Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
- 2. Cognitive Processes • Are the key assets that have enabled humans to survive and prosper.
- 3. THINKING
- 4. Thinking • Refers to conscious, planned attempts to make sense of and change the world. • Paying attention to information, representing it mentally, reasoning about it, and making judgments and decisions about it.
- 5. CONCEPTS • Mental categories used to group together objects, relations, events, abstractions, or qualities that have common properties.
- 6. Concepts prototypes • Good examples exemplars • A specific example
- 7. Organization of Concepts into Hierarchies Objects that store information Printed matter newspapers College textbooks novels catalogs iPod DVDs
- 8. PROBLEM SOLVING • What are the next two letters in this series? • O T T F F S S E _ _?
- 10. The Use of ALGORITHMS • A systematic procedure for solving a problem that works invariably when it is correctly applied. • Guarantee a correct solution – E.g., mathematical formulas (Pythagorean theorem); anagrams (scrambled words)
- 11. The Use of HEURISTIC Devices • Rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems • Do not guarantee a correct solution • E.g., means-end analysis We assess the difference between our current situation and our goals and do what we can to reduce this difference.
- 12. The Use of ANALOGIES • Is a partial similarity among things that are different in other ways. • We try to solve a new problem by referring to a previous problem.
- 13. The Use of ANALOGIES • Look at the following series of number and find the rule that governs their order: •8, 5, 4, 9, 1, 7, 6, 3, 2, 0 •OTTFFSSENT
- 14. Factors that Affect Problem Solving Expertise Mental Sets Insight
- 15. Expert vs. Novice • Unscramble the following anagrams: • DNSUO • RCWDO • IASYD
- 17. Mental Sets • The tendency to respond to a new problem with the same approach that helped solve similar problems. • Solve our work easier, but can mislead us
- 18. Insight • “Aha! experience” • In Gestalt psychology, a sudden perception of relationships among elements of the mentally represented elements of a problem that permits its solution.
- 19. • A woman who lived in a small town married 20 different men in that same town. All of them are still living, and she never divorced any of them. Yet she broke no laws. How could she do this?
- 20. • The woman who was involved in multiple marriages is a minister. To solve this problem, you had to redefine your interpretation of the term married. – Perhaps the woman was an actress and only married the men in her role as an actress; – Perhaps the woman’s multiple marriages were annulled so she never technically divorced any of the men
- 22. Incubation • Refers to standing back from the problem for a while as some process within may continue to work on it.
- 23. Functional Fixedness • What is a pair of pliers?
- 24. Functional Fixedness • Tendency to think of an object in terms of its name or its familiar function. • ....PSYC 60VIDEOSProblem solving functional fixedness.mp4
- 26. Heuristics in Decision Making • Imagine that you flip a coin six times. In the following three possible outcomes, H stands for heads and T stands for tails. Circle the most likely sequence: • H H H H H H • H H H T T T • T H H T H T
- 27. • People tend to select T H H T H T because of the representative heuristic.
- 28. 1. Representative Heuristic • People make judgments about events (samples) according to the populations of events that they appear to represent. • The probability of achieving it is • ½ x ½ x ½ x ½ x ½ x ½, or 1/64th
- 29. 2. Availability Heuristic • Our estimates of frequency or probability are based on how easy it is to find examples or relevant events.
- 30. 3. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic • Anchor – initial view or presumption – E.g., if you grow up believing that one religion or one political party is the “right” one, that belief serves as a cognitive anchor. When inconsistencies show up in your religion or political party, you may adjust your views of them, but perhaps not willingly.
- 31. 3. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic • For group A, estimate the possible answer: 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
- 32. 3. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic • For group B, estimate the possible answer: 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8
- 33. 3. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic • Group A = 2,250 • Group B = 512
- 34. The Framing Effect • Refers to the way in which wording, or the context in which information is presented, affects decision making. – E.g., proponents of legalized abortion refer to themselves as “pro-choice” (freedom) and opponents refer to themselves as “pro-life” (life)
- 35. LANGUAGE
- 36. “It is only by language that we rise above (the lower animals)— by language, which is the parent, not the child , of thought.” - Oscar Wilde (Irish playwright)
- 37. Language • The communication of information by means of symbols arranged according to rules of grammar.
- 38. Properties of Language (Hoff, 2005)
- 39. Language and Cognition • Can you think without using language? • Would you be able to solve problems without using words or sentences?
- 40. Language and Cognition • Jean Piaget believed that language reflects knowledge of the world but that much knowledge can be acquired without language. – E.g., it is possible to understand the concepts of roundness or redness even when we do not know or use the words round or red.
- 41. Language and Culture • Different languages have different words for the same concepts, and concepts do not necessarily overlap.
- 42. LINGUISTIC-RELATIVITY HYPOTHESIS • The view that language structures the way we view the world. • Benjamin Whorf (1956) • Therefore, speakers of various languages conceptualize the world in different ways.
- 43. Language Development: The Two-Year Explosion • Prelinguistic Vocalizations crying cooing babbling
- 44. Development of Grammar • Holophrase – a single word used to express complex meanings. • Telegraphic Speech – two-word sentences; brief but grammatically correct. E.g., “Sit chair;” “My shoe;” “Mommy go”
- 45. Overregularization • The application of regular grammatical rules for forming inflections (e.g., past tense and plurals) to irregular verbs and nouns. Overregularization Correct Grammar “Daddy goed away.” “Daddy went away.” “I seed it.” “I saw it.” “Mommy sitted down.” “Mommy sat down.”
- 46. NATURE AND NURTURE IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
- 47. Learning Theory and Language Development • Imitation and reinforcement • Social-cognitive perspective, parents serve as models
- 48. The Nativist Approach to Language Development • Holds that innate factors—which make up children’s nature—cause children to attend to and acquire language in certain ways. • Children bring neurological “prewiring” to language learning
- 49. Psycholinguistic Theory • Language acquisition involves the interaction of environmental influences—such as exposure to parental speech and reinforcement—and the inborn tendency to acquire language.
- 50. Psycholinguistic Theory • Noam Chomsky refers to the inborn tendency as a language acquisition device (LAD). • The LAD prepares the nervous system to learn grammar.
- 51. INTELLIGENCE
- 52. Intelligence • A general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience
- 54. 1. Factor Theories • Intelligence is made up of a number of mental abilities, ranging from one kind of ability to hundreds. • Charles Spearman (1904) General intelligence People who excel in one area are also likely to excel in other areas g Specific abilities People are relatively superior in some areas s
- 55. Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone, 1938) • Eight specific factors • Contain the types of items measured on the most widely used intelligence tests today.
- 56. Primary Mental Abilities, According to Thurstone ABILITY DEFINITION Visual and Spatial Abilities Perceptual Speed Numerical Ability Verbal meaning Memory Word Fluency Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning Visualizing forms and spatial relationships Grasping perceptual details rapidly, perceiving similarities and differences between stimuli Computing numbers Knowing the meaning of words Recalling information (e.g., words and sentences) Thinking of words quickly (e.g., rhyming and doing crossword puzzles) Deriving examples from general rules Inferring general rules from examples
- 57. Theory of Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1983, 2002, 2006) Nine Intelligences in Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Type of Intelligence Definition Linguistic Knowing the meanings of words, having the ability to use words to understand new ideas, and using language to convey ideas to others. Logical- mathematical Understanding relations that exist among objects, actions, and ideas as well as the logical or mathematical operations that can be performed on them. Spatial Perceiving objects accurately and imagining in the “mind’s eye” the appearance of an object before and after it has been transformed. Musical Comprehending and producing sounds varying in pitch, rhythm, and emotional tone. Bodily- kinesthetic Using one’s body in highly differentiated ways as dancers, craftspeople, and athletes do.
- 58. Nine Intelligences in Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Type of Intelligence Definition Interpersonal Identifying different feelings, moods, motivations, and intention in others. Intrapersonal Understanding one’s emotions and knowing one’s strengths and weaknesses. Naturalistic Understanding the natural world, distinguishing natural objects from artifacts, grouping and labeling natural phenomena. Existential Considering “ultimate” issues, such as the purpose of life and the nature of death. Theory of Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1983, 2002, 2006)
- 59. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg, 2000; 2006) Analytic Creative Intelligence Practical
- 60. • Academic ability; solve problems and acquire new knowledge Analytical (Theoretical intelligence) • Ability to cope with novel situations and generate many possible solutions to problems. Creative (Productive intelligence) • To deal with other people, including difficult people, and to meet the demands of the environment Practical (Street Smarts)
- 61. Emotional Intelligence (Daniel Goleman, 1995) • Social and emotional skills • Intrapersonal and interpersonal skills • Self-insight and self-control (abilities to recognize and regulate one’s moods) Emotional intelligence Ability to cope with stress, depression, and aggressive behavior
- 62. Creativity and Intelligence Creativity IntelligenceModerate (Simonton, 2009)
- 63. Creativity and Intelligence Thought is limited to present facts Find the best solution; multiple choice question convergent Associates freely to the elements of the problem Generate ideas to answer an essay question divergent
- 65. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale • Binet-Simon Scale (Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, 1905) • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) by Louis Terman (1916) used in Stanford University for children aged 2 to 16 • Binet assumed that intelligence increases with age.
- 66. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Mental Age (MA) • Shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning Intelligence Quotient (IQ) • Relationship of a child’s mental age and his/her chronological age (CA)
- 67. IQ Mental Age (MA) Chronological Age (CA) = x 100
- 68. The Wechsler Scales • David Wechsler • Children and adults • Each subtest measures a different intellectual task • Verbal and performance IQs • Highlight relative strengths and weaknesses, as well as measure overall intellectual functioning