163 ch 14_lecture_presentation
- 1. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Meg Flemming Austin Community College C H A P T E R The Lymphatic System and Immunity 14
- 2. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 14 Learning Outcomes • 14-1 • Distinguish between innate (nonspecific) and adaptive (specific) defenses. • 14-2 • Identify the major components of the lymphatic system, and explain the functions of each. • 14-3 • List the body's innate (nonspecific) defenses and explain how each functions. • 14-4 • Define adaptive (specific) defenses, identify the forms and properties of immunity, and distinguish between cell-mediated immunity and antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity.
- 3. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 14 Learning Outcomes • 14-5 • Discuss the different types of T cells and their roles in the immune response. • 14-6 • Discuss B cell sensitization, activation, and differentiation, describe the structure and function of antibodies, and explain the primary and secondary immune responses to antigen exposure. • 14-7 • List and explain examples of immune disorders and allergies, and discuss the effects of stress on immune function. • 14-8 • Describe the effects of aging on the lymphatic system and the immune response.
- 4. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 14 Learning Outcomes • 14-9 • Give examples of interactions between the lymphatic system and other body systems.
- 5. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Basics of Immunity (14-1) • Pathogens are disease-causing organisms • Include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites • Lymphatic system • Includes cells, tissues, and organs that defend against pathogens • Lymphocytes are primary cells
- 6. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Immunity (14-1) • The ability to resist infection and disease • Innate or nonspecific immunity • Anatomical barriers and defense mechanisms • Do not distinguish between pathogens • Adaptive or specific immunity • Lymphocytes respond to specific pathogen • Called the immune response
- 7. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-1) 1. Define pathogen. 2. Explain the difference between nonspecific defense and specific defense.
- 8. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Four Components of the Lymphatic System (14-2) 1. Lymphatic vessels or lymphatics • From peripheral tissue to veins 2. Lymph fluid • Found in vessels, similar to plasma, lower in proteins 3. Lymphocytes • Specialized white blood cells 4. Lymphoid tissues and lymphoid organs
- 9. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-1 The Components of the Lymphatic System. Lymphoid Tissues and Organs Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes Cervical lymph nodes Thoracic duct Right lymphatic duct Axillary lymph nodes Lymphatics of mammary gland Cisterna chyli Lymphatics of upper limb Lumbar lymph nodes Pelvic lymph nodes Inguinal lymph nodes Lymphatics of lower limb Tonsil Thymus Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts Spleen Appendix
- 10. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Functions of the Lymphatic System (14-2) 1. Production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes 2. Returns fluid and solutes from peripheral tissues to bloodstream 3. Distributes hormones, nutrients, and waste products into general circulation
- 11. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphatic Capillaries (14-2) • Blind-end pockets in tissues • Overlapping endothelial cells • Allows fluid and solutes to enter • Prevents solutes from returning to interstitial fluid • One-way flow into larger vessels • Eventually empty into the lymphatic ducts
- 12. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-2a Lymphatic Capillaries. Interstitial fluid Blood capillaries Arteriole Smooth muscle Lymphatic capillary Endothelial cells Loose connective tissue Venule Lymph flow The interwoven network formed by blood capillaries and lymphatic capillaries. Arrows indicate the movement of fluid out of blood capillaries and the net flow of interstitial fluid and lymph.
- 13. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-2b Lymphatic Capillaries. Lymphatic valve Lymphatic vessel Lymphatic vessel and valve Like valves in veins, each lymphatic valve permits movement of fluid in only one direction. LM x 43
- 14. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphatic Ducts (14-2) • Thoracic duct • Drains lymph from lower body and upper left side • Base is enlarged cisterna chyli • Drains into left subclavian vein • Right lymphatic duct • Drains upper right side of body into right subclavian • Blockage of vessels causes lymphedema
- 15. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-3a The Lymphatic Ducts and the Venous System. Drainage of thoracic duct The thoracic duct carries lymph originating in tissues inferior to the diaphragm and from the left side of the upper body. The right lymphatic duct drains the right half of the body superior to the diaphragm. Drainage of right lymphatic duct
- 16. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-3b The Lymphatic Ducts and the Venous System. Right internal jugular vein Right lymphatic duct Right subclavian vein Superior vena cava Azygos vein Rib (cut) Left internal jugular vein Thoracic duct Left subclavian vein First rib (cut) Thoracic duct Parietal pleura (cut) Diaphragm Cisterna chyli Inferior vena cava The thoracic duct empties into the left subclavian vein. The right lymphatic duct drains into the right subclavian vein. Brachiocephalic veins
- 17. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphocytes (14-2) • Most of 1 trillion lymphocytes within lymph organs • T cells make up 80 percent • Cytotoxic, helper, suppressor, and regulatory T cells • B cells make up 10–15 percent • Plasma cells secrete antibodies or immunoglobulins • NK cells make up 5–10 percent • Natural killer cells
- 18. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphopoiesis (14-2) • Lymphocytes derived from hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow • Some lymphoid stem cells differentiate into B and NK cells • Remainder migrate to thymus • Thymosins trigger differentiation into T cells
- 19. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The second group of lymphoid stem cells migrates to the thymus, where subsequent divisions produce daughter cells that mature into T cells. One group of lymphoid stem cells remains in the red bone marrow, producing daughter cells that mature into B cells and NK cells that enter peripheral tissues. Hemocytoblasts Thymic hormones Migrate to thymus Lymphoid stem cells Production and differentiation of T cells Mature T cell Transported in the bloodstream Lymphoid stem cells Lymphoid stem cells Mature T cell B cells NK cells As they mature, B cells and NK cells enter the bloodstream and migrate to peripheral tissues. Peripheral Tissues Cell-mediated immunity Mature T cells leave the circulation to take temporary residence in peripheral tissues. All three types of lymphocytes circulate throughout the body in the bloodstream. Antibody-mediated immunity Immunological surveillance Thymus Red Bone Marrow Figure 14-4 The Origin and Distribution of Lymphocytes.
- 20. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphoid Nodules (14-2) • Small, non-encapsulated masses of lymphoid tissue • Germinal center where lymphocyte division occurs • Protect epithelia in body systems open to the external environment • Collections referred to as mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues (MALT) • Tonsils, Peyer patches, vermiform appendix
- 21. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. MALT (14-2) • Tonsils in pharynx • Pharyngeal/adenoid • Palatine • Lingual • Peyer patches in lining of intestines • Vermiform appendix near junction of small and large intestines
- 22. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Pharyngeal tonsil Palate Palatine tonsil Lingual tonsil Figure 14-5 The Tonsils.
- 23. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymph Nodes (14-2) • Encapsulated lymphoid tissue • Concentrated in neck, armpits, and groin • Afferent lymphatics bring lymph to node • Pathogens are filtered from lymph • Macrophages and dendritic cells destroy pathogens • T and B cells are activated • Efferent lymphatic drains node
- 24. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-6 The Structure of a Lymph Node. Efferent vessel Lymph node artery and vein Medulla Cortex Subcapsular space Deep cortex (T cells) Capsule Medullary cord (B cells and plasma cells) Afferent vessel Outer cortex (B cells) Medullary sinus
- 25. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Thymus (14-2) • Located in mediastinum, posterior to sternum • Site of T cell production and maturation • Develops to maximum size during puberty • Gradually atrophies after that • Has two lobes made of lobules • Cortex contains T cells and thymosins • Medulla has capillaries where T cells enter circulation
- 26. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lobule Lobule Figure 14-7 The Thymus. Thyroid gland Trachea Right lobe Diaphragm The appearance and position of the thymus in relation to other organs in the chest. Right lung Left lung THYMUS Left lobe Heart Right lobe Left lobe Septa Lobule Anatomical landmarks on the thymus. Medulla Septa Cortex Lobule Lobule The thymus gland LM x 50 Fibrous septa divide the tissue of the thymus into lobules resembling interconnected lymphoid nodules.
- 27. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Spleen (14-2) • Largest collection of lymphoid tissue • Red pulp contains a lot of RBCs • White pulp resembles lymphoid nodules • Located between stomach, left kidney, and diaphragm • Functions similar to lymph nodes
- 28. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-8a The Spleen. Rib Pancreas Aorta Spleen Stomach Diaphragm Gastric area SPLEEN Hilum Renal area Kidneys A transverse section through the trunk, showing the typical position of the spleen projecting into the abdominopelvic cavity. The shape of the spleen roughly conforms to the shapes of adjacent organs. Liver
- 29. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-8b The Spleen. Gastric area Renal area Hilum Splenic vein Splenic artery Splenic lymphatic vessel INFERIOR A posterior view of the surface of an intact spleen, showing major anatomical landmarks. SUPERIOR
- 30. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-8c The Spleen. White pulp of splenic nodule Capsule Red pulp Arteries The spleen LM x 50 The histological appearance of the spleen. White pulp is dominated by lymphocytes; it appears purple because the nuclei of lymphocytes stain very darkly. Red pulp contains a large number of red blood cells.
- 31. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-2) 3. List the components of the lymphatic system. 4. How would blockage of the thoracic duct affect the circulation of lymph? 5. If the thymus gland failed to produce thymic hormones, which population of lymphocytes would be affected in what way? 6. Why do lymph nodes enlarge during some infections?
- 32. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Innate (Nonspecific) Defenses (14-3) • Present at birth • Do not distinguish between threats • Include physical barriers, phagocytic cells, immunological surveillance, interferons, complement, inflammation, and fever • Provide body with nonspecific resistance PLAYPLAY ANIMATION Immunity: Non-specific Defenses
- 33. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-9 The Body’s Innate Defenses. Innate Defenses Physical barriers Phagocytes Immunological surveillance Interferons Complement system Inflammatory response Fever Duct of sweat gland Hair Secretions Epithelium Fixed macrophage Free macrophage Eosinophil MonocyteNeutrophil Natural killer cell Lysed abnormal cell Interferons released by activated lymphocytes, macrophages, or virus-infected cells Complement Lysed pathogen Blood flow increased Phagocytes activated Capillary permeability increased Complement activated Clotting reaction walls off region Regional temperature increased Adaptive defenses activated Body temperature rises above 37.2°C in response to pyrogens Mast cell 1. 2. 3. 4. 7. 5. 6. 100 80 60 40 20 0
- 34. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Physical Barriers (14-3) • Provide blocking from invasive pathogens • Include skin • Keratin coating and tight desmosome junctions • Hair acts as barrier to hazardous material and insects • Secretions from glands flush surface and have lysozymes • Mucous membranes • Special enzymes, antibodies, and low pH
- 35. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Phagocytes (14-3) • "First line of cellular defense" by removing cellular debris • Move into tissues through diapedesis • Respond to surrounding chemicals through chemotaxis • Microphages • Neutrophils and eosinophils • Leave bloodstream, enter infected tissue to phagocytize
- 36. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Phagocytes (14-3) • Macrophages • Derived from monocytes • Some fixed, some free • Make up the monocyte–macrophage system • Specialized fixed macrophages • Microglial cells in CNS • Kupffer cells in liver
- 37. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Immunological Surveillance (14-3) • Normal cells contain proteins that identify cells as "self" called antigens • Abnormal cells have "non-self" or foreign antigens • NK cells recognize foreign antigens • Secrete perforins, killing the cells • Rapid response
- 38. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Interferons (14-3) • A cytokine released by activated lymphocytes, macrophages, and infected tissue cells • Normal cell response to interferons • Produce antiviral proteins • Slow spread of viral infections • Stimulate macrophages and NK cells
- 39. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Complement System (14-3) • Involves 11 plasma complement proteins • Support action of antibodies • Functions in cascade-event mechanism to: • Attract phagocytes • Stimulate phagocytosis • Destroy plasma membranes • Promote inflammation
- 40. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Inflammation (14-3) • Localized response to injury • Produces swelling, redness, heat, and pain • Due to release of histamines and heparin • Effects include: • Temporary repair of damaged tissue • Slowing the spread of pathogens away from injury • Mobilizing defenses to promote regeneration
- 41. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Inflammation (14-3) • Tissue destruction occurs before repair • Called necrosis • Caused by lysosomal enzymes • Pus is dead and dying cells accumulating at injury site • Abscess is pus enclosed in a tissue space
- 42. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-10 Events in Inflammation. Tissue Damage Chemical change in interstitial fluid Mast Cell Activation Release of histamine and heparin from mast cells Redness, Swelling, Heat, and Pain Phagocyte Attraction Dilation of blood vessels, increased blood flow, increased vessel permeability Clot formation (temporary repair) Release of cytokines Removal of debris by neutrophils and macrophages; stimulation of fibroblasts Activation of specific defenses Pathogen removal, clot erosion, scar tissue formation Tissue Repair Attraction of phagocytes, especially neutrophils
- 43. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fever (14-3) • Defined as body temperature >37.2°C (99°F) • Pyrogens • Proteins that reset temperature center in hypothalamus • Elevate body temperature • Mild fever is beneficial, increasing metabolism • High fever, >40°C (104°F), can cause CNS problems
- 44. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-3) 7. List the body's nonspecific defenses. 8. What types of cells would be affected by a decrease in the number of monocyte-forming cells in red bone marrow? 9. A rise in the level of interferon in the body indicates what kind of infection? 10.What effects do pyrogens have in the body?
- 45. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Adaptive (Specific) Defenses (14-4) • Provided by coordinated activities of T and B cells • Cell-mediated immunity • Result of T cell defense specifically against pathogens inside living cells • Antibody-mediated immunity • Result of B cell defense specifically against pathogens in body fluids
- 46. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Two Types of Immunity (14-4) 1. Innate or nonspecific immunity • Present at birth • Includes nonspecific defenses 2. Adaptive or specific immunity • Not present at birth • Acquired either actively or passively • Acquired either naturally or artificially
- 47. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Active Immunity (14-4) • Individual is exposed to an antigen • Immune response occurs • Naturally acquired active immunity • Due to exposure to pathogens in environment • Artificially acquired active immunity • Antibody production stimulated through vaccines
- 48. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Passive Immunity (14-4) • Due to transfer of antibodies from other source • Naturally acquired passive immunity • Antibodies provided to baby through placental transfer or, after birth, through breast milk • Artificially acquired passive immunity • Antibodies are injected to fight infection or disease
- 49. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Four Properties of Adaptive Immunity (14-4) 1. Specificity • Antigen recognition is a specific response to specific antigen 2. Versatility • Immune system produces millions of different lymphocyte populations, each for a specific antigen
- 50. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Four Properties of Adaptive Immunity (14-4) 3. Memory • First exposure triggers development of memory cells • Second exposure to an antigen triggers stronger, longer immune response 3. Tolerance • Exists when immune system does not respond to "self" antigens • Any T or B cells that attack "self" are destroyed
- 51. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Immunity The ability to resist infection and disease Adaptive (Specific) Immunity Adaptive immunity is not present at birth; you acquire immunity to a specific antigen only when you have been exposed to that antigen or receive antibodies from another source. Active Immunity Develops in response to antigen exposure Passive Immunity Produced by transfer of antibodies from another source Innate (Nonspecific) Immunity Present at birth— anatomical and other defense mechanisms Naturally acquired active immunity Develops after exposure to antigens in environment Artificially induced active immunity Naturally acquired passive immunity Artificially induced passive immunity Develops after administration of an antigen to prevent disease Conferred by transfer of maternal antibodies across placenta or in breast milk Conferred by administration of antibodies to combat infection Figure 14-11 Types of Immunity.
- 52. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-12 An Overview of the Immune Response. Adaptive Defenses Antigen presentation triggers specific defenses, or an immune response. Slide 1
- 53. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-12 An Overview of the Immune Response. Adaptive Defenses Cell-Mediated Immunity Antibody-Mediated Immunity Antigen presentation triggers specific defenses, or an immune response. Phagocytes activated T cells activated Communication and feedback Activated B cells give rise to cells that produce antibodies. Slide 2
- 54. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-12 An Overview of the Immune Response. Adaptive Defenses Cell-Mediated Immunity Direct Physical and Chemical Attack Antibody-Mediated Immunity Attack by Circulating Antibodies Destruction of antigens Antigen presentation triggers specific defenses, or an immune response. Phagocytes activated T cells activated Communication and feedback Activated T cells find the pathogens and attack them through phagocytosis or the release of chemical toxins. Activated B cells give rise to cells that produce antibodies. Slide 3
- 55. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-4) 11. Distinguish between cell-mediated (cellular) immunity and antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity. 12. Identify the two forms of active immunity and the two types of passive immunity. 13. List the four general properties of adaptive immunity.
- 56. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Antigen Presentation (14-5) • Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins • Antigen-binding receptors are genetically determined • Class I MHC protein • In plasma membrane of all nucleated cells • Identifies the cell as foreign • Activates a T cell attack on that cell when an antigen binds to it
- 57. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Class II MHC Proteins (14-5) • Found in membranes of lymphocytes and antigen- presenting cells (APCs) • All phagocytes and dendritic cells • APCs phagocytize pathogens and foreign antigens • Fragments are then displayed by binding to MHC • T cells that engage with these APCs respond with immune response
- 58. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. T Cell Activation (14-5) • T cells have membrane proteins, CD markers • Type of CD marker determines response to MHCs • Two key CD markers 1. CD8 T cells respond to Class I MHC proteins 2. CD4 T cells respond to Class II MHC proteins • When activated, T cells differentiate into cytotoxic, helper, memory, and suppressor T cells
- 59. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Cytotoxic T Cells (14-5) • CD8 cells responsible for cell-mediated immunity • Activated cells divide into cytotoxic and memory cells • Destroy bacteria, fungi, transplanted tissue by: • Secreting lymphotoxins, disrupting target metabolism • Secreting cytokines that activate apoptosis, genetically programmed cell death • Secreting perforins that rupture plasma membrane
- 60. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Antigen Recognition Activation and Cell Division Destruction of Target Cells Antigen recognition occurs when a cytotoxic T cell encounters an appropriate antigen on the surface of another cell, bound to a Class I MHC protein. Antigen recognition results in T cell activation and cell division producing active cytotoxic T cells and memory T cells. The active cytotoxic T cell destroys the antigen-bearing cell. It may use several different mecha- nisms to kill the target cell. Infected cell Viral or bacterial antigen Inactive cytotoxic T cell Class I MHC protein T cell receptor Antigen Active cytotoxic T cells Memory T cells (inactive) Lymphotoxin release Cytokine release Perforin release Stimulat- ion of apoptosis Disruption of cell metabol- ism Destruct- ion of plasma membrane Lysed cell Figure 14-13 Antigen Recognition and Activation of Cytotoxic T Cells
- 61. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Helper T Cells (14-5) • CD4 T cells • Secrete various cytokines • Stimulate both cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity • Divide into memory and active helper T cells
- 62. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Memory T Cells (14-5) • Both cytotoxic and helper T cells can divide into memory cells • Are in reserve to mount a rapid attack if the same antigen appears again • Will rapidly differentiate into cytotoxic and helper T cells
- 63. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Suppressor T Cells (14-5) • Are CD8 cells that develop slowly • Dampen response of other T cells and B cells • Secrete cytokines called suppression factors • Limit degree of immune response
- 64. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-5) 14. Identify the four types of T cells. 15. How can the presence of an abnormal peptide within a cell start an immune response? 16. A decrease in the number of cytotoxic T cells would affect what type of immunity? 17. How would a lack of helper T cells affect the antibody-mediated immune response?
- 65. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. B Cell Activation and Sensitization (14-6) • Each B cell has specific antibody molecule • When matching antigen appears: • Antibodies will bind to and engulf them • Antigens bind to Class II MHC causing sensitization • Active B cells divide into: • Plasma cells that secrete large amounts of antibodies • Memory B cells in reserve for second response
- 66. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-14 The B Cell Response to Antigen Exposure. Sensitization Antigens Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell Slide 1
- 67. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-14 The B Cell Response to Antigen Exposure. Sensitization Activation Antigens Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell Sensitized B cell Helper T cell T cell Antigen B cell Class II MHC T cell receptor Slide 2
- 68. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-14 The B Cell Response to Antigen Exposure. Sensitization Activation Division and Differentiation Antigens Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell Sensitized B cell Helper T cell T cell Antigen B cell Stimulation by cytokines ANTIBODY PRODUCTION Activated B cells Memory B cells (inactive) Class II MHC T cell receptor Plasma cells Slide 3
- 69. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Antibody Structure (14-6) • A Y-shaped protein with two parallel pairs of chains • One pair of long heavy chains • Constant segment provides base for antibody • One pair of light chains • Antigen binding sites • The free tips of variable segments • Determine the specificity of antibody
- 70. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-15 Antibody Structure. Antigen binding site Variable segment Constant segments of light and heavy chains A diagrammatic view of the structure of an antibody Heavy chain Disulfide bond Antigen binding site Light chain Complement binding site Site of binding to macrophages Antigenic determinant sites Antigen Antibodies Antibodies bind to portions of an antigen called antigenic determinant sites.
- 71. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Antigen–Antibody Complex (14-6) • Antibodies bind to portions of antigen called antigenic determinant sites • Depends on three-dimensional fit between variable segments and the antigen • A complete antigen has at least two antigenic determinant sites
- 72. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Five Classes of Antibodies (14-6) • Antibodies also called immunoglobulins (Igs) 1. IgG • Largest and most diverse class • Responsible for resistance against viruses, bacteria • Can cross the placenta for passive immunity for fetus 2. IgM • Attack bacteria • Responsible for cross-reactions of blood types
- 73. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Five Classes of Antibodies (14-6) 3. IgA • Found in exocrine secretions like tears, saliva • Attack antigens before they enter the body 4. IgE • Stimulates basophils and inflammatory response 5. IgD • Attached to B cells, aid in sensitization
- 74. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 14-1 Classes of Antibodies
- 75. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Six Functions of Antibodies (14-6) 1. Neutralization • Antigen–antibody complex prevents antigen from attaching to a cell 2. Agglutination and precipitation • Antibodies bind to several antigens forming large complexes, process called agglutination • Precipitation occurs when large complexes settle out of solution
- 76. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Six Functions of Antibodies (14-6) 3. Activation of complement • When antibody binds to antigen, it changes shape allowing it to bind with complement proteins 4. Attraction of phagocytes • Antigen–antibody complex attracts eosinophils, neutrophils, and macrophages
- 77. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Six Functions of Antibodies (14-6) 5. Enhancement of phagocytosis • Coating of antibodies and complement makes pathogens easier to phagocytize • Referred to as opsonins, causing opsonization 6. Stimulation of inflammation • Antibodies stimulate basophils and mast cells, mobilizing nonspecific defenses
- 78. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Primary and Secondary Responses (14-6) • Primary response takes time to develop • Antigen must activate B cells, which then differentiate • Plasma cell antibody secretion takes 1–2 weeks to develop • Secondary response • Memory B cells differentiate into plasma cells when exposed the second time • Increase in IgG is immediate and higher than first response
- 79. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14-16 The Primary and Secondary Immune Responses. FIRST EXPOSURE SECOND EXPOSURE Secondary response Primary response Time (weeks) Antibodyconcentration inblood
- 80. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 14-2 Cells That Participate in Tissue Defenses
- 81. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Cell-Mediated Immunity Antibody-Mediated Immunity Adaptive (Specific) Defenses Innate (Nonspecific) Defenses Destruction of Antigens Antigens KEY Trigger Complement system NK cells, Macrophages Antigen presentation by APCs Antigen and Class I MHC Protein Indicates that the cell is infected or otherwise abnormal Antigen and Class II MHC Protein Indicates the presence of pathogens, toxins, or foreign proteins CD8 T cells CD4 T cells Cytotoxic T Cells Memory Tc Cells Suppressor T Cells Helper T Cells Memory TH Cells Attack and destroy infected and abnormal cells displaying antigen Await reappearance of the antigen Moderate immune response by T cells and B cells Stimulate immune response by T cells and B cells Await reappearance of the antigen Activation of B cells Production of memory B cells Direct physical and chemical attack Production of plasma cells Attack by circulating proteins Secretion of antibodies Direct physical and chemical attack Inhibition Figure 14 -17 A Summary of the Immune Response and Its Relationship to Innate (Nonspecific) Defenses.
- 82. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Hormones of the Immune System (14-6) • Cytokines are chemical coordinators of defenses • Interleukins (IL) are most diverse • Increase T cell sensitivity to antigens • Stimulate B cell activity and antibody production • Enhance nonspecific defenses • Some suppress immune function • Interferons make cells resistant to viral infection • Attract and stimulate NK cells
- 83. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Hormones of the Immune System (14-6) • Tumor necrosis factors (TNFs) • Slow tumor growth and kill tumor cells • Stimulate neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils • Phagocytic regulators • Coordinate specific and nonspecific defenses by adjusting phagocyte activity
- 84. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Hormones of the Immune System (14-6) • Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) • Stimulate production of blood cells in bone marrow and of lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues
- 85. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-6) 18. Define sensitization. 19. Describe the structure of an antibody. 20. A sample of lymph contains an elevated number of plasma cells. Would you expect the number of antibodies in the blood to be increasing or decreasing? Why? 21. Would the primary response or the secondary response be more affected by a lack of memory B cells for a particular antigen?
- 86. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Autoimmune Disorders (14-7) • Activated B cells begin to develop autoantibodies • Autoantibodies attack normal cells and tissues • Rheumatoid arthritis • Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus • Some virus-related proteins resemble normal tissue proteins • Explains neurological damage after vaccine or virus
- 87. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Immunodeficiency Diseases (14-7) • Immune system fails to develop normally or: • Immune response is blocked somehow • AIDS is result of viral destruction of T cells • Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) • Infants fail to develop cell- or antibody-mediated immunity
- 88. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Allergies (14-7) • Inappropriate or excessive immune responses • Four types of allergies 1. Immediate hypersensitivity, hay fever 2. Cytotoxic reactions, cross-reactions in transfusions 3. Immune complex disorders, slow phagocyte activity 4. Delayed hypersensitivity, poison ivy
- 89. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anaphylaxis (14-7) • A type I, immediate hypersensitivity • Rapid changes in capillary permeability causing swelling • Raised welts or hives • Smooth muscles in airways contract • Can lead to circulatory failure, anaphylactic shock
- 90. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-7) 22. Under what circumstances is an autoimmune disorder produced? 23. How does increased stress reduce the effectiveness of the immune response?
- 91. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Immunity and Aging (14-8) • T cells become less responsive • Fewer cytotoxic T cells to respond to infection • B cells become less responsive • Slower production of antibodies • Increase in susceptibility to viral and bacterial infections • Increase in incidence of cancer due to less effective tumor cell destruction
- 92. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-8) 24. Why are the elderly more susceptible to viral and bacterial infections? 25. What may account for the increased incidence of cancer among the elderly?
- 93. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphatics Essential for All Systems (14-9) • Endocrine responses to infection triggers increases in metabolic activity • Some dendritic cells are innervated • Neurotransmitter release increases local immune response • Emotional stress can decrease immune response
- 94. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Provides physical barriers to pathogen entry; macrophages in dermis resist infection and present antigens to trigger immune response; mast cells trigger inflammation, mobilize cells of lymphatic system Lymphocytes and other cells involved in the immune response are produced and stored in red bone marrow Protects superficial lymph nodes and the lymphatic vessels in the abdominopelvic cavity; muscle contractions help propel lymph along lymphatic vessels Microglia present antigens that stimulate adaptive defenses; glial cells secrete cytokines; innervation stimulates antigen-presenting cells Glucocorticoids have anti-inflammatory effects; thymosins stimulate development and maturation of lymphocytes; many hormones affect immune function Distributes WBCs; carries antibodies that attack pathogens; clotting response helps restrict spread of pathogens; granulocytes and lymphocytes produced in red bone marrow Provides IgA antibodies for secretion onto integumentary surfaces Assists in repair of bone after injuries; osteoclasts differentiate from monocyte–macrophage cell line Assists in repair after injuries Cytokines affect production of CRH and TRH by hypothalamus Thymus secretes thymosins; cytokines affect cells throughout the body Fights infections of cardio- vascular organs; returns tissue fluid to circulation For all body systems, the lymphatic system provides adaptive (specific) defenses against infection. The lymphatic system is an anatomically distinct system. In comparison, the immune system is a physiological system that includes the lymphatic system, as well as components of the integumentary, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and other body systems. Through immunological surveillance, pathogens and abnormal body cells are continuously eliminated throughout the body. Lymphatic System Body SystemBody System Lymphatic System Integum- entary SkeletalMuscularNervousEndocr- ing Cardiov- ascular SYSTEM INTEGRATOR Integum- entary SkeletalMuscularNervousEndocri- ne Cardiov- ascular (Page376)(Page467) (Page302)(Page241)(Page188) (Page138) Respira- tory (Page532) Digesti- ve Urinary (Page572) (Page637) (Page671) Reprod- uctive Figure 14 -18
- 95. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (14-9) 26. Identify the role of the lymphatic system for all body systems. 27. How does the cardiovascular system aid the body's defense mechanisms?