calls billed to their home phone, no matter where
they are in the world.

A second remarkable feature of GSM is the on-the-air privacy which is provided by the system.
Unlike analog FM cellular phone systems which can be readily monitored, it is virtually
impossible to eavesdrop on a GSM radio transmission.
The privacy is made possible by encrypting the digital bit stream sent by a GSM transmitter,
according to a specific secret cryptographic key that is known only to the cellular carrier. This
key changes with time for each user. Every carrier and GSM equipment manufacturer must
sign the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) before developing GSM equipment or
deploying a GSM system. The MoU is an international agreement which allows the sharing of
cryptographic algorithms and other proprietary information between countries and carriers.
GSM System Architecture
The GSM system architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact
between themselves and with the users through certain network interfaces. The subsystems are
the Base Station Subsystem (BSS), Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS), and the
Operation Suppon Subsystem (OSS). The Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem, but is
usually considered to be part of the BSS for architecture purposes. Equipment and services are
designed within GSM to support one or more of these specific subsystems.
The BSS, also known as the radio subsystem, provides and manages radio transmission paths
between the mobile stations and the Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The BSS also manages
the radio interface between the mobile stations and all other subsystems of GSM. Each BSS
consists of many Base Station Controllers (BSCs) which connect the MS to the NSS via the
MSCs. The NSS manages the switching functions of the system and allows the MSCs to
communicate with other networks such as the PSTN and ISDN. The OSS supports the
operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose, and
troubleshoot all aspects of the GSM system. This subsystem interacts with the other GSM
subsystems, and is provided solely for the staff of the GSM operating company which provides
service facilities for the network.
Figure 10.5 shows the block diagram of the GSM system architecture. The Mobile Stations
(MS) communicate with the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) over the radio air interface. The
BSS consists of many BSCs which connect to a single MSC, and each BSC typically controls
up to several hundred Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs). Some of the BTSs maybe co-located
at the BSC, and others may be remotely distributed and physically connected to the BSC by
microwave link or dedicated leased lines. Mobile handoffs (called handovers, or HO, in the
GSM specification) between two BTSs under the control of the same BSC are handled by the
BSC, and not the MSC. This greatly reduces the switching burden of the MSC.

As shown in Figure 10.6, the interface which connects a BTS to a BSC is called the Abis
interface. The Abis interface carries traffic and maintenance data, and is specified by GSM to
be. standardized for all manufacturers. In practice, however, the Abis for each GSM base
station manufacturer has subtle differences, thereby forcing service providers to use the same
manufacturer for the BTS and BSC equipment.

The BSCs are physically connected via dedicated leased lines or microwave link to the MSC.
The interface between a BSC and a MSC is called the A interface, which is standardized within
GSM. The A interface uses an SS7 protocol called the Signaling Correction Control Part
(SCCP) which supports communication between the MSC and the ESS, as well as network
messages between the individual subscribers and the MSC. The A interface allows a service
provider to use base stations and switching equipment made by different manufacturers.
The NSS handles the switching of GSM calls between external networks and the BSCs in the
radio subsystem and is also responsible for managing and providing external access to several
customer databases. The MSC is the central unit in the NSS and controls the traffic among all
of the BSCs. In the NSS, there are three different databases called the Home Location Register
(HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR), and the Authentication Center (AUC). The HLR is a
database which contains subscriber information and location information for each user who
resides in the same city as the MSC. Each subscriber in a particular GSM market is assigned a
unique International Mobile Subscrther Identity (IMSI), and this number is used to identify
each home user. The VLR is a database which temporarily stores the IMSI and customer
information for each roaming subscriber who is visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC.
The VLR is linked between several adjoining MSCs in a particular market or geographic region
and contains subscription information of every visiting user in the area. Once a roaming mobile
is logged in the VLR, the MSC sends the necessary information to the visiting subscriber's
FILE so that calls to the roaming mobile can be appropriately routed over the PSTN by the
roaming user's HLR The Authentication Center is a strongly protected database which handles
the authentication and encryption keys for every single subscriber in the HLR and VLR. The
Authentication Center contains a register called the Equipment Identity Register (EIR) which
indentifies stolen or fraudulently altered phones that transmit identity data that does not match
with information contained in either the HLR or VLR.
The OSS supports one or several Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC) which are used to
monitor and maintain the performance of each MS, BS, BSC, and MSC within a GSM system.
The OSS has three main functions, which are 1) to maintain all telecommunications hardware
and network operations with a particular market, 2) manage all charging and billing procedures,
and 3) manage all mobile equipment in the system. Within each GSM system, an OMC is
dedicated to each of these tasks and has provisions for adjusting all base station parameters and
billing procedures, as well as for providing system operators with the ability to determine the
performance and integrity of each piece of subscriber equipment in the system.
GSM Radio Subsystem
GSM utilizes two bands of 25 MHz which have been set aside for system use in all member
countries. The 890-915 MHz band is used for subscriber-to-base transmissions (reverse link),
and the 935-960 MHz band is used for base-to-subscriber transmissions (forward link). GSM
uses FDD and a combination of TDMA and FHMA schemes to provide base stations with
simultaneous access to multiple users. The available forward and reverse frequency bands are
divided into 200 kHz wide channels called ARFCNs (Absolute Radio Frequency Channel
Numbers). The ARFCN denotes a forward and reverse channel pair which is separated in
frequency by 45 MHz and each channel is time shared between as many as eight subscribers
using TDMA.

Each of the eight subscribers uses the same ARFCN and occupies a unique timeslot (TS) per
frame. Radio transmissions on both the forward and reverse link are made at a channel data
rate of 270.833 kbps (1625.0/6.0 kbps) using binary BT=0.3 GMSK modulation. Thus, the
signaling bit duration is 3.692ms and the effective channel transmission rate per user is 33.854
kbps (270.833 kpbs/8 users). With GSM overhead (described subsequently), user data is
actually sent at a maximum rate of 24.7 kbps. Each TS has an equivalent time allocation of
156.25 channel bits, but of this, 8.25 bits of guard time and 6 total start and stop bits are
provided to prevent overlap with adjacent time slots. Each TS has a time duration of 576.92 .ts
as shown in Figure 10.7, and a single OSM TDMA frame spans 4.6 15 ms. The total number
of available channels within a 25 MHz bandwidth is 125 (assuming no guard band). Since each
radio channel consists of 8 time slots, there are thus a total of 1000 traffic channels within
GSM. In practical implementations, a guard band of 100 kHz is provided at the upper and lower
end of the GSM spectrum, and only 124 channels are implemented.

The combination of a PS number and an ARFCN constitutes a physical channel for both the
forward and reverse link. Each physical channel in a GSM system can be mapped into different
logical channels at different times. That is, each specific time slot or frame may be dedicated
to either handling traffic data (user data such as speech, facsimile, or teletext data), signaling
data (required by the internal workings of the GSM system), or control channel data (from the
MSC, base station, or mobile user). The GSM specification defines a wide variety of logical
channels which can be used to link the physical layer with the data link layer of the GSM
network. These logical channels efficiently transmit user data while simultaneously providing
control of the network on each ARFCN. OSM provides explicit assignments of time slots and
frames for specific logical channels, as described below.
GSM Channel Types
There are two types of GSM logical channels, called traffic channels (TCH) and control
channels (CCH) [Hod9OJ. Traffic channels carry digitally encoded user speech or user data
and have identical functions and formats on both the forward and reverse link. Control channels
carry signaling and synchronizing commands between the base station and the mobile station.
Certain types of control channels are defined for just the forward or reverse link. There are six
different types of TCHs provided for in GSM, and an even larger number of CCHs, both of
which are now described.
GSM Traffic CHannels (TCH)

GSM traffic channels may be either full-rate or half-rate and may carry either digitized speech
or user data. When transmitted as full-rate, user data is contained within one TS per frame.
When transmitted as half-rate, user data is mapped onto the same time slot, but is sent in
alternate frames. That is, two half-rate channel users would share the same time slot, but would
alternately transmit during every other frame.
In the GSM standard, TCH data may not be sent in TS 0 within a TDMA frame on certain
ARFCNs which serve as the broadcast station for each cell (since this time slot is reserved for
control channel bursts in most every frame, as described subsequently). Furthermore, frames
of TCH data are broken up every thirteenth frame by either slow associated control channel
data (SACCH) or idle frames. Figure 10.7 illustrates how the TCH data is transmitted in
consecutive frames. Each group of twenty-six consecutive TDMA frames is called a
multiframe (or speech multiframe, to distinguish it from the control channel multiframe
described below). For every twenty-six frames, the thirteenth and twenty-sixth frames consist
of Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) data, or the idle frame, respectively. The
twenty-sixth frame contains idle bits for the case when full-rate TCHs are used, and contains
SACCH data when half-rate TCHs are used.
Full-Rate TCH
The following full rate speech and data channels are supported:
Full-Rate Speech Channel (TCH/FS) — The full-rate speech channel carries user speech which
is digitized at a raw data rate of 13 kbps. With GSM channel coding added to the digitized
speech, the full-rate speech channel carries 22.8 kbps.
• Full-Rate Data Channel for 9600 bps (TCH/F9.6) — The full-rate traffic data channel carries
raw user data which is sent at 9600 bps. With additional forward error correction coding applied
by the GSM standard, the 9600 bps data is sent at 22.8 kbps.
by the GSM standard, the 4800 bps is sent at 22.8 kbps.
by the GSM standard, the 2400 bps is sent at 22.8 kbps.
Half-Rate TCH
The following half-rate speech and data channels are supported:
• Half-Rate Speech Channel (TCH/HS) — The half-rate speech channel has been designed to
carry digitized speech which is sampled at a rate half that of the full-rate channel. GSIVI
anticipates the availability of speech coders which can digitize speech at about 6.5 kbps. With
GSM channel coding added to the digitized speech, the half-rate speech channel will carry 11.4
kbps.
• Half-Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/H4.8) — The half-rate traffic data channel carries

• Half-Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCHIH2.4) — The half-rate traffic data channel carries
GSM Control Channels (CCH)
There are three main control channels in the GSM system. These are the broadcast channel
(BCH), the common control channel (CCCH), and the dedicated control channel (DCCH).
Each control channel consists of several logical channels which are distributed in time to
provide the necessary GSM control functions.
The BCH and CCCH forward control channels in GSM are implemented only on certain
ARFCN channels and are allocated timeslots in a very specific manner. Specifically, the BCH
and CCCH forward control channels are allocated only TS 0 and are broadcast only during
certain frames within a repetitive fifty one frame sequence (called the control channel
multiframe) on those ARFCNs which are designated as broadcast channels. TS1 through TS7
carry regular TCH traffic, so that ARFCNs which are designated as control channels are still
able to carry full-rate users on seven of the eight time slots.
The GSM specification defines thirty-four ARFCNs as standard broadcast channels. For each
broadcast channel, frame 51 does not contain any BCH/CCCH forward channel data and is
considered to be an idle frame. However, the reverse channel CCCH is able to receive
subscriber transmissions during TS 0 of any frame (even the idle frame). On the other hand,
DCCH data may be sent during any time slot and any frame, and entire frames are specifically
dedicated to certain DCCH transmissions. GSM control channels are now described in detail.
• Broadcast Channels (BCE)— The broadcast channel operates on the forward link of a specific
ARFCN within each cell, and transmits data only in the first time slot (TS 0) of certain GSM
frames. Unlike TCHs which are duplex, BCHs only use the forward link. Just as the forward
control channel (FCC) in AJYIPS is used as a beacon for all nearby mobiles to camp on to, the
BCH serves as a TDMA beacon channel for any nearby mobile to identify and lock on to. The
BCH provides synchronization for all mobiles within the cell and is occasionally monitored by
mobiles in neighboring cells so that received power and MAHO decisions may be made by
out-of-cell users.
Although BCH data is transmitted in TSO, the other seven timeslots in a GSM frame for that
same ARFCN are available for TCH data, DCCH data, or are filled with dummy bursts.
Furthermore, all eight timeslots on all other ARFCNs within the cell are available for TCH or
DCCH data.
The BCH is defined by three separate channels which are given access to TS O during various
frames of the 51 frame sequence. Figure 10.8 illustrates how the ECH is allocated frames. The
three types of BCH are now described.
(a) Broadcast Control CHannel (BCCH) — The BCCH is a forward control channel that is
used to broadcast information such as cell and network identity, and operating characteristics
of the cell (current control channel structure, channel availability, and congestion). The BCCII
also broadcasts a list of channels that are currently in use within the cell. Frame 2 through frame
5 in a control multiframe (4 out of every 51 frames) contain BCCH data. It should be noted
from Figure 10.8 that PS 0 contains BCCH data during specific frames, and contains other

BCH channels (FCCH and SCH), common control channels (CCCHs), or an idle frame (sent
every 51st frame) during other specific frames.
(b) Frequency Correction CHannel (FCCH) — The FCCH is a special data burst which
occupies PS 0 for the very first GSM frame (frame 0) and is repeated every ten frames within
a control channel multiframe. The FCCH allows each subscriber unit to synchronize its internal
frequency standard (local oscillator) to the exact frequency of the base station.
(c) Synchronization CHannel (SCH) — SCH is broadcast in TS 0 of the frame immediately
following the FCCH frame and is used to identilS' the serving base station while allowing each
mobile to frame synchronize with the base station. The frame number (FN), which ranges from
0 to 2,715,647, is sent with the base station identity code (BSIC) during the SCH burst. The
BSIC is uniquely assigned to each BST in a GSM system. Since a mobile may be as far as 30
km away from a serving base station, it is often necessary to adjust the timing of a particular
mobile user such that the received signal at the base station is synchronized with the base station
clock. The BS issues coarse timing advancement commands to the mobile stations over the
SCH, as well. The SCH is transmitted once every ten frames within the control channel
multiframe, as shown in Figure 10.8.
Common Control CHannels (CCCH) — On the broadcast (13CM) ARFCN, the common
control channels occupy TS 0 of every GSM frame that is not otherwise used by the BCH or
the Idle frame. CCCH consists of three different channels: the paging channel (PCH), which is
a forward link channel, the random access channel (RACH) which is a reverse link channel,
and the access grant channel (AGCH), which is a forward link channel. As seen in Figure 10.8,
CCCHs are the most commonly used control channels and are used to page specific subscribers,
assign signaling channels to specific users, and receive mobile requests for service. These
channels are described below.
(a) Paging CHannel (PCH) — The PCH provides paging signals from the base station to all
mobiles in the cell, and notifies a specific mobile of an incoming call which originates from
the PSTN. The PCH transmits the IMSI of the target subscriber, along with a request for
acknowledgment from the mobile unit on the RACH. Alternatively, the PCH may be used to
provide cell broadcast ASCII text messages to all subscribers, as part of the SMS feature of
GSM.
(b) Random Access Channel (R.ACH) — The RACH is a reverse link channel used by a
subscriber unit to acknowledge a page from the PCH, and is also used by mobiles to originate
a call. The RACH uses a slotted ALOHA access scheme. All mobiles must request access or
respond to a PCH alert within TS 0 of a GSM frame. At the BTS, every frame (even the idle
frame) will accept RAGE transmissions from mobiles during TS 0. In establishing service, the
GSM base station must respond to the BACH transmission by allocating a channel and
assigning a stand-alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH) for signaling during a call. This
connection is confirmed by the base station over the AGCH.
(c) Access Grant Channel (AGCH) — The AGCH is used by the base station to provide forward
link communication to the mobile, and carries data which instructs the mobile to operate in a
particular physical channel (time slot and ARFCN) with a particular dedicated control channel.
The AGCH is the final CCCH message sent by the base station before a subscriber is moved

off the control channel. The AGCH is used by the base station to respond to a BACH sent by
a mobile station in a previous CCCH frame.
Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) — There are three types of dedicated control channels in
GSM, and, like traffic channels (see Figure 10.7), they are bidirectional and have the same
format and function on both the forward and reverse links. Like TCHs, DCCHs may exist in
any time slot and on any ARFCN except TSO of the BCH ARFCN. The stand-alone dedicated
control channels (SDCCH) are used for providing signaling services required by the users. The
Slow- and Fast- Associated Control Channels (SACCH and FACCH) are used for supervisory
data transmissions between the mobile station and the base station during a call.
(a) Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels (SDCCH} — The SDCCH carries signaling data
following the connection of the mobile with the base station, and just before a TCH assignment
is issued by the base station. The SDCCH ensures that the mobile station and the base station
remain connected while the base station and MSC verify the subscriber unit and allocate
resources for the mobile. The SDCCH can be thought of as an intermediate and temporary
channel which accepts a newly completed call from the BCH and holds the traffic while waiting
for the base station to allocate a TCH channel. The SDCCH is used to send authentication and
alert messages (but not speech) as the mobile synchronizes itself with the frame structure and
waits for a TCH. SDCCH is may be assigned their own physical channel or may occupy TS0
of the BCH if there is low demand for BCH or CCCH traffic.
(b) Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) — The SACCH is always associated with a
traffic channel or a SDCCH and maps onto the same physical channel. Thus, each ARFCN

systematically carries SACCH data for all of its current users. As in the USDC standard, the
SACCH carries general information between the MS and BTS. On the forward link, the
SACCH is used to send slow but regularly changing control information to the mobile, such as
transmit power level instructions and specific timing advance instructions for each user on the
ARFCN. The reverse SACCH carries information about the received signal strength and
quality of the TCH, as well as BCH measurement results from neighboring cells. The SACCH
is transmitted during the thirteenth frame (and the twenty-sixth frame when half-rate traffic is
used) of every speech dedicated control channel multiframe (Figure 10.7), and within this
frame, the eight timeslots are dedicated to providing SACCH data to each of the eight full-rate
(or sixteen half-rate) users on the ARFCN.
(c) Fast Associated Control Channels (FACCH) — FACCH carries urgent messages, and
contains essentially the same type of information as the SDCCH. A FACCH is assigned
whenever a SDCCH has not been dedicated for a particular user and there is an urgent message
(such as a handoff request). The FACCH gains access to a time slot by "stealing" frames from
the traffic channel to which it is assigned. This is done by setting two special bits, called
stealing bits, in a TCH forward channel burst. If the stealing bits are set, the time slot is known
to contain FACCH data, not a TCH, for that frame.
Example of a GSM Call
To understand how the various traffic and control channels are used, consider the case of a
mobile call origination in GSM. First, the subscriber unit must be synchronized to a nearby
base station as it monitors the BCE By receiving the FCCH, SCH, and BCCH messages, the
subscriber would be locked on to the system and the appropriate BCH. To originate a call, the
user first dials the intended digit combination and presses the "send" button on the GSM phone.
The mobile transmits a burst of RACH data, using the same ARFCN as the base station to
which it is locked. The base station then responds with an AGCH message on the CCCH which
assigns the mobile unit to a new channel for SDCCH connection. The subscriber unit, which is
monitoring TS 0 of the BCH, would receive its ARFCN and TS assignment from the AGCH
and would immediately tune to the new ARFCN and TS. This new ARFCN and TS assignment
is physically the SDCCH (not the TCH). Once tuned to the SDCCH, the subscriber unit first
waits for the SACCH frame to be transmitted (the wait would last, at most, 26 frames or 120
ms, as shown in Figure 10.7), which informs the mobile of any required timing advance and
transmitter power command. The base station is able to determine the proper timing advance
and signal level from the mobile's earlier RACH transmission and sends the proper value over
the SACCH for the mobile to process. Upon receiving and processing the timing advance
information in the SACCH, the subscriber is now able to transmit normal burst messages as
required for speech traffic. The SDCCH sends messages between the mobile unit and the base
station, taking care of authentication and user validation, while the PSTN connects the dialled
party to the MSC, and the MSC switches the speech path to the serving base station. Alter a
few seconds, the mobile unit is commanded by the base station via the SDCCH to retune to a
new ARFCN and new TS for the TCH assignment. Once retuned to the TCH, speech data is
transferred on both the forward and reverse links, the call is successfully underway, and the
SDCCH is vacated.
When calls are originated from the PSTN, the process is quite similar. The base station
broadcasts a PCH message during TS 0 within an appropriate frame on the BCH. The mobile

station, locked on to that same ARFCN, detects its page and replies with an RACH message
acknowledging receipt of the page.
The base station then uses the AGCH on the CCCH to assign the mobile unit to a new physical
channel for connection to the SDCCH and SACCH while the network and the serving base are
connected. Once the subscriber establishes timing advance and authentication on the SDCCH,
the base station issues a new physical channel assignment over the SDCCH, and the TCH
assignment is made.
Frame Structure for GSM
Each user transmits a burst of data during the time slot assigned to it. These data bursts may
have, one of five specific formats, as defined in QSM [Hod9O]. Figure 10.9 illustrates the five
types of data bursts used for various control and traffic bursts. Normal bursts are used for TCH
and DCCH transmissions on both the forward and reverse link. FCCH and SCH bursts are used
in TS 0 of specific frames (shown in Figure 10.9a) to broadcast the frequency and time
synchronization control messages on the forward link. The RACH burst is used by all mobiles
to access service from any base station, and the dummy burst is used as filler information for
unused time slots on the forward link.
Figure 10.10 illustrates the data structure within a normal burst. It consists of 148 bits which
are transmitted at a rate of 270.833333 kbps (an unused guard time of 8.25 bits is provided at
the end of each burst). Out of the total 148 bits per TS, 114 are information-bearing bits which
are transmitted as two 57 bit sequences close to the beginning and end of the burst. The
midamble consists of a 28 bit training sequence which allows the adaptive equalizer in the

mobile or base station receiver to analyze the radio channel characteristics before decoding the
user data. On either side of the midamble there are control bits called stealing flags. These two
flags are used to distinguish whether the TS contains voice (TCH) or control (FACCH) data,
both which share the same physical channel.
During a frame, a GSM subscriber unit uses one TS to transmit, one TS to receive, and may
use the six spare time slots to measure signal strength on five adjacent base stations as well as
its own base station. As shown in Figure 10.10, there are eight timeslots per TDMA frame, and
the frame period is 4.615 ms. A frame contains 8 x L56.25 = 1250 bits, although some bit
periods are not used. The frame rate is 270.833 kbps/1250 bits/frame, or 216.66 frames per
second. The 13th or 26th frame are not used for traffic, but for control purposes. Each of the
normal speech frames are grouped into larger structures called, multiframes which in turn are
grouped into superframes and hyperframes (hyperframes are not shown in Figure 10.10). One
multiframe contains 26 TDMA frames, and one superframe contains 51 multiframes, or 1326
TDMA frames. A hyperframe contains 2048 superframes, or 2,715,648 TDMA frames. A
complete hyperframe is sent about every 3 hours, 28 minutes, and 54 seconds, and is important
to GSM since the encryption algorithms rely on the particular frame number, and sufficient
security can only be obtained by using a large number of frames as provided by the hyperframe.
Figure 10.8 shows that the control multifranies span 51 frames (235.365 ms), as opposed to 26
frames (120 ms) used by the traffic/dedicated control channel multiframes. This is done
intentionally to ensure that any GSM subscriber (whether in the serving or adjacent cell) will
be certain to receive the SCH and FCCH transmissions from the BCH, no matter what
particular frame or time slot they are using.

CDMA Digital Cellular Standard (15-95)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) offers some advantages over TDMA and FDMA. A
U.S. digital cellular system based on CDMA which promises increased capacity IGil9lI has
been standardized as Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) by the U.S. Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA) [T1A93]. Like 15-54, the IS-95 system is designed to be compatible with
the existing U.S. analog cellular system (AMPS) frequency band, hence mobiles and base
stations can be economically produced for dual mode operation. Pilot production,
CDMA/AMPS, dual mode phones were made available by Qualcomm in 1994.
IS-95 allows each user within a cell to use the same radio channel, and users in adjacent cells
also use the same radio channel, since this is a direct sequence spread spectrum CDMA system.
CDMA completely eliminates the need for frequency planning within a market. To facilitate
graceful transition from AMPS to CDMA, each 15-95 channel occupies 1.25 MHz of spectrum
on each one-way link, or 10% of the available cellular spectrum for a U.S. cellular provider
(recall, the U.S. cellular system is allocated 25 MHz and each service provider receives half
the spectrum or 12.5 MHz). In practice, AMPS carriers must provide a 270 kHz guard band
(typically 9 AMPS channels) on each side of the spectrum dedicated for IS-95. IS-95 is
compatible with the IS-4141 networking standard.
Unlike other cellular standards, the user data rate (but not the channel chip rate) changes in
real-time, depending on the voice activity and requirements in the network. Also, 15-95 uses a
different modulation and spreading technique for the forward and reverse links. On the forward
link, the base station simultaneously transmits the user data for all mobiles in the cell by using
a different spreading sequence for each mobile. A pilot code is also transmitted simultaneously
and at a higher power level, thereby allowing all mobiles to use coherent carrier detection while
estimating the channel conditions. On the reverse link, all mobiles respond in an asynchronous
fashion and have ideally a constant signal level due to power control applied by the base station.
The speech coder used in the I5-95 system is the Qualcomm 9600 bps Code Excited Linear
Predictive (QCELP) coder. The original implementation of this vocoder detects voice activity,
and reduces the data rate to 1200 bps during silent periods. Intermediate user data rates of 2400,
4800, and 9600 bps are also used for special purposes. As discussed in Chapter 7 and section
10.4.4, a 14,400 bps coder which uses 13.4 kbps of speech data (QCELP13) was introduced by
Qualcomm in 1995.
Frequency and Channel Specifications
IS-95 is specified for reverse link operation in the 824 - 849 MHz band and 869 - 894 MHz for
the forward link. A forward and reverse channel pair is separated by 45 MHz. Many users share
a common channel for transmission. The maximum user data rate is 9.6 kb/s. User data in 15-
95 is spread to a channel chip rate of 1.2288 Mchip/s (a total spreading factor of 128) using a
combination of techniques. The spreading process is different for the forward and reverse links.
On the forward link, the user data stream is encoded using a rate 112 convolutional code,
interleaved, and spread by one of sixty-four orthogonal spreading sequences (Walsh functions).
Each mobile in a given cell is assigned a different spreading sequence, providing perfect
separation among the signals from different users, at least for the ease where multipath does
not exist. To reduce interference between mobiles that use the same spreading sequence in
different cells, and to provide the desired wideband spectral characteristics (not all of the Walsh

functions yield a wideband power spectrum), all signals in a particular cell are scrambled using
a pseudorandom sequence of length chips.
Orthogonality among all forward channel users within a cell is preserved because their signals
are scrambled synchronously. A pilot channel (code) is provided on the forward link so that
each subscriber within the cell can determine and react to the channel characteristics while
employing coherent detection. The pilot channel is transmitted power than the user channels.
On the reverse link, a different spreading strategy is used since each received signal arrives at
the base station via a different propagation path. The reverse channel user data stream is first
convolutionally encoded with a rate 1/3 code. After interleaving, each block of six encoded
symbols is mapped to one of the 64 orthogonal Walsh functions, providing sixty-four-ary
orthogonal signaling. A final fourfold spreading, giving a rate of 1.2288 Mchip/s, is achieved
by spreading the resulting 307.2 kchip/s stream by user-specific and base-station specific codes
having periods of 242 — I chips and chips, respectively. The rate 1/3 coding and the mapping
onto Walsh functions result in a greater tolerance for interference than would be realized from
traditional repetition spreading codes.
This added robustness is important on the reverse link, due to the noncoherent detection and
the in-cell interference received at the base station. Another essential element of the reverse
link is tight control of each subscriber's transmitter power, to avoid the "near-far" problem that
arises from varying received powers of the users. A combination of open-loop and fast, closed-
loop power control is used to adjust the transmit power of each in-cell subscriber so that the
base station receives each user with the same received power.
The commands for the closed-loop power control are sent at a rate of 800 b/s, and these bits
are stolen from the speech frames. Without fast power control, the rapid power changes due to
fading would degrade the performance of all users in the system.
At both the base station and the subscriber, RAKE receivers are used to resolve and combine
multipath components, thereby reducing the degree of fading. As described in Chapter 6, a
RAKE receiver exploits the multipath time delays in a channel and combines the delayed
replicas of the transmitted signal in order to improve link quality. In IS-95, a three finger RAKE
is used at the base station. The IS-95 architecture also provides base station diversity during
"soft" handofFs, whereby a mobile making the transition between cells maintains links with
both base stations during the transition. The mobile receiver combines the signals from the two
base stations in the same manner as it would combine signals associated with different
multipath components.
Forward CDMA Channel
The forward ODMA channel consists of a pilot channel, a synchronization channel, up to seven
paging channels, and up to sixty-three forward traffic channels [Li93]. The pilot channel allows
a mobile station to acquire timing for the Forward CDMA channel, provides a phase reference
for coherent demodulation, and provides each mobile with a means for signal strength
comparisons between base stations for determining when to handoff. The synchronization
channel broadcasts synchronization messages to the mobile stations and operates at 1200 bps.
The paging channel is used to send control information and paging messages from the base
station to the mobiles and operates at 9600, 4800, and 2400 bps. The forward traffic channel
(Fit) supports variable user data rates at 9600, 4800, 2400, or 1200 bps.

The forward traffic channel modulation process is described in Figure 10.14 [EIA9O]. Data on
the forward traffic channel is grouped into 20 ms frames. The user data is first convolutionally
coded and then formatted and interleaved to adjust for the actual user data rate, which may
vary. Then the signal is spread with a Walsh code and a long PN sequence at a rate of 1.2288
Mcps. Table 10.4 lists the coding and repetition parameters for the forward traffic channel.
The speech data rate applied to the transmitter is variable over the range of 1200 bps to 9600
bps.
Convolutional Encoder and Repetition Circuit
Speech coded voice or user data are encoded using a half-rate convolutional encoder with
constraint length 9. The encoding process is described by generator vectors and G1 which are
753 (octal) and 561 (octal), respectively.
The speech encoder exploits pauses and gaps in speech, and reduces its output from 9600 bps
to 1200 bps during silent periods. In order to keep a constant baseband symbol rate of 19.2
kbps, whenever the user rate is less than 9600 bps, each symbol from the convolution encoder
is repeated before block interleaving. If the information rate is 4800 bps, each code symbol is
repeated 1 time. If the information rate is 2400 bps or 1200 bps, each code symbol is repeated
3 or 7 times, respectively. The repetition results in a constant coded rate of 19,200 symbols per
second for all possible information data rates.
Block Interleaver
After convolution coding and repetition, symbols are sent to a 20ms block interleaver, which
is a 24 by 16 array.

Interleaving — In order to minimize the effect of sudden fades on the received data, the total
of 456 encoded bits within each 20 ma speech frame or control message frame are broken into
eight 57 bit sub-blocks. These eight subblocks which make up a single speech frame are spread
over eight consecutive TCH time slots. (i.e., eight consecutive frames for a specific '1'S). If a
burst is lost due to interference or fading, channel coding ensures that enough bits will still be
received correctly to allow the error correction to work. Each TCH time slot carries two 57 bit
blocks of data from two different 20 ma (456 bit) speech (or control) segments. Figure 10.13
illustrates exactly how the speech frames are diagonally interleaved within the time slots. Note
that TS 0 contains 57 bits of data from the 0th sub-block of the, zth speech coder frame (denoted
as "a" in the figure) and 57 bits of data from the 4th sub-block of the (n - 1)st speech coder
frame (denoted as "b" in the figure).
Long PN Sequence
In the forward channel, direct sequence is used for data scrambling. The long PN sequence is
uniquely assigned to each user is a periodic long code with period 242
-1 chips. (This
corresponds to repeating approximately once per century).
Data Scrambler
Data scrambling is performed after the block interleaver. The 1.2288 MHz PN sequence is
applied to a decimator, which keeps only the first chip out of every sixty-four consecutive PN
chips. The symbol rate from the decimator is 19.2 ksps. The data scrambling is performed by
modulo-2 addition of the interleaver output with the decimator outputsymbol as shown in
Figure 10.14.
Power Control Subchannel
To minimize the average BER for each user, IS-95 strives to force each user to provide the
same power leve] at the base station receiver. The base station reverse traffic channel receiver
estimates and responds to the signal strength (actually, the signal strength and the interference)
for a particular mobile station. Since both the signal and interference are continually varying,
power control updates are sent by the base station every 1.25 ms. Power control commands are

sent to each subscriber unit on the forward control subchannel which instruct the mobile to
raise or lower its transmitted power in 1 dB steps. If the received signal is low, a 0' is transmitted
over the power control subchannel, thereby instructing the mobile station to increase its mean
output power level. If the mobile's power is high, a '1' is transmitted to indicate that the mobile
station should decrease its power level. The power control bit corresponds to two modulation
symbols on the forward traffic channel. Power control bits are inserted after data scrambling
as shown in Figure 10.16.
Power control bits are transmitted by using puncturing techniques [T1A93]. During a 1.25 ms
period, twenty-four data symbols are transmitted, and IS-95 specifies sixteen possible power
control group positions for the power control bit. Each position corresponds to one of the first
sixteen modulation symbols. Twenty-four bits from the long code decimator are used for data
scrambling in a period of 1.25 ms. Only the last 4 bits of the 24 bits are used to determine the
position of the power control bit. In the example shown in Figure 10.16, the last 4 bits (23, 22,
21, and 20) are '1011' (11 decimal), and the power control bit consequently starts in position
eleven.
Orthogonal Covering
Orthogonal covering is performed following the data scrambling on the forward link. Each
traffic channel transmitted on the forward CDMA channel is spread with a Walsh function at a
fixed chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps. The Walsh functions comprise of sixty-four binary sequences,
each of length 64, which are completely orthogonal to each other and provide orthogonal
channelization for all users on the forward link. A user that is spread using Walsh function n is
assigned channel number n (n = 0 to 63). The Walsh sequence repeats every 52.083 ps, which
is equal to one coded data

The 64 by 64 Walsh function matrix (also called a Hadamard matrix) is generated by the
following recursive procedure;
Each row in the 64 by 64 Walsh function matrix corresponds to a channel number. For channel
number n, the symbols in the transmitter are spread by the sixty-four Walsh chips in the 'zth
row of the Walsh function matrix. Channel number 0 is always assigned to the pilot channel.

Since Channel 0 represents Walsh code 0, which is the all zeros code, then the pilot channel is
nothing more than a "blank" Walsh code and thus consists only of the quadrature PN spreading
code. The synchronization channel is vital to the IS-95 system and is assigned channel number
32. If paging channels are present, they are assigned to the lowest code channel numbers. All
remaining channels are available for forward traffic channels.
Quadrature Modulation
After the orthogonal covering, symbols are spread in quadrature as shown in Figure 10.14. A
short binary spreading sequence, with a period of chips, is used for easy acquisition and
synchronization at each mobile receiver and is used for modulation.
Reverse CDMA Channel
The reverse traffic channel modulation process is shown in Figure 10.17. User data on the
reverse channel are grouped into 20 ms frames. All data transmitted on the reverse channel are
convolutionally encoded, block interleaved, modulated by a 64-ary orthogonal modulation, and
spread prior to transmission. Table 10.6 shows the modulation parameters for the reverse traffic
channel. The speech or user data rate in the reverse channel may be sent at 9600, 4800, 2400,
or 1200 bps.
The reverse CDMA channels are made up of access channels (AC) and reverse traffic channels
(RTC). Both share the same frequency assignment, and each Traffic/Access channel is
identified by a distinct user long code. The access channel is used by the mobile to initiate
communication with the base station and to respond to paging channel messages. The access
channel is a random access channel with each channel user uniquely identified by their long
codes. The Reverse CDMA channel may contain a maximum of 32 ACs per supported paging
channel. While the RTC operates on a variable data rate, the AC works at a fixed data rate of
4800 bps.

Convolutional Encoder and Symbol Repetition
The convolutional coder used in the reverse traffic channel is rate 113 and constraint length 9.
The three generator vectors g0, g1, and g2 are 557 (octal), 663 (octal), and 771 (octal),
respectively. Coded bits after the convolutional encoder are repeated before interleaving when
the data rate is less than 9600 bps. This is identical to the method used on the forward channel.
After repetition, the symbol rate out of the coder is fixed at 28,800 bps.
Block Interleaver
Block interleaving is performed following convolutional encoding and repetition. The block
interleaver spans 20 ms, and is an array with 32 rows and 18 columns. Code symbols are written
into the matrix by columns and read out by rows.
Orthogonal Modulation
A 64-ary orthogonal modulation is used for the reverse CDMA channel. One of sixty-four
possible Walsh functions is transmitted for each group of six coded bits. Within a Walsh
function, sixty-four Walsh chips are transmitted. The particular Walsh function is selected
according to the following formula:
Walsh function number = C0 + 2C1+ 4C2 + 8C3 + 16C4 + 32C5,
where C5 represents the last coded bit and c0 represents the first coded bit of each group of six
coded symbols that are used to select a Walsh function. Walsh chips are transmitted at a rate
of 307.2 kcps as shown in equation (10.1) 28.8 kbps x (64 Walsh chips) / (6 coded bits) = 307.2
kbps (10.1) Note that Walsh functions are used for different purposes on the forward and
reverse channels. On the forward channel, Walsh functions are used for spreading to denote a

particular user channel, while on the reverse channel, Walsh functions are used for data
modulation.
Variable Data Rate Transmission
Variable rate data are sent on the reverse CDMA channel. Code symbol repetition introduces
redundancy when the data rate is less than 9600 bps. A data randomizer is used to transmit
certain bits while turning the transmitter off at other times. When the data rate is 9600 bps, all
interleaver output bits are transmitted. When the data rate is 4800 bps, half of the interleaver
output bits are transmitted, and the mobile unit does not transmit 50% of the time, and so forth
(see Table 10.6). Figure 10.18 illustrates the process under different data rates [E1A92]. Data
in each 20 ms frame are divided into sixteen power control groups, each with period 1.25 ms.
Some power control groups are gated-on, while others are gated-off. The data burst randomizer
ensures that every repeated code symbol is transmitted exactly once. During the gate-off
process, the mobile station reduces its EIRP either by at least 20 dB with respect to the power
of the most recent gated-on period, or to the transmitter noise floor, whichever is greater. This
reduces interference to other mobile stations operating on the same reverse CDMA channel.
The data burst randomizer generates a masking pattern 0's and 'l's that randomly masks the
redundant data generated by the code repetition process. A block of 14 bits taken from the long
code determines the masking pattern. The last 14 bits of the long code used for spreading in
the second to last power control group of the previous frame are used to determine the random
mask for the Direct Sequence Spreading
The reverse traffic channel is spread by the long code PN sequence which operates at a rate of
1.2288 Mcps. The long code is generated as described in Section 10.4.2.3 for the forward
channel. Each Walsh chip is spread by four long code PN chips.
Quadrature Modulation
Prior to transmission, the reverse traffic channel is spread by I and Q channel pilot PN
sequences which are identical to those used in the forward CDMA channel process. These pilot
sequences are used for synchronization purpose. The reverse link modulation is offset
quadrature phase shift keying (OQPSK). The data spread by the Q pilot PN sequence is delayed
by half a chip (406.901 ns) gating.

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