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- Next, we focus on the potential endogeneity of ICT resources. To assess the robustness of the link of ICT equipment to remote education outcomes, we replaced the 2020 ICT equipment variables in Equation (1) with their 2019 levels.8 Possible endogeneity of the 2020 level would likely create a positive bias in the effect of ICT equipment on the provision of remote education. BoEs with a higher unobserved forecasting ability would have in expectation of the educational disruption equipped schools better by the survey date of March 1, 2020. The results presented in Table B9 for the available variables are consistent with the main results, supporting our interpretation that the challenge to implementing online education in Japan was insufficient physical ICT equipment. Although neither the model specification nor the within-BoE difference is identical to the 8
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- OECD. 2012. Lessons from PISA for Japan, Strong Performers and Successful Reformers in Education. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264118539-en.
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- OECD. 2020a. OECD Digital Economy Outlook 2020. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/bb167041-en.
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- OECD. 2020b. “Strengthening online learning when schools are closed: The role of families and teachers in supporting students during the COVID-19 crisis.” OECD.
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- Regarding the analysis of overtime hours, we use the 2019 level of ICT equipment as controls in Equation (2), obtaining essentially identical results to the main ones, as displayed in Table B10. After controlling for 2019 ICT equipment, we find that the effect size of IT skills is, on average, 0.35% points smaller than that for 2020 ICT equipment controls, having unchanged direction and one marginal result losing significance. These results suggest that the concern about the possible endogeneity of 2020 ICT equipment is unfounded.
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- School Teachers Survey 2019 School Year (Reiwa Gannendo Gakko Kyoin Tokei Chosa) MEXT School (school questionnaire nationwide, teacher questionnaire in selected schools) October 1, 2019 This survey is conducted as of October 1 every year by the Analytical Research Planning Division, MEXT. All public elementary, junior-high, senior-high, and special-needs schools are mandated to respond to the school questionnaire, including the teacher questionnaire for randomly selected schools. BoEs enforce compliance.
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- Survey on ICT in School Education 2019 School Year (Reiwa Gannendo Gakko ni okeru Kyoiku no Johoka ni kan suru Chosa) MEXT School (nationwide) March 1, 2020 This survey is conducted as of March 1 every year by the Financial Support and Teaching Materials Division, MEXT. All public elementary, junior-high, senior-high, and special-needs schools are mandated to respond. BoEs enforce compliance. 2020-21 MANDATED SCHOOL CLOSURES (April–May 2020) Survey on Learning and Instruction during the COVID-19 Pandemic (Shingata Korona Uirusu Kansensho no Eikyo wo Fumaeta Gakushu Shido nado ni kan suru Jokyo Chosa) MEXT BOE (nationwide) June 23, 2020 This survey was conducted by the School Curriculum Division, MEXT. BoEs reported pandemic response for all public elementary, junior-high, senior-high, and special-needs schools in their districts. Responding to this survey was not mandatory.
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- The 2018 school year wave of the Survey on ICT in School Education collected in March 2019 contains most of the ICT variables utilized in the main analysis, except for the prevalence of WiFi and digital textbooks for students.
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