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Wireless communication
 Guglielmo Marconi first demonstrated radio's ability to
provide continuous contact with ships sailing the English
channel. That was in 1897, and since then new wireless
communications methods and services have been
enthusiastically adopted by people throughout the world.
 The ability to provide wireless communications to an entire
population was not even conceived until Bell Laboratories
developed the cellular concept in the 1960s and 1970s
[NobG2], [Mac79], [You791]. With the development of highly
reliable, miniature, solid-state radio frequency hardware in
the 1970s, the wireless communications era was born.

Evolution of Cellular Mobile System
Different Phases are called as Generations
1 G –First Generation used for Voice Communication

Limitations in 1G
1. Only voice communication was possible over
mobile.
2. Highly variable call quality
3. Very insecure : snoopers could listen to calls by
simply tuning radio receivers

2 G – Second Generation- digital coding is use for voice clarity

2.5 Generation -
Higher Data rate transfer for modern internet application
Standard High speed General Packet Enhanced Data Rate
Circuit Switched Data Radio Service for GSM evolution
Channel Band
-Width
Duplex
Multiple Access
Transmission
Mode
Modulation
Infrastructure
Change

Whether
required new
Hand set
Data Speed
Achievable
HSCSD GPRS EDGE IS-94
2.5G Generation

Cellular system
 Mobile identification number (MIN) electronic serial number (ESN)

Why Cellular Mobile System
1. Limited service capacity
No handoff operation required
2. Poor Service performance
Large number of subscriber created high blocking
probability during busy hours
3. Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization
Support limited
number of users .
Available Band width
is tied up for large
area .
No of users are
limited to channel
assigned to particular
freq. zone .

 Limited capacity:
 The design objective of early mobile radio systems was to achieve a
large coverage area by using a single, high-powered transmitter with an
antenna mounted on a tall tower.
 Although this approach was providing good coverage, it was not
possible to reuse the same frequencies throughout the system, since
any attempts to achieve frequency reuse were resulting in interference.
 Thus in a conventional system a specific frequency band, which was
allocated for use in an autonomous geographic zone was tied up for a
large area.
 This implies that only a few channels were available over a large area.

Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization:
 In conventional mobile telephone systems, each channel
could only serve one customer at a time
in a whole large area.
 So in earlier systems, the number of active users was
limited to the number of channels assigned to a particular
frequency zone.
 This created a need for more spectrally efficient system,
which can accommodate more number of users per
channel.

Poor service performance:
 In the conventional mobile telephone systems only few
channels were available over a very large area (only about
33 channels over area of 50 km diameter or more).
 However there were a large number of subscribers.
 The large number of subscribers created a high blocking
probability during busy hours, which results in poor service
performance.

How a cellular phone call is made
 When a cellular phone is turned on, but is not yet engaged in a call, it first
scans the group of forward control channels to determine the one with the
strongest signal, and then monitors that control channel until the signal drops
below a usable level. At this point it again scans the control channels in search of
the strongest base station signal.
• When a telephone call is placed to a mobile user, the MSC dispatches the
request to all base stations in the cellular system. The mobile identification
number (MIN), which is the subscriber's telephone number, is then broadcast as
a paging message over all of the forward control channels throughout the
cellular system. The mobile receives the paging message sent by the base
station which it monitors, and responds by identifying itself over the reverse
control channel
• The base station relays the acknowledgment sent by the mobile and informs the
MSC of the handshake. Then, the MSC instructs the base station to move the
call to an unused voice channel within the cell (typically, between ten to sixty
voice channels and just one control channel are used in each cell's base station).
At this point the base station signals the mobile to change frequencies to an
unused forward and reverse voice channel pair, at which point another data
message (called an alert) is transmitted over the forward voice channel to instruct
the mobile telephone to ring,

How a cellular phone call is made
When a mobile originates a call, a call initiation request is sent on the
reverse control channel. With this request the mobile unit transmits its
telephone number (MIN), electronic serial number (ESN), and the
telephone number of the called party. The mobile also transmits a station
class mark (SCM) which indicates what the maximum transmitter power
level is for the particular user.
The cell base station receives this data and sends it to the MSC. The MSC
validates the request, makes connection to the called party through the
PSTN, and instructs the base station and mobile user to move to an unused
forward and reverse voice channel pair to allow the conversation to begin.

Landline phone calls cellular phone

Cellular phone calls land phone

Frequency Reuse Concept
 To understand the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system
which has a total of S duplex channels available for use.
 If each cell is allocated a group of k channels (k < S), and if the S channels
are divided among N cells into unique and disjoint channel groups which
each have the same number of channels, the total number of available radio
channels can be expressed as
S = kN
 The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available
frequencies is called a cluster.
 If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of
duplex channels, C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given
C = MkN = MS

Number of cells in a cluster
N= i2+ ij+ j2
for ; i = 3 and j = 2
where i and j are non-negative integers.

PROBLEM:
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular
telephone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full
duplex voice and control channels, compute the number of channels
available per cell if a system uses 4-cell reuse, (b) 7-cell reuse (c) 12-cell
reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels,
determine an equitable distribution of control channels and voice channels
in each cell for each of the three systems.
Solution: Given:
The total bandwidth = 33 MHz, Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 simplex
channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel, total available Channels = 33,000/50 =
660 channels (a) For N= 4, total number of channels available per cell =
660/4 165 channels. (b)For N=7, total number of channels available per cell
= 660/7 =95 channels. (c) For N = 12, total number of channels available per
cell = 660/12=55 channels.
A 1 MHz spectrum for control channels implies that there are 1000/50 = 20
control channels out of the 660 channels available. to evenly distribute the
control and voice channels, simply allocate the same number of channels in
each cell wherever possible. Here, the 660 channels must be evenly
distributed to each cell within the cluster. In practice, only the 640 voice
channels would be allocated, since the control channels are allocated
separately as 1 per cell.

(a) For N = 4, we can have 5 control channels and 160 voice channels
per cell. In practice, however, each cell only needs a single control
channel (the control channels have a greater reuse distance than the
voice channels).
(b) For N = 7, 4 cells with 3 control channels and 92 voice channels, 2
cells with 3 control channels and 90 voice channels, and 1 cell with 2
control channels and 92 voice channels could be allocated. In
practice, however, each cell would have one control channel, four
cells-would have 91 voice channels, and three cells would have 92
voice channels.
(c) For N = 12, we can have 8 cells with 2 control channels and 53 voice
channels, and 4 cells with 1 control channel and 54 voice channels
each. In an actual system, each cell would have 1 control channel, 8
cells would have 53 voice channels, and 4 cells would have 54 voice
channels.

Channel Assignment Strategies
For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme
that is consistent with the objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing
interference is required.
A variety of channel assignment strategies have been developed to
achieve these objectives. Channel assignment strategies can be classified
as either fixed or dynamic.
The choice of channel assignment strategy impacts the performance of
the system, particularly as to how calls are managed when a mobile user is
handed off from one cell to another
Channel assignment strategies can be classified as either
Fixed Channel Assignment
Dynamic Channel Assignment

In a fixed channel assignment strategy; each cell is allocated a
predetermined set of voice channels.
 Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused
channels in that particular cell. If all the channels in that cell are occupied,
the call is blocked and the subscriber does not receive service.
Several variations of the fixed assignment strategy exist. In one
approach, called the borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow
channels from a neighboring cell if all of its own channels are already
occupied. The mobile switching center (MSC) supervises such borrowing
procedures and ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not disrupt or
interfere with any of the calls in progress in the donor cell.
Fixed channel assignment strategy :

Dynamic channel assignment strategy
In dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are
not allocated to different cells permanently. Instead, each time
a call request is made, the serving base station requests a
channel from the MSC. The MSC then allocates a channel to
the requested cell following an algorithm that takes into account
the likelihood of future blocking within the cell, the frequency of
use of the candidate channel, the reuse distance of the
channel, and other cost functions.
Accordingly, the MSC only allocates a given frequency if that
frequency is not presently in use in the cell or any other cell
which falls within the minimum restricted distance of frequency
reuse to avoid co-channel interference.

Dynamic channel assignment strategy
 Dynamic channel assignment reduce the likelihood of
blocking, which increases the trunking capacity of the system,
since all the available channels in a market are accessible to
all of the cells.
 Dynamic channel assignment strategies require the MSC to
collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic
distribution, Received radio signal strength indications (RSSI)
of all channels on a continuous basis. This increases the
storage and computational load on the system but provides
the advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased
probability of a blocked call.

Hybrid channel allocation
strategies
 DCA technique provides better performance at lower-to-
moderate load, whereas FCA technique is better at higher
traffic loads. These two techniques can be combined to
achieve better performance.
 In hybrid channel allocation strategies, the total number of
channels is partitioned into fixed and dynamic sets.
 In hybrid channel allocation strategies, the ratio of fixed to
dynamic channels becomes important in the performance of
the system.

Sr.No Fixed channel assignment Dynamic Channel
Assignment
1 Fixed assignment of frequencies to
cell clusters and cells
Each time a call request is made
the base station requests a
channel from MSC
2 Not very efficient if traffic load varies Very efficient if traffic load varies
largely
3 Simple to use but required careful
traffic analysis before installation
Complicated to use. But initial
analysis of channel requirement
is not required
4 Lower storage and computational
load
Higher storage and computational
load
5 This technique is less efficient as
compared to Dynamic channel
allocation
This technique is more efficient
as compared to fixed channel
allocation

Handoff’s
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a
conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically transfers
the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station.
This handoff operation not only involves identifying a new
base station, but also requires that the voice and control
signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base
station.
Many handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call
initiation requests when allocating unused channels in a cell
site. Handoffs must be performed successfully and as
infrequently as possible, and be imperceptible to the users.

In order to meet these requirements, system designers must
specify an optimum signal level at which to initiate a handoff.
Once a particular signal level is specified as the minimum
usable signal for acceptable voice quality at the base station
receiver (normally taken as between —90 dBm and —100
dBm), a slightly stronger signal level is used as a threshold at
which a handoff is made.
This margin, given by DELTA = Pr handoff – Pr minimum usable
cannot be too large or too small. If DELTA is too large,
unnecessary handoffs which burden the MSC may occur, and if
DELTA is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete a
handoff before a call is lost due to weak signal conditions.
Therefore, DELTA is chosen carefully to meet these conflicting
requirements
Handoff Strategies

 In deciding when to handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop in the
measured signal level is not due to momentary fading and that the mobile is
actually moving away from the serving base station. In order to ensure this,
the base station monitors the signal level for a certain period of time before a
handoff is initiated.
Handoff’s in 1st generation analog cellular systems
 In first generation systems, signal strength measurements are made by
the base stations and supervised by the MSC. Each base station constantly
monitors the signal strengths of all of its reverse voice channels to determine
the relative location of each mobile user with respect to the base station
tower.
 In addition to measuring the RSSI (Received signal strength indication) of
calls in progress within the cell, a spare receiver in each base station, called
the locator receiver, is used to determine signal strengths of mobile users
which are in neighboring cells. The locator receiver is controlled by the MSC
and is used to monitor the signal strength of users in neighboring cells which
appear to be in need of handoff and reports all RSSI values to the MSC.
Based on the locator receiver signal strength information from each base
station, the MSC decides if a handoff is necessary or not.
Handoff’s

Handoff’s in 2nd generation analog cellular systems
 In second generation systems that use digital TDMA technology,
handoff decisions are mobile assisted. In mobile assisted handoff(MAHO),
every mobile station measures the received power from surrounding base
stations and continually reports the results of these measurements to the
serving base station.
 A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station of
a neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current
base station by a certain level or for a certain period of time.
 The MAHO method enables the call to be handed over between base
stations at a much faster rate than in first generation analog systems since
the handoff measurements are made by each mobile, and the MSC no
longer constantly monitors signal strengths. MAHO is particularly suited for
microcellular environments where handoffs are more frequent.

 During the course of a call, if a mobile moves from one
cellular system to a different cellular system controlled by a
different MSC, an intersystem handoff becomes necessary An
MSC engages in an intersystem handoff when a mobile signal
becomes weak in a given cell and the MSC cannot find
another cell within its system to which it can transfer the call in
progress.
Intersystem's handoff :

Prioritizing Handoffs:
 One method for giving priority to handoffs is called the guard channel
concept, whereby a fraction of the total available channels in a cell is
reserved exclusively for handoff requests from ongoing calls which
may be handed off into the cell.
 This method has the disadvantage of reducing the total carried traffic,
as fewer channels are allocated to originating calls.
 Guard channels, however, offer efficient spectrum utilization when
dynamic channel assignment strategies, which minimize the number
of required guard channels by efficient demand based allocation, are
used.

 Queuing of handoff requests is another method to decrease the
probability of forced termination of a call due to lack of available
channels. There is a trade-off between the decrease in probability of
forced termination and total carried traffic. Queuing of handoffs is
possible due to the fact that there is a finite time interval between the
time the received signal level drops below the handoff threshold and the
time the call is terminated due to insufficient signal level.
 The delay time and size of the queue is determined from the traffic
pattern of the particular service area.

Practical Handoff Considerations
1) Problem :
 High speed vehicles pass through the coverage region of a cell within a matter
of seconds, whereas pedestrian users may never need a handoff during a call.
Particularly with the addition of microcells to provide capacity, the MSC can
quickly become burdened if high speed users are constantly being passed
between very small cells.
a

 By using different antenna heights and different
power levels it is possible to provide large and
small cells which are located at same location .
This technique is called Umbrella approach and
is used to provide large area coverage to high
speed users while providing small area
coverage to users travelling at low speed.
 The speed of each user is estimated by BS or
MSC by evaluating how rapidly short term
average signal strength varies over time.

Practical Handoff Considerations
2) Cell dragging problem:
 As the user travels away from the base station at a very slow speed, the
average signal strength does not decay rapidly. Even when the user
has traveled well beyond the designed range of the cell, the received
signal at the base station may be above the handoff threshold, thus a
handoff may not be made.
 This creates a potential interference and traffic management problem,
since the user has meanwhile traveled deep within a neighboring cell.
To solve the cell dragging problem, handoff thresholds and radio
coverage parameters must be adjusted carefully.
 In first generation analog cellular systems, the typical time to make a
handoff is 10 sec and delta 6dB to 12 Db
 Second generation 1 or 2 second and 0dB to 6 dB

Types of Handoffs
There are two types of handoffs −
Hard Handoff − In a hard handoff, an actual break in the
connection occurs while switching from one cell to another.
The radio links from the mobile station to the existing cell is
broken before establishing a link with the next cell. It is
generally an inter-frequency handoff. It is a “break before
make” policy.
Soft Handoff − In soft handoff, at least one of the links is
kept when radio links are added and removed to the
mobile station. This ensures that during the handoff, no
break occurs. This is generally adopted in co-located sites.
It is a “make before break” policy.

Interference and System Capacity
Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio
systems.
 Sources of interference include another mobile in the same cell, a call in
progress in a neighboring cell, other base stations operating in the same
frequency band, or any noncellular system which inadvertently leaks energy
into the cellular frequency band.
Interference on voice channels causes cross talk, where the subscriber
hears interference in the background due to an undesired transmission. On
control channels, interference leads to missed and blocked calls due to
errors in the digital signaling.
Interference is more severe in urban areas, due to the greater HF noise
floor and the large number of base stations and mobiles. Interference has
been recognized as a major bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often
responsible for dropped calls. The two major types of system- generated
cellular interference are co-channel interference and adjacent
channel interference.

Co-channel Interference
 Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several
cells that use the same set of frequencies. These cells are called co-channel
cells, and the interference between signals from these cells is called co-
channel interference
 Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing the signal-to
noise ratio (SNR), co-channel interference cannot be combated by simply
increasing the carrier power of a transmitter This is because an increase in
carrier transmit power increases the interference to neighboring co-channel
cells.
 To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically
separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation

Co-channel Interference
 When the size of each cell is approximately the same, and the base
stations transmit the same power, the co-channel interference ratio is
independent of the transmitted power and becomes a function of the radius
of the cell (R) and the distance between centers of the nearest co-channel
cells (D). By increasing the ratio of D/R, the spatial separation between co-
channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased. Thus
interference is reduced from improved isolation of HF energy from the co-
channel cell.
The parameter Q, called the co-channel reuse ratio, is related to the cluster
size. For a hexagonal geometry
A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is
small, whereas a large value of Q improves the transmission quality, due to a
smaller level of co-channel interference. A trade-off must be made between
these two objectives in actual cellular design.

 Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-to-
interference ratio (S/I or SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors a forward
channel can be expressed as
 Where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and Ii is
the interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base station.
 If the signal levels of co-channel cells are known, then the S/I ratio for the
forward link can be found using above equation

When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the
path loss exponent is the same throughout the coverage area, S/I
for a mobile can be approximated as

 Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the
average received signal strength at any point decays as a power law of the
distance of separation between a transmitter and receiver.
 The average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting
antenna is approximated by
 where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far
field region of the antenna at a small distance d0 from the transmitting
antenna, and n is the path loss exponent.
 Now consider the forward link where the desired signal is the serving
base station and where the interference is due to co-channel base stations.
 If Di is the distance of the ith interferer from the mobile, the received
power at. a given mobile due to the ith interfering cell will be proportional to

Adjacent channel Interference
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the
desired signal is called adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel
interference results from imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the passband.
The problem can be particularly serious if an adjacent channel user is
transmitting in very close range to a subscriber's receiver, while the receiver
attempts to receive a base station on the desired channel. This is
referred to as the near-far effect
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful filtering
and channel assignments. Since each cell is given only a fraction of the
available channels, a cell need not be assigned channels which are all
adjacent in frequency. By keeping the frequency separation between each
channel in a given cell as large as possible, the adjacent channel
interference may be reduced considerably

 An example of cell splitting is shown in Figure 2.8.
 In Figure 2.8, the base stations are placed at corners of the cells, and the area
served by base station A is assumed to be saturated with traffic (i.e., the
blocking of base station A exceeds acceptable rates). New base stations are
therefore needed in the region to increase the number of channels in the area
and to reduce the area served by the single base station.
Note in the figure that the original base station A has been surrounded by six
new microcell base stations. In the example shown in Figure 2.8, the smaller
cells were added in such a way as to preserve the frequency reuse plan of the
system.
 For example, the microcell base station labeled G was placed half way between
two larger stations utilizing the same channel set G. This is also the case for the
other microcells in the figure.
 As can be seen from Figure 2.8, cell splitting merely scales the geometry of the
cluster. In this case, the radius of each new microcell is half that of the original
cell.

 In practice, not all cells are split at the same time. When different cell sizes
will exist simultaneously, special care needs to be taken to keep the distance
between co-channel cells at the required minimum, and hence channel
assignments become more complicated
 Also, handoff issues must be addressed so that high speed and low speed
traffic can be simultaneously accommodated (the umbrella cell approach of
is commonly used).
 When there are two cell sizes in the same region one can not simply use the
 original transmit power for all new cells or the new transmit power for all the
 original cells.
 If the larger transmit power is used for all cells, some• channels used by the
smaller cells would not be sufficiently separated from co-channel
 cells.
 On the other hand, if the smaller transmit power is used for all the cells,
 there would be parts of the larger cells left unserved.
 For this reason, channels in the old cell must be broken down into two
channel groups, one that corresponds to the smaller cell reuse requirements
and the other that corresponds to the larger cell reuse requirements. The
larger cell is usually dedicated to high speed traffic so that handoffs occur
less frequently.

 Consider Figure 2.9. Assume each base station uses 60 channels, regardless of
cell size. If each original cell has a radius of 1 km and each microcell has a
radius of 0.5 km, find the number of channels contained in a 3 km by 3 km
square centered around A, (a) without the use of microcells, (b) when the lettered
microcells as shown in Figure 2.9 are used, and (c) if all the original base
stations are replaced by microcells. Assume cells on the edge of the square to
be contained within the square.

 Solution:
(a) without the use of microcells:
A cell radius of 1 km implies that the sides of the larger hexagons are also 1 km
in length. To cover the 3 km by 3 km square centered around base station A, we
need to cover 1.5 km (1.5 times the hexagon radius) towards the right, left, top,
and bottom of base station A. This is shown in Figure 2.9. From Figure 2.9 we
see that this area contains 5 base stations. Since each base station has 60
channels, the total number of channels without cell splitting is equal to
5 x 60 = 300 channels.
 (b) with the use of the microcells as shown in Figure 2.9:
In Figure 2.9, the base station A is surrounded by 6 microcells. Therefore, the
total number of base stations in the square area under study is equal to
5 + 6 = 11. Since each base station has 60 channels, the total number of
channels will be equal to II x 60 = 660 channels. This is a 2.2 times increase in
capacity when compared to case (a).
 (c) if all the base stations are replaced by microcells:
From Figure 2.9, we see that there are a total of 5 + 12 = 17 base stations in the
square region under study. Since each base station has 60 channels, the total
number of channels will be equal to 17 x 60 = 1020 channels. This is a 3.4 times
increase in capacity when compared to case (a). Theoretically, if all cells were
microcells having half the radius of the original cell, the-capacity increase would
approach 4.

UNIT 3
MOBILE RADIO
PROPAGATION
MECHANISM

RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISM
 The mobile radio channel places fundamental limitations on the
performance of wireless communication systems.
 The transmission path between the transmitter and the receiver can vary
from simple line-of-sight to one that is severely obstructed by buildings,
mountains, and foliage. Unlike wired channels that are stationary and
predictable, radio channels are extremely random and do not offer easy
analysis.
 Modeling the radio channel has historically been one of the most difficult
parts of mobile radio system design, and is typically done in a statistical
fashion
 The mechanisms behind electromagnetic wave propagation are diverse, but
can generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and scattering.

 Most cellular radio systems operate in urban areas where there is no
direct line-of-sight path between the transmitter and the receiver, and
where the presence of highrise buildings causes severe diffraction loss.
Due to multiple reflections from various objects, the electromagnetic
waves travel along different paths of varying lengths. The interaction
between these waves causes multipath fading at a specific location, and
the strengths of the waves decrease as the distance between the
transmitter and receiver increases.
 Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting the average
received signal strength at a given distance from the transmitter, as well
as the variability of the signal strength in close spatial proximity to a
particular location

 Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful in
estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter and are called
large-scale propagation models, Since they characterize signal
strength over large T-R separation distances (several hundreds or
thousands of meters).
 On the other hand, propagation models that characterize the rapid
fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short travel
distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations (on the order of
seconds) are called small-scale or fading models

 As a mobile moves over very small distances, the
instantaneous received signal strength may
fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale fading.
The reason for this is that the received signal is a
sum of many contributions coming from different
directions.
 Propagation models that characterize the rapid
fluctuations of the received signal strength over
very short travel distances (a few wavelengths)
or short time durations (on the order of seconds)
are called small-scale or fading models.

Free Space Propagation Model
 The free space propagation model is used to
predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear,
unobstructed line-of-sight path between them
 Free space model predicts that received power
decays as a function of the T-R separation
distance (refer next slide for the expression)
 The free space power received by a receiver
antenna which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by
the Friis free space equation,

The Three Basic Propagation
Mechanisms
 Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an
object which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of
the propagating wave. Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from
buildings and walls.
 Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is
obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary
waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present throughout the space
and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of waves around the
obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and
receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the
geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and polarization of the
incident wave at the point of diffraction.
 Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of
objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where
the number of obstacles per unit volume is large. Scattered waves are produced
by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other irregularities in the channel. In
practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce scattering in a mobile
communications system.

Reflection
• When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium
having different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially
transmitted.
• If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is
transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into
the first medium, and there is no loss of energy in absorption.
• If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected
back into the first medium without loss of energy.
• The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted waves may be
related to the incident wave in the medium of origin through the Fresnel reflection
coefficient (F). The

The reflection coefficients for the two cases of parallel and perpendicular E-field
polarization at the boundary of two dielectrics are given by

Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the base station and a mobile
is seldom the only physical means for propagation, and hence the free space
propagation model of equation (3.5) is in most cases inaccurate when used alone.
The 2-ray ground reflection model shown in Figure 3.7 is a useful propagation model
that is based on geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a ground
reflected propagation path between transmitter and receiver. This node has been
found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale signal strength over
distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use tall towers (heights
which exceed 50 m), as well as for line-of-sight microcell channels in urban
environments.

Small Scale Fading and Multipath
 Small-scale fading, or simply fading, is used to
describe the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude,
Phase, or Multipath delays of a radio signal over a
short period of time or travel distance
 Fading is caused by interference between two or
more versions of the transmitted signal which arrive
at the receiver at slightly different times. These
waves, called rnultipath waves, combine at the
receiver antenna to give a resultant signal which
can vary widely in amplitude and phase.

Small Scale Multipath Fading
 Multipath in the radio channel creates small-scale fading
effects. The three most important effects are:
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel
distance or time interval
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler
shifts on different multipath signals
3. Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath
propagation delays.

Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading
 Multipath propagation: The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the
channel creates a constantly changing environment that dissipates the signal
energy in amplitude, phase, and time. These effects result in multiple versions of
the transmitted signal that arrive at the receiving antenna, displaced with respect to
one another in time and spatial orientation.
 Speed of the mobile : The relative mçtion between the base station and the mobile
results in random frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of
the multipath components. Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on
whether the mobile receiver is moving toward or away from the base station.
 Speed of surrounding objects: If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they
induce a time varying Doppler shift on inultipath components. If the surrounding
objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates the
small-scale fading.
 The transmission bandwidth of the signal: If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth
is greater than the "bandwidth" of the multipath channel, the received signal will be
distorted, but the received signal strength will not fade much over a local area (i.e.,
the small-scale signal fading will not be significant).

Coherence Bandwidth
• While the delay spread is a natural phenomenon caused by reflected and scattered
propagation paths in the radio channel, the coherence bandwidth, Bc is a defined
relation derived from the rms delay spread.
• Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
which the channel can be considered "flat" (i.e., a channel which passes all spectral
components with approximately equal gain and linear phase)
• In other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two
frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
• If the coherence bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency
correlation function is above 0.9, then the coherence bandwidth is approximately
If the frequency correlation function is above 0.5. then the coherence bandwidth is
approximately

Doppler spread
• Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which describe the
time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
• Doppler spread BD is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the
time rate of change of the mobile radio channel and is defined as the range
of frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum is essentially
non-zero.
• When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency is transmitted, the received
signal spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the
range fc + fd to fc - fd where fd is the Doppler shift.
• The amount of spectral broadening depends on which is a function of the
relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle between the direction of motion
of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves.
• If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than BD, the effects of
Doppler spread are negligible at the receiver. This is a slow fading channel.

Flat fading
 If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase
response over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal, then the received signal will undergo flat fading.
 In flat fading, the multipath structure of the channel is such that the
spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at the
receiver.
 However the strength of the received signal changes with time, due to
fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath.
 In a flat fading channel, the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted signal
is much larger than the multipath time delay spread of the channel, and
h(t, r) can be approximated as having no excess delay (i.e., a single delta
function with r = 0).
 Flat fading channels are also known as amplitude varying channels and
are sometimes referred to as narrowband channels, since the bandwidth
of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading
bandwidth.

Frequency Selective Fading
 When the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response over a
bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the
channel creates frequency selective fading on the received signal.
 Under such conditions the channel impulse response has a multipath delay spread
which is greater than the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted message
waveform.
 When this occurs, the received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted
 waveform which are attenuated (faded) and delayed in time, and hence the
received signal is distorted.
 Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted symbols
within the channel. Thus the channel induces intersymbol interference (IS!).
 For frequency selective fading, the spectrum S (I) of the transmitted signal has a
bandwidth which is greater than the coherence bandwidth Bc of the channel.
 Viewed in the frequency domain, the channel becomes frequency selective, where
the gain is different for different frequency components.
 Frequency selective fading is caused by multipath delay which approach or
exceed the symbol period of the transmitted symbol.
 Frequency selective fading channels are also known as wideband channels since
the bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the bandwidth of the channel impulse
response.

As time varies, the channel varies in gain and phase across the spectrum of s(t),
resulting in time varying distortion in the received signal r(t).

Fast Fading
 Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal changes as
compared to the rate of change of the channel, a channel may be
classified either as a fast fading or slow fading channel.
 In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly
within the symbol duration.
 That is, the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol
period of the transmitted signal.
 This causes frequency dispersion (also called time selective fading) due
to Doppler spreading, which leads to signal distortion.
 Viewed in the frequency domain, signal distortion due to fast fading
increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal.
 Therefore, a signal undergoes fast fading if

Slow Fading
 In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a
rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal s(t).
 In this case, the channel may be assumed to be static over one or
several reciprocal bandwidth intervals.
 In the frequency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread of the
channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband signal.
 Therefore, a signal undergoes slow fading if,
 It should be clear that the velocity of the mobile (or velocity of objects in
the channel) and the baseband signaling determines whether a signal
undergoes fast fading or slow fading.

Content
 GSM system architecture, radio subsystem,
channel types, frame structure, GSM
Signaling Protocols, call processing in GSM,
handovers in GSM, signal processing in
GSM, data oriented CDPD network,
Specification of HCSD,GPRS, EDGE

GSM System Architecture
1. The GSM system architecture consists of three
major interconnected subsystems that interact
between themselves and with the users through
certain network interfaces.
1. The subsystems are the Base Station Subsystem
(BSS), Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS),
and the Operation Support Subsystem (OSS).
2. The Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem, but is
usually considered to be part of the BSS for
architecture purposes.

Base station Subsystem:
1. The BSS, also known as the radio subsystem, provides
and manages radio transmission paths between the
mobile stations and the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC).
2. The BSS also manages the radio interface between
the mobile stations and all other subsystems of GSM
3. Each BSS consists of many Base Station Controllers
(BSCs) which connect the MS to the NSS via the
MSCs.

Network Switching Subsystem:
1. The NSS handles the switching of GSM calls between
external networks and the BSCs in the radio
subsystem and is also responsible for managing and
providing external access to several customer
databases.
2. The MSC is the central unit in the NSS and controls
the traffic among all of the BSCs. In the NSS, there are
three different databases called the Home Location
Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR), and
the Authentication Center (AUC)
3. The HLR is a database which contains subscriber
information and location information for each user who
resides in the same city as the MSC

Network Switching Subsystem:
1. The VLR is a database which temporarily stores the
IMSI and customer information for each roaming
subscriber who is visiting the coverage area of a
particular MSC.
2. Authentication Center is a strongly protected database
which handles the authentication and encryption keys
for every single subscriber in the HLR and VLR. The
Authentication Center contains a register called the
Equipment Identity Register (EIR) which indentifies
stolen or fraudulently altered phones that transmit
identity data that does not match with information
contained in either the HLR or VLR.

Operation support subsystem:
1. The OSS supports the operation and maintenance
of GSM and allows system engineers to monitor,
diagnose, and troubleshoot all aspects of the
GSM system.
2. This subsystem interacts with the other GSM
subsystems, and is provided solely for the staff of
the GSM operating company which provides
service facilities for the network.

Operation support subsystem:
 The OSS has three main functions, which are
1) To maintain all telecommunications hardware and
network operations with a particular market.
2) Manage all charging and billing procedures, and
3) Manage all mobile equipment in the system. Within
each GSM system, an OMC(Operation Maintenance
Centre) is dedicated to each of these tasks and has
provisions for adjusting all base station parameters and
billing procedures, as well as for providing system
operators with the ability to determine the performance
and integrity of each piece of subscriber equipment in
the system.

Abis interface
 The interface which connects a BTS to a BSC is
called the Abis interface.
 The Abis interface carries traffic and
maintenance data, and is specified by GSM to
be standardized for all manufacturers.
 In practice, however, the Abis for each GSM
base station manufacturer has subtle
differences, thereby forcing service providers to
use the same manufacturer for the BTS and
BSC equipment.

A interface
 The interface between a BSC and a MSC is called
the A interface, which is standardized within GSM.
 The A interface uses an SS7 protocol called the
Signaling Correction Control Part (SCCP) which
supports communication between the MSC and the
BSS, as well as network messages between the
individual subscribers and the MSC.
 The A interface allows a service provider to use
base stations and switching equipment made by
different manufacturers.

GSM Radio Interface:
1. GSM utilizes two bands of 25 MHz which have been
set aside for system use in all member countries.
2. The 890-915 MHz band is used for subscriber-to base
transmissions (reverse link), and the 935-960 MHz
band is used for base-to subscriber transmissions
(forward link).
3. GSM uses FDD and a combination of TDMA and
FDMA schemes to provide base stations with
simultaneous access to multiple users

4. The available forward and reverse frequency bands
are divided into 200 kHz wide channels called
ARFCNs (Absolute Radio Frequency Channel
Numbers). The ARFCN denotes a forward and
reverse channel pair which is separated in
frequency by 45 MHz and each channel is time
shared between as many as eight subscribers
using TDMA.
5. Each of the eight subscribers uses the same
ARFCN and occupies a unique timeslot (TS) per
frame.
GSM Radio Interface:

GSM Radio Specifications:
 The combination of a TS number and an ARFCN
(The available forward and reverse frequency bands are
divided into 200 kHz wide channels called ARFCNs
(Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Numbers). constitutes
a physical channel for both the forward and reverse link.
 Each physical channel in a GSM system can be mapped
into different logical channels at different times.
 That is, each specific time slot or frame may be dedicated to
either handling traffic data (user data such as speech,
facsimile, or teletext data), signaling data (required by the
internal workings of the GSM system), or control channel
data (from the MSC, base station, or mobile user).

GSM Channel Types:
1. There are two types of GSM logical channels, called
traffic channels (TCH) and control channels (CCH)
2. Traffic channels carry digitally encoded user speech or
user data and have identical functions and formats on
both the forward and reverse link.
3. Control channels carry signaling and synchronizing
commands between the base station and the mobile
station. Certain types of control channels are defined
for just the forward or reverse link. There are six
different types of TCHs provided for in GSM, and an
even larger number of CCHs.

Introduction
1. In telecommunications a channel, refers either to a
physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to
a logical connection over a multiplexed medium
such as a radio channel.
2. The channel used in the air interface is divided into
two types: Physical channel and Logical channel.
3. Physical channel : It is the medium over which the
information is carried.
4. Logical channel : It consist of information carried
over a physical channel.

Physical Channel:
1. When an MS and a BTS communicate, they do so on a
specific pair of radio frequency (RF) carriers, one for
the up-link and the other for the down-link
transmissions, and within a given time slot.
1. This combination of time slot and carrier frequency
forms what is termed a physical channel .
2. One RF channel will support eight physical channels
in time slots zero through seven.

Logical channels:
1. It transports either user data during a call or signaling
information for MS or base station.
2. The data, whether user traffic or signalling information,
are mapped onto the physical channels by defining a
number of logical channels .
3. Two groups of logical channels:
 Traffic Channels, for call data
 Control channels, to communicate service data between
network equipment nodes.

From Physical Channel to Logical

Logical channels
 Traffic channels (TCHs)
 The traffic channels are intended to carry encoded
speech or user data.
 Control Channels (CCHs)
 The control channels are intended to carry signalling
and Synchronization data between the base station and
the Mobile station. Logical are used by the system and
the MS for different purposes.

Classification of logical channel

Traffic Channel:
 Traffic channel (TCH) : Traffic channels are intended to carry
encoded speech and user data.
-Full rate traffic channels at a net bit rate of 22.8 Kb/s (TCH/F)
-Half rate traffic channels at a net bit rate of 11.4 Kb/s (TCH/H)
Speech Channels : Speech channels are defined for both full rate
and half rate traffic channels.
Data Channels : Data channels support a variety of data rates
(2.4, 4.8 and 9.6 Kb/s) on both half and full rate traffic channels.
The 9.6 Kb/s data rate is only for full rate application.

Control channel:
• Control channels carry signalling information between an MS
and a BTS. There are several forms of control channels in
GSM, and they can generally be divided into three categories
according to the manner in which they are supported on the
radio interface and the type of signalling information they carry.
1.Broadcast control channel(BCH)
2.Common control channel(CCCH)
3.Dedicated control channel(DCCH)

Broadcast control channels:
The broadcast channels are used to broadcast synchronization and
general network information to all the MSs within a cell.
Such as Location Area Identity (LAI) and maximum output power.
 It has three types
1. FCCH (FREQUENCY CORRECTION CHANNEL)
2. SCH (SYNCHRONISATION CHANNEL)
3. BCCH (BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL)
 Broadcast control channels are transmitted in downlink direction
only i.e. only transmitted by BTS.

Broadcast Channel:
1. Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH):-
- Used for the frequency correction / synchronization of a mobile
station.
- The repeated (every 10 frames) transmission of Frequency
Bursts is called FCCH.
- FCCH is transmitted on the downlink, point-to-multipoint.
2. Synchronization Channel (SCH):-
- Allows the mobile station to synchronize time wise with the
BTS.(IDENTIFY Base Station)
- Repeated broadcast (every 10 frames) of Synchronization Bursts
is called (SCH)
- SCH is transmitted on the downlink

Broadcast Channel:
3. Broadcast control channel(BCCH):-
-The broadcast control channel(BCCH) is used to broadcast
control information to every MS within a cell.
-This information includes details of the control channel
configuration used at the BTS, a list of the BCCH carrier
frequencies used at the neighbouring BTSs and a number of
parameters that are used by the MS when accessing the BTS.
-BCCH is transmitted On the downlink, point-to-multipoint.

Common Control Channel:
• The common control channels are used by an MS
during the paging and access procedures.
•Common control channels are of following types
•Random Access Control Channel (RACH)
•Paging Channel (PCH)
•Access Grant Control Channel (AGCH)
•Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH)

CCCH
• Random Access Control Channel :-
• Transmitted by the mobile when it wishes to access to the system
• Checking balance, different schemes etc
• This occurs when mobile initiates a call or responds to a page
• Paging Channel :-
• Transmitted by the BTS when it wishes to contact a mobile.
• The reason for contact may be an incoming call or short message.
• Access Grant Control Channel :-
• It carries data which instructs the mobile to operate in a particular
physical channel (Time slot).
• The AGCH is used by the network to grant, or deny, an MS
access to the network by supplying it with details of a dedicated
channel, i.e. TCH or SDCCH, to be used for subsequent
communications

CCCH
 Cell Broadcast Channel :-
 This channel is used to transmit messages to be broadcast
to all mobiles within a cell e.g. traffic info.

Dedicated Control Channel:
 Signalling information is carried between an MS and
a BTS using associated and dedicated control
channels during or not during a call.
 The are of following type :-
 Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
 Associated Control Channel (ACCH)
 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

DCH:
 Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) :-
○ The MS is on the SDCCH informed about which physical
channel (frequency and time slot) to use for traffic (TCH).
○ It also carries information for call forwarding and Transmission
of short message.
 Associated Control Channel (ACCH) :-
○ These Channel Could be associated with either a SDCCH or a
TCH.
○ They are used for carrying out information associated with the
process being carried out on either SDCCH or TCH.
○ They are of two type
1. Fast ACCH
2. Slow ACCH

DCH:
 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) :-
○ Conveys power control and timing information in the downlink
direction.
○ Receive signal strength Indicator and link quality report in
uplink direction.
○ It occupies one timeslot in every 26. SACCH messages may be
sent once every 480ms.
 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) :-
○ FACCH is transmitted instead of a TCH.
○ The FACCH steal the TCH bust and inserts its own information.
○ The FACCH is used to carry out user authentication and
handover.
○ A complete FACCH message may be sent once in every 20 ms.

Signal Processing in GSM:
 Speech Coding — The GSM speech coder is based on the
Residually Excited Linear Predictive Coder (RELP), which is
enhanced by including a Long Term Predictor (LTP). The coder
provides 260 bits for each 20 ms blocks of speech, which yields a
bit rate of 13kbps.
 The GSM speech coder takes advantage of the fact that in a
normal conversation, each person speaks on average for less than
40% of the time, By incorporating a voice activity detector (VAD)
in the speech coder, GSM systems operate in a discontinuous
transmission mode (DTX) which provides a longer subscriber
battery life and reduces instantaneous radio interference

Channel coding:
 Speech coder output bits are categorized in
three classes
 Class Ia - most important - most error protected.
 Class Ib — important error protected.
 Class II - less important - less error protected.

Out of the total 260 bits in a frame, the most important 50
bits, called type la bits, have 3 parity check (CRC) bits
added to them.
The next 132 bits along with the first 53 (50 type IA bits + 3
parity bits) are reordered and appended by four trailing
zero bits, thus providing a data block of 189 bits.
This block is then encoded for error protection using a rate
½ convolution encoder with constraint length K=5, thus
providing a sequence of 378 bits.
The least important 78 bits do not have any error
protection and are concatenated to the existing sequence
to form a block of 456 bits in a 20ms frame.

 Interleaving — In order to minimize the effect of
sudden fades on the received data, the total of 456
encoded bits within each 20 ms speech frame or control
message frame are broken into eight 57 bit sub-blocks.
 These eight sub blocks which make up a single speech
frame are spread over eight consecutive TCH time slots.
(i.e., eight consecutive frames for a specific TS). If a
burst is lost due to interference or fading, channel
coding ensures that enough bits will still be received
correctly to allow the error correction to work.

 Ciphering —
Ciphering modifies the contents of the eight interleaved
blocks through the use of encryption techniques known
only to the particular mobile station and base transceiver
station. Security is further enhanced by the fact that the
encryption algorithm is changed from call to call. Two
types of ciphering algorithms, called A3 and A5, are used
in GSM to prevent unauthorized network access and
privacy for the radio transmission respectively.
 A3 algorithm is used to authenticate each mobile by
verifying the user passcode within SIM with
cryptographic key at MSC
 A5 algorithm Provides the scrambling for the 114 coded
data bits sent in each TS

 Burst Formatting — Burst formatting adds binary data to the
ciphered blocks, in order to help synchronization and equalization
of the received signal.
 Modulation — The modulation scheme used by GSM is 0.3
GMSK where 0.3 describes the 3 dB bandwidth of the Gaussian
pulse shaping filter with relation to the bit rate
 Frequency Hopping — Under normal conditions, each data
burst belonging to a particular physical channel is transmitted
using the same carrier frequency. However, if users in a particular
cell have severe multipath problems, the cell may be defined as a
hopping cell by the network operator, in which case slow
frequency hopping may be implemented to combat the multipath
or Interference effects in that cell.

Equalization :
Equalization is performed at the receiver with the
help of the training sequences transmitted in the
midamble of every time slot.
 Demodulation : The appropriate TS is
demodulated with the aid of synchronization data
provided by the burst formatting.
After demodulation, the binary information is
deciphered, de-interleaved, channel decoded and
speech decoded

Specification of HCSD,GPRS,EDGE
 EDGE: Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution
 General packet radio service (GPRS)
 HSCSD (High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data)
 ESNs are currently mainly used
with CDMA phones (and were previously used
by AMPS and TDMA phones), compared to
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
numbers used by all GSM phones.

Higher Data rate transfer for modern internet application
Standard
Channel Band
-Width
Duplex
Multiple Access
Transmission
Mode
Modulation
Infrastructure
Change

Whether
Required
new Hand
set
Data Speed
Achievable
HSCSD GPRS EDGE IS-94

Data oriented CDPD Network:
(Cellular Digital Packet Data)
 It consists of three interfaces and five network
components. They are as follows
1. A INTERFACE:
A Interface is the abbreviated form of Air Interface.
It is the interface between the mobile end station (M-
ES) and the cell site equipment. It consists of a new
media access and control (MAC) protocol unique to
CDPD, IP protocols used for routing, existing RF
equipment and mobility management features Such
as RF sniffing and the channel hopping.

2. I INTERFACE:
I Interface is the abbreviated form of Intermediate
system Interface. It is the interface between routing
functions within the network, or between the routing
functions on a network-to-network interface.
3. E INTERFACE:
E Interface is the abbreviated form of External
Interface. It is the interface connecting a non-CDPD
network with a CDPD network. It is typically a
leased line connecting a Users fixed end system (F-
ES) to a CDPD network provider.

COMPONENTS: CDPD Network
Architecture

1. MOBILE END SYSTEM (M-ES):
 The M-ES can be any mobile computing device
which has a CDPD modem built in or attached. It
supports the MAC functionality required over the A
interface and IP protocols that are compulsory for
addressing and mobility management. The M-ES
transmits data over the air link to the Mobile Data
Base Station (MDBS) located in the cell site. The
M-ES is also concerned with radio resource
management such as discovering and keeping
synchronization with RF data streams from an
MDBS. The M-ES should provide a transparent
interface to the users applications.

2. MOBILE DATA BASE STATION (MDBS):
 MDBS is located at the cell site. It acts as a relay
station between M-ES and MD-IS systems.
 The MDBS relays packets of data to the MD-IS
(Mobile Data Intermediate System) located at the
MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office).
 The MDBS is primarily responsible for radio
frequency management; such as making sure that M-
ES does not transmit on a frequency that is currently
being used by the cellular voice, channel hopping,
and aiding the M-ES to transfer from one cell to
another by assisting in the location of a new channel.

3. MOBILE DATA INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM
(MD-IS):
The MD-IS keeps track of an M-ESs location and
routes data packets to and from the CDPD Network
and the M-ES appropriately.

4. INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM (IS):
 The Intermediate System is a standard IP router
with the primary responsibility of relaying data
packets
 The IS components are the backbone of the CDPD
mesh.

FIXED-END SYSTEM (F-ES):
 The F-ES is whatever network
environment/resource the User is attempting to
make available to mobile access via CDPD. The F-
ES is the final destination of the message sent from
an M-ES. The Fixed-End System receives the data
and processes it appropriately.

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC):
 In computer networking a Media Access Control address
(MAC address) or Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA) or
hardware address or adapter address is a quasi-unique
identifier attached to most network adapters (NIC or
Network Interface Card).
 It is a number that serves as an identifier for a particular
network adapter. Thus network cards (or built-in network
adapters) in two different computers will have different
MAC addresses. The MAC function used over the air
interface is unique to CDPD

Unit V : CDMA
SYSTEM
 Frequency and channel specification, physical
and logical channels of IS-95,call processing in
IS-95, soft hand off and power control in
CDMA. Cell loading, cell radius, Reverse
&Forward link cell size. (9)

 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) offers some
advantages over TDMA and FDMA
 U.S. digital cellular system based on CDMA which
promises increased capacity has been standardized as
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) by the U.S.
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
 The IS-95 system is designed to be compatible
with the existing U.S. analog cellular system
(AMPS) frequency band, hence mobiles and base
stations can be economically produced for dual mode
operation.

 IS-95 allows each user within a cell to use the same
radio channel, and users in adjacent cells also use the
same radio channel, since this is a direct sequence
spread spectrum CDMA system.
 CDMA completely eliminates the need for frequency
planning in market

Frequency and Channel Specifications:
 IS-95 is specified for reverse link operation in the
824 - 849 MHz band and 869 - 894 MHz for the
forward link. A forward and reverse channel pair is
separated by 45 MHz.
 Many users share a common channel for
transmission.
 The maximum user data rate is 9.6 kb/s. User data in
IS-95 is spread to a channel chip rate of 1.2288
Mchip/s using a combination of techniques (a total
spreading factor of 128)

 The spreading process is different for the forward
and reverse links.
 On the forward link, the user data stream is encoded
using a rate 1/2 convolution code, interleaved, and
spread by one of sixty-four orthogonal spreading
sequences (Walsh functions).
 Each mobile in a given cell is assigned a different
spreading sequence, providing perfect separation
among the signals from different users, at least for
the Case where multipath does not exist.

 To reduce interference between mobiles that use the same
spreading sequence in different cells, and to provide the
desired wideband spectral characteristics, all signals in a
particular cell are scrambled using a pseudorandom
sequence of length 215 chips.
 Orthogonality among all forward channel users within a
cell is preserved because their signals are scrambled
synchronously.
 A pilot channel (code) is provided on the forward link
so that each subscriber within the cell can determine
and react to the channel characteristics while
employing coherent detection. The pilot channel is
transmitted higher power than the user channels.

 On the reverse link, a different spreading strategy is used
since each received signal arrives at the base station via a
different propagation path.
 Another essential element of the reverse link is tight
control of each subscriber's transmitter power, to avoid
the "near-far" problem that arises from varying received
powers of the users.
 A combination of open-loop and fast, closed-loop power
control is used to adjust the transmit power of each in-
cell subscriber so that the base station receives each user
with the same received power.

Forward CDMA Channel:
 The forward traffic channel modulation process is
described in Figure. Data on the forward traffic channel
is grouped into 20 ms frames.
 The user data is first convolutionally coded and then
formatted and interleaved to adjust for the actual user
data rate, which may vary. Then the signal is spread with
a Walsh code and a long PN sequence at a rate of 1.2288
Mbps.
 The speech data rate applied to the transmitter is variable
over the range of 1200 bps to 9600 bps.

Convolutional Encoder and Repetition Circuit:
 Speech coded voice or user data are encoded using a half-
rate convolutional encoder with constraint length 9.
 The encoding process is described by generator G0
vectors and G1 which are 753 (octal) and 561 (octal),
respectively.
 The speech encoder exploits pauses and gaps in speech,
and reduces its output from 9600 bps to 1200 bps during
silent periods. In order to keep a constant baseband
symbol rate of 19.2 kbps, whenever the user rate is less
than 9600 bps, each symbol from the convolution
encoder is repeated before block interleaving.

Block Interleaver:
 After convolution coding and repetition, symbols are
sent to a 2Oms block interleaver
Long PN Sequence:
 In the forward channel, direct sequence is used for data
scrambling.
Data Scrambler
 Data scrambling is performed after the block interleaver.
The 1.2288 MHz PN sequence is applied to a decimator,
which keeps only the first chip out of every sixty-four
consecutive PN chips. The symbol rate from the
decimator is 19.2 kbps. The data scrambling is
performed by modulo-2 addition.

Power Control Subchannel:
 To minimize the average BER for each user, IS-95
strives to force each user to provide the same power
level at the base station receiver.
 The base station reverse traffic channel receiver
estimates and responds to the signal strength for a
particular mobile station.
 Since both the signal and interference are
continually varying, power control updates are sent
by the base station every 1.25 ms

 Power control commands are sent to each subscriber
unit on the forward control subchannel which
instruct the mobile to raise or lower its transmitted
power in 1 dB steps.
Orthogonal Covering:
 Orthogonal covering is performed the data
scrambling forward link. Each traffic channel
transmitted spread with a Walsh function at functions
comprise of sixty-four binary power control bit on
the on the forward CDMA channel is a fixed chip rate
of 1.2288 Mbps.

Quadrature Modulation:
 After the orthogonal covering, symbols are spread in
quadrature,

Reverse CDMA Channel:
 User data on the reverse channel are grouped into 20
ms frames. All data transmitted on the reverse
channel are convolutionally encoded, block
interleaved, modulated by a 64-ary orthogonal
modulation, and spread prior to transmission.
 The speech or user data rate in the reverse channel
may be sent at 9600, 4800, 2400, or 1200 bps.

Convolutional Encoder and Symbol Repetition:
 The convolutional coder used in the reverse traffic
channel is rate 1/3 and constraint length 9. The three
generator vectors g0, g1, and g2 are 557 (octal), 663
(octal), and 771 (octal), respectively.
 Coded bits after the convolutional encoder are
repeated before interleaving when the data rate is less
than 9600 bps. This is identical to the method used on
the forward channel. After repetition, the symbol rate
out of the coder is fixed at 28,800 bps.

Block Interleaver:
 The block interleaver spans 20 ms, and is an array
with 32 rows and 18 columns. Code symbols are
written into the matrix by columns and read out by
rows.

Orthogonal Modulation:
 A 64-ary orthogonal modulation is used for the
reverse CDMA channel. One of sixty-four
possible Walsh functions is transmitted for each
group of six coded bits. Within a Walsh function,
sixty-four Walsh chips are transmitted.
 The particular Walsh function is selected
according to the following formula:

 where c5 represents the last coded bit and c0
represents the first coded bit of each group of six
coded symbols that are used to select a Walsh
function. Walsh chips are transmitted at a rate of
307.2 kbps as shown in equation
Note that Walsh functions are used for different purposes on the forward and
reverse channels. On the forward channel, Walsh functions are used for spreading
to denote a particular user channel, while on the reverse channel, Walsh functions
are used for data modulation.

Variable Data Rate Transmission
 Variable rate data are sent on the reverse CDMA
channel. Code symbol repetition introduces
redundancy when the data rate is less than 9600
bps.
 A data randomizer is used to transmit certain bits
while turning the transmitter off at other times.
When the data rate is 9600 bps, all interleaver
output bits are transmitted. When the data rate is
4800 bps, half of the interleaver output bits are
transmitted, and the mobile unit does not transmit
50% of the time,

 Data in each 20 ms frame are divided into sixteen
power control groups, each with period 1.25 ms.
Some power control groups are gated-on, while others
are gated-off. The data burst randomizer ensures that
every repeated code symbol is transmitted exactly
once.
 During the gate-off process, the mobile station
reduces its EIRP either by at least 20 dB with respect
to the power of the most recent gated-on period, or to
the transmitter noise floor, whichever is greater.
 This reduces interference to other mobile stations
operating on the same reverse CDMA channel.

Direct Sequence Spreading:
 The reverse traffic channel is spread by the long
code PN sequence which operates at a rate of
1.2288 Mbps.
Quadrature Modulation:
Prior to transmission, the reverse traffic channel is spread
by I and Q channel pilot PN sequences which are identical
to those used in the forward CDMA channel process. These
pilot sequences are used for synchronization The reverse
link modulation uses offset quadrature phase shift keying
(OQPSK).

CDMA - Power Control
 In CDMA, since all the mobiles transmit at the same frequency, the internal
interference of the network plays a critical role in determining network
capacity. Further, each mobile transmitter power must be controlled to limit
the interference.
 Power control is essentially needed to solve the near-far problem. The
main idea to reduce the near-far problem, is to achieve the same power
level received by all mobiles to the base station. Each received power
must be at least level, so that it allows the link to meet the requirements of
the system such that Eb/N0. To receive the same power level at the base
station, the mobiles those are closer to the base station should transmit
less power than the mobiles which are far away from the mobile base
station.
 In the figure given below, there are two mobile cells A and B. A is closer to
the base station and B is far from the base station. Pr is the minimum
signal level for the performance of the required system. Therefore, the
mobile B should transmit more power to achieve the same Pr to the base
station (PB>PA). If there is no power control, in other words, the
transmission power are the same from both the mobile cells, the signal
received from A is much stronger than the signals received from mobile
cell B.

 When all mobile stations transmit the
signals at the same power (MS), the
received levels at the base station are
different from each other, which depend
on the distances between BS and MSs.
 The received level fluctuates quickly due
to fading. In order to maintain the
received level at BS, a suitable power
control technique must be employed in
CDMA systems.
 We need to control the transmission

Handoff in CDMA:
 Three type of handoff:
 A) Softer- Two sector of same Cell
 B) Soft- Two sector of different Cell
 C) Soft – Softer – two sector of same cell and
third sector of different cell

 Whenever a cellular subscriber passes through one base
station to another, the network automatically switches to
the other respective base station and maintains the
coverage responsibility. This behavior called "hand-off"
(Handoff) or "hand-over" (Handover).
 Whereas in FDMA and TDMA systems, it uses a different
frequency to communicate with the base station of that
area. It means, there will be a frequency switch from one
frequency to another, and during the switching, there will
be slightly communication cut, which is called as "hard
handoff" (Hard Handoff) or "hard handover" (Hard
Handover).

 Hard Handoff
 In FDMA or TDMA cellular system, a new communication
can be established after breaking the current
communication at the moment of handoff. Communication
between MS and BS breaks at the time of switching the
frequency or timeslot.
 Soft Handoff
 Cellular systems track mobile stations in order to maintain
their communication links. When mobile station goes to a
neighbor cell, the communication link switches from the
current cell to the neighbor cell.

 When a mobile enters in a new area (from the base station to another
base station), the mobile is the second pilot of sufficient power by
sending the message to the strength of the driver to the first base
station. The base station notifies the MTSO and then the MTSO
requests new Walsh code assignment of the second base station.
 The first base station controls with new progressive transfer Walsh
assignment MTSO then sends land link to the second base station.
Mobile is powered by two base stations and MTSO selects the best
quality status for every 20 ms.
 The power goes low at the mobile station by the first BS and mobile
sends a pilot strength message then the first BS transmission stops and
releases the channel. And, traffic channel continues on the second base
station.
 In CDMA cellular system, communication does not break even at the
moment doing handoff, because switching frequency or timeslot is not
required.
 Note − A Walsh sequence is a part of Orthogonal Codes, whereas other
sequences such as PN, Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences.
In case orthogonal codes are assigned to the users, the output of the
correlator in the receiver will be zero except the desired sequence,
whereas synchronous direct sequence receiver receives the same code

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