Chapter07

Lecture Slides
Chapter Seven
Thinking,
Language,
and
Intelligence
By Glenn Meyer
Trinity University

Introduction: Thinking,
Language and Intelligence
Basic Terms
Cognition
mental activities
involved in
acquiring, retaining
and using
knowledge
Thinking
manipulation of
mental
representations to
draw inferences and
conclusions
Mental image
representation of
objects or events
that are not present

The Building Blocks of
Thought
Mental Imagery and Concepts
Mental Images
• Mental images usually refer to visual
“pictures.”
• However, people can also form mental
representations that involve senses
other than vision.
• People seem to manipulate mental
images in the same way that they
manipulate their visual images of
actual objects.
• This is demonstrated in tasks involving
mentally scanning and rotating an
image.
Thinking often
involves the
manipulation of two
forms of mental
representations:
mental images and
concepts.

Concepts
Mental category of objects or ideas
based on shared properties
Using concepts makes it easier to:
Communicate with others
Remember information
Learn new information
• Concept of “food” might include
anything from a sardine to a
rutabaga
• Formal concept — mental
category formed by learning rules
Example: a substance can be
categorized as a solid, liquid, or
gas
• Natural concept — mental
category formed by everyday
experience
Natural concepts have “fuzzy”
boundaries and are not always
sharply defined
• Prototype: the best, or most
typical, example of a particular
concept
• Exemplars: individual instances

Seeing Faces and Places in the Mind’s Eye
• Same brain areas are activated in vision and imagery
• Brain-imaging techniques indicate that when we look at a
face or imagine one, the fusiform facial area (FFA) is
activated.
• When we look at pictures of a place or imagine one, the
parahippocampal place area (PPA) is activated.

Solving Problems and Making
Decisions
Problem-Solving Strategies
Trial and Error
Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating
those that don’t work
Algorithm
Using a specific rule, procedure, or method
(such as a mathematical formula) that
inevitably produces the correct solution
Example: Degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit (F
= C × 9/5 + 32)
Heuristics
Following a general rule of thumb to reduce
the number of possible solutions
Example: trying someone’s birthday as the
password to their account rather than trying
random combinations of numbers
Useful heuristics:
• Breaking a problem
into a series of
subgoals
• Working backward
Key to Successful
Problem-Solving

Insight and Intuition
Insight
Click here
Sudden realization
of how a problem
can be solved
Intuition
Click here
Coming to a conclusion or
making a judgment without
conscious awareness of the
thought processes involved
• Guiding stage — you perceive a
pattern in information, but not
consciously
• Integrative stage — a
representation of pattern
becomes conscious, usually in
form of a hunch or hypothesis

Obstacles to Solving Problems
Thinking Outside the Box
• Functional fixedness: tendency to view objects as
functioning only in their usual or customary way
• Mental set: tendency to persist in solving problems with
solutions that have worked in the past
Click on each graphic to
see the solution.

Single-feature
model
make a decision by
focusing on only one
feature
Different cognitive
strategies are used
when making decisions,
depending on the type
and number of options
available to us.
Click here
Additive model
systematically
evaluate the
important features of
each alternative
Decision-
Making
Strategies
Elimination by
aspects model
rate choices based
on features;
eliminate those that
do not meet the
desired criteria,
despite other
desirable
characteristics

Estimating the Probability of
Events —Decisions Involving
Uncertainty
The Availability Heuristic
• Judge probability of an event by how
easily you can recall previous
occurrences of that event
• Most people will overestimate deaths
from natural disasters because
disasters are frequently shown on TV
• Most people will underestimate deaths
from asthma because those deaths
don’t make local news
• The less accurately our memory of an
event reflects the actual frequency of
the event, the less accurate our
estimate of event’s likelihood will be

The
Representativeness
Heuristic
The likelihood of an event
is estimated by comparing
how similar it is to the
prototype of the event
Can produce faulty estimates if
1. Possible variations from the prototype are
not considered
2. The approximate number of prototypes that
actually exist are not considered
Research suggests
• The availability heuristic is more likely to be used when
people rely on information held in their long-term
memory to determine the likelihood of events occurring.
• The representativeness heuristic is more likely to be
used when people compare different variables to make
predictions.

The Persistence of
Unwarranted
Beliefs
Contradictory evidence can
actually strengthen a person’s
established beliefs. Why?
Obstacle 1: The Belief-Bias Effect… click here
• Occurs when people accept only the evidence that conforms to
their belief, rejecting or ignoring any evidence that does not
Obstacle 2: Confirmation Bias… click here
• Tendency to search for information or evidence that confirms a
belief, while making little or no effort to search for information that
might disprove belief
Obstacle 3: The Fallacy of Positive Instances… click here
• Tendency to remember uncommon events that seem to confirm
our beliefs and to forget events that disconfirm our beliefs
Obstacle 4: The Overestimation Effect… click here
• Tendency to overestimate the rarity of events

Language and
Thought —
Characteristics of Language
The purpose of language is to
communicate—to express
meaningful information in a
way that can be understood
by others.
Language is a
system for
combining
arbitrary
symbols to
produce an
infinite number
of meaningful
statements Generativity
Characteristics
Click here
language is
creative, or
generative; it
can generate an
infinite number
of new and
different phrases
and sentences
Displacement
language can
communicate
meaningfully
about ideas,
objects, and
activities that are
not physically
present

The Effect of Language
on Perception
Whorfian Hypothesis
• Whorf (1956) — language
determines the very
structure of thoughts and
perceptions
• Whorfian hypothesis also
called the linguistic
relativity hypothesis
• Whorf’s strong contention
that language determines
perception and structure of
thought has not been
supported
• Language use, however,
has been found to influence
particular concepts, as in
mathematics

Animal Communication
and Cognition
Animals communicate with one
another, but are they capable of
mastering language?
• Bonobos, dolphins, and parrots
can respond to spoken commands
and questions but not nearly as
well as humans
• Birds and elephants can
demonstrate cooperation, social
status, and complex memories of
the past
• Researchers are interested in the
specific cognitive capabilities that
have evolved in different species
to help them best adapt to their
ecological niche

Measuring Intelligence
Intelligence:
• Global
capacity to
think
rationally, act
purposefully,
and deal
effectively
with the
environment
• Reflected in
effective,
rational, and
goal-directed
behavior

The Development of
Intelligence Tests and
Cognition
Alfred Binet (1857–1911)
• Devised a series of tests to measure different mental
abilities for the French government
• Focused on elementary mental abilities, such as
memory, attention, and the ability to understand
similarities and differences
• Goal was to help identify “slow” children who could
benefit from special help
• Invented concept of mental age based on the average
age at which questions were answered correctly
• An “advanced” 7-year-old might have a mental age of 9,
while a “slow” 7-year-old might demonstrate a mental
age of 5

Lewis Terman and the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scales
• Developed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales at
Stanford University
• Revision of Binet’s test
• Developed the concept of IQ:
IQ formula = MA/CA × 100
Example: A bright child of a
chronological age (CA) of 8 scores at
a mental age (MA) of 12 for an IQ of
150.
12/8 x 100 = 150

World War I and Group
Intelligence Testing
• Army needed to develop mass testing option for millions
of recruits
• Two versions:
Army Alpha
test was
administered in
writing.
Army Beta test was
administered orally to
recruits and draftees
who could not read.
May have led to overuse of tests and discrimination

David Wechsler and the
Wechsler Intelligence Scales
• Dissatisfaction with Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
led to the development of the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Its several components
included:
• Verbal score: Scores on subtests of vocabulary,
comprehension, and knowledge of general
information
• Performance score: Largely nonverbal subtests:
identifying missing parts in incomplete pictures,
arranging pictures to tell a story, arranging blocks to
match a given pattern
• Calculated IQ by comparing an individual’s score with
scores of others in same general age group
• Developed for kids: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and
Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

Principles of Test Construction
Standardization
Click here
• Administration
of a test to a
large,
representative
sample of
people under
uniform
conditions for
the purpose of
establishing
norms
Norms
Click here
• Typically
closely follow
a pattern of
individual
differences
called a
normal
curve, or
normal
distribution
Validity
Click here
• Ability of a test to measure
what it is intended to
measure
• Does test correlate with
other measures of same
construct?
• School achievement?
• IQ tests (i.e., Stanford-
Binet and Wechsler)
correlate highly
• BUT, they were designed
to test what you learn in
school.
• Prestigious positions?
• On-the-job performance
and other work-related
variables?
Achievement test:
Test designed to measure a person’s
level of knowledge, skill, or
accomplishment in a particular area
Aptitude test:
test designed to assess a
person’s capacity to benefit
from education or training
Reliability
Click here
• Ability of a
test to
produce
consistent
results when
administered
on repeated
occasions
under similar
conditions

Standardization
The Normal Curve of Distribution of IQ Scores
The distribution of IQ scores on the WAIS-III in the general
population tends to follow a bell-shaped normal curve, with the
average score defined as 100. Notice that 68 percent of the
scores fall within the “normal” IQ range of 85 to 115. Ninety-five
percent of the general population score between 70 and 130,
while only one-tenth of 1 percent score lower than 55 or higher
than 145.

The Nature of Intelligence
Psychologists do not agree about the basic
nature of intelligence, including whether it is a
single, general ability, and whether it includes
skills and talents, as well as mental aptitude.

Charles
Spearman
Intelligence is
a General
Ability
g factor, or general intelligence
General intelligence: factor that is
responsible for a person’s overall
performance on tests of mental ability
Charles Spearman’s theory of intelligence
Louis L.
Thurstone
Intelligence is
a Cluster of
Abilities
Seven different “primary mental abilities”
Each a relatively independent element
of intelligence
Louis L. Thurstone’s theory of intelligence
Examples: verbal comprehension, numerical
ability, reasoning, and perceptual speed
Howard
Gardner
Multiple
Intelligences
Multiple mental abilities are independent of
one another and cannot be accurately
reflected in a single measure of intelligence
Howard Gardner’s theory of intelligence
Robert
Sternberg
Three Forms
of
Intelligence
Click here for example
Proposed a different conception of
successful intelligence
Successful intelligence involves three
distinct types:
Analytic intelligence—mental processes
used in learning how to solve problems
Creative intelligence—the ability to deal
with novel situations by drawing on existing
skills and knowledge
Practical intelligence—the ability to adapt
to the environment (street smarts)
Robert Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
Click here to close this
example

The Roles of Genetics and Environment
in Determining Intelligence
Question:
Are differences between people due to
environmental or genetic differences?
A: Both genes and environment contribute to
intelligence, but the relationship is complex.
“The nature-versus-nurture debate is
now informed by current research on
molecular biology that moves the
question from which factor is more
important to how and when expression
of the human genome is triggered and
maintained. The basic behavior genetics
issue has become how environment
influences gene expression.”
Bernard Brown (1999)
“We need to appreciate that all
human behavior is based on
biology and, hence, will involve
some degree of genetic influence.
But, equally, all social behavior is
bound to be affected by social
context and, hence, will involve an
important environmental
influence.”
Michael Rutter (1997)

Twin Studies
Identical twins
share exactly the
same genes.
Fraternal twins develop
from two different
fertilized eggs.
• Identical twins raised
together have very
similar IQ scores.
• Identical twins raised
in separate homes
have IQs that are
slightly less similar
than identical twins
raised together,
indicating the effect of
different
environments.
• Fraternal twins raised
together have IQs that
are less similar than
identical twins raised
together, but they
show more similarity
in IQ scores than
nontwin siblings
raised together.

Heredity and Environment
Heritability
Click here
• Degree to which
variation in trait stems
from genetic, rather
than environmental,
differences among
individuals
• Currently accepted
heritability estimate is
about 50% for the
general population
Environment
Click here
Degree to which variation
is due to environmental,
rather than genetic,
differences.

Group Differences in IQ Scores
• Average IQ scores can differ
between identifiable racial and
ethnic groups.
• Asian children may score higher
than European American
children in middle school.
• The difference in scores is
probably caused by a difference
in attitude and pressure toward
achievement.

Differences Within Groups
Versus Differences
Between Groups
An agricultural example
• Each cornfield planted from
same package of genetically
diverse seeds
• One field is quite fertile, the
other is not
• Within each field, the
differences are due to genetics
• Between each field, the
differences are due to
environment (fertility)
• Same point can be extended to
the issue of average IQ
differences between racial
groups
More variation in IQ
scores within a
particular group than
between groups

Differences Within Groups
Versus Differences
Between Groups
• Unless the environmental conditions of two racial groups are virtually
identical, it is impossible to estimate the overall genetic differences
between the two groups.
• Other evidence for the importance of the environment in determining
IQ scores:
• Improvement in average IQ scores has occurred in several
cultures and countries during the past few generations
• 14 nations have shown significant gains in average IQ scores in
just one generation
• Average IQ score in the United States has also steadily increased
over the past century
• Such changes in a population can be accounted for only by
environmental changes
More variation in IQ
scores within a
particular group than
between groups

Cross-Cultural Studies of Group
Discrimination and IQ Differences
• Tests reflect the culture in which
they are developed; cultural
factors also influence test-taking
behavior (culture bias)
• Burakumin of Japan are not
racially different from other
Japanese, but have suffered
from generations of
discrimination; their average IQ
scores are about10 to 15 points
below those of mainstream
Japanese
• In many other cultures, a similar
gap in IQ scores exists between
the discriminated-against
minority and the dominant
group; cross-cultural studies
show that the average IQ scores
of groups that are subject to
social discrimination are often
lower than average score of the
socially dominant group even if
no racial differences exist

Reasons for Group IQ
Differences
Processes:
• Fear that you might confirm
stereotype, which creates
psychological stress, self-doubt,
and anxiety
• Physiological arousal and
distracting thoughts interfere
with concentration, memory,
and problem-solving abilities
• Individuals who are most highly
motivated to perform well are
the ones most likely to be
affected by stereotype threat
• Being aware of how stereotype
threat can affect your
performance helps minimize its
negative effects
Stereotype Threat –
Claude Steele
A psychological
predicament in which you
fear that you will be
evaluated in terms of a
negative stereotype about a
group to which you belong;
creates anxiety and self-doubt
and can lower
performance in a particular
domain that is important to
you
Example: When reminded
of their racial identity,
white men did worse on a
math test when they
thought they were
competing with Asian men
(Aronson & others, 1999)

Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased?
• Standardized intelligence tests may reflect white,
middle-class cultural knowledge and values.
• Minority-group members may do poorly on the tests
not because of lower intelligence, but because of
unfamiliarity with the white, middle-class culture.
• It is generally recognized that it is virtually
impossible to design a test that is completely
culture-free.
• Cultural differences may also be involved in test-taking
behavior.
• Cultural factors as motivation, attitudes toward test
taking, and previous experiences with tests can
affect performance and scores on tests.

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