163 ch 16_lecture_presentation
- 1. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Meg Flemming Austin Community College C H A P T E R 16 The Digestive System
- 2. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 16 Learning Outcomes • 16-1 • Identify the organs of the digestive system, list their major functions, and describe the four layers of the wall of the digestive tract. • 16-2 • Discuss the anatomy of the oral cavity, and list the functions of its major structures. • 16-3 • Describe the structures and functions of the pharynx and esophagus, and the key events of the swallowing process. • 16-4 • Describe the anatomy of the stomach, including its histological features, and discuss its roles in digestion and absorption.
- 3. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 16 Learning Outcomes • 16-5 • Describe the anatomy of the small intestine, including its histological features, and explain the functions and regulation of intestinal secretions. • 16-6 • Describe the structure and functions of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder, and explain how their activities are regulated. • 16-7 • Describe the structure of the large intestine, including its regional specializations, and list its absorptive functions. • 16-8 • List the nutrients required by the body, describe the chemical digestion of organic nutrients, and discuss the absorption of organic and inorganic nutrients.
- 4. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 16 Learning Outcomes • 16-9 • Describe the effects of aging on the digestive system. • 16-10 • Give examples of interactions between the digestive system and each of the other organ systems.
- 5. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Digestive System Basics (16-1) • Digestive tract, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract • Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, anus • Accessory organs contribute to digestion • Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, and pancreas
- 6. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Six Functions of the Digestive System (16-1) 1. Ingestion • Food enters mouth 2. Mechanical processing • Physical manipulation that enhances movement • Increases surface area for enzymes to work 3. Digestion • Chemical breakdown of food to absorbable size
- 7. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Six Functions of Digestive System (16-1) 4. Secretion • Release of water, acids, enzymes, and buffers into lumen 4. Absorption • Movement of nutrient molecules across digestive epithelium and into interstitial fluid of body 6. Excretion • Elimination of waste products
- 8. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-1 The Components of the Digestive System. Exocrine cells secrete buffers and digestive enzymes; endocrine cells secrete hormones Major Subdivisions of the Digestive Tract Oral Cavity, Teeth, Tongue Mechanical processing, moistening, mixing with salivary secretions Pharynx Muscular propulsion of materials into the esophagus Esophagus Transport of materials to the stomach Stomach Chemical breakdown of materials by acid and enzymes; mechanical processing through muscular contractions Small Intestine Enzymatic digestion and absorption of water, organic substrates, vitamins, and ions Large Intestine Dehydration and compaction of indigestible materials in preparation for elimination Anus Accessory Organs of the Digestive System Salivary glands Secretion of lubricat- ing fluid containing enzymes that break down carbohydrates Liver Secretion of bile (important for lipid digestion), storage of nutrients, many other vital functions Gallbladder Storage and concentration of bile Pancreas Mouth
- 9. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Four Histological Layers of the GI Tract (16-1) 1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis externa 4. Serosa
- 10. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Mucosa (16-1) • Inner lining of lumen of GI tract • Layered epithelium, lamina propria • Stratified squamous in high physical stress organs • Rest is simple columnar with surface modifications • Ducts of secretory glands open to surface of epithelium • Villi and microvilli increase surface area • Muscularis mucosae moves mucosal folds and villi
- 11. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Submucosa (16-1) • Dense irregular connective tissue • Binds mucosa to muscularis externa • Contains blood vessels and lymphatics • Submucosal plexus on outer border • A neural network that can function without CNS • Regulates secretions and motility • Also has parasympathetic neurons and sensory neurons
- 12. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscularis Externa (16-1) • Inner circular and outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle • Function to mix and propel materials • Myenteric plexus between layers of muscle • Contains parasympathetic ganglia, sensory neurons, interneurons, and sympathetic postganglionic fibers • Parasympathetic is excitatory, increases activity • Sympathetic is inhibitory, decreases activity
- 13. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Serosa (16-1) • Serous membrane is the peritoneum • Mesenteries • Specialized peritoneum helps to organize and stabilize GI tract, lymphatics, blood vessels, and nerves • Adventitia • Name of outer layer of oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and rectum
- 14. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-2 The Structure of the Digestive Tract. Mesenteric artery and vein Mesentery Circular fold Circular fold Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa (visceral peritoneum) Mucosal epithelium Lamina propria Mucosa Villi Mucosal glands Submucosal gland Muscularis mucosae Lymphatic vessel Artery and vein Submucosal plexus Circular muscle layer Myenteric plexus Longitudinal muscle layer
- 15. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Movement of Digestive Materials (16-1) • Pacesetter cells in smooth muscle trigger contraction • Peristalsis • Waves of contraction initiated by circular layer, followed by longitudinal layer • Propels material down tract • Segmentation • A mixing action with no propulsion
- 16. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-3 Peristalsis. Circular muscle Longitudinal muscle Initial State To anus Contraction of circular muscles behind bolus Contraction Contraction of longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus Contraction Contraction in circular muscle layer forces bolus forward Contraction From mouth
- 17. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-1) 1. Identify the organs of the digestive system. 2. List and define the six primary functions of the digestive system. 3. Describe the functions of the mesenteries. 4. Name the layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep. 5. Which is more efficient in propelling intestinal contents from one place to another—peristalsis or segmentation?
- 18. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Oral Cavity (16-2) • Also called the buccal cavity • Receiver of food lined with oral mucosa • Senses material before swallowing • Mechanically processes material • Lubricates material with saliva and mucus • Begins enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates and lipids • Gingivae • The gums that surround base of teeth
- 19. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Oral Cavity (16-2) • Boundaries • Cheeks form lateral walls • Labia or lips are continuous with cheeks • Hard and soft palates form roof of cavity • Tongue forms the floor • Free edge of tongue is attached to floor with lingual frenulum • Oropharynx starts at base of tongue and uvula
- 20. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Hard palate Soft palate Palatal arches Palatine tonsil Lingual frenulum Gingiva Vestibule An anterior view of the oral cavity, as seen through the open mouth Upper labium (lip) CheekUvula Lower labium (lip) Hyoid bone Nasal cavity Pharyngeal tonsil Entrance to auditory tube Nasopharynx Uvula Palatine tonsil Palatal arch Oropharynx Lingual tonsil Epiglottis Laryngopharynx Sagittal section of the oral cavity Hard palate Soft palate Gingiva Vestibule Tongue Tongue Figure 16-4 The Oral Cavity.
- 21. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Tongue (16-2) • Manipulates food within oral cavity • Mechanically compresses, abrades, distorts material • Assists in chewing and forming a bolus to swallow • Sensory analysis of taste, touch, temperature • Lingual tonsils • Paired lymphoid nodules at base of tongue
- 22. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Salivary Glands (16-2) • Parotid • On each side of oral cavity between mandible and skin • Parotid duct empties at level of second upper molar • Sublingual • Under mucous membrane on floor of mouth • Submandibular • Lateral sides of floor of mouth
- 23. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Parotid salivary gland Parotid duct Openings of sublingual ducts Lingual frenulum Opening of left submandibular duct Sublingual salivary gland Submandibular salivary gland Submandibular duct Figure 16-5 The Salivary Glands.
- 24. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Saliva (16-2) • About 1–1.5 liters produced each day • While eating, pH rises from 6.7 to 7.5 • Contents and functions • 99.4 percent water and mucins, lubricate and reduce friction • Ions and buffers, change pH • Enzyme salivary amylase begin chemical digestion of starches
- 25. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Teeth (16-2) • Perform chewing or mastication • Neck is boundary between root and crown • Enamel covers crown, requires Ca2+ , phosphates, and vitamin D3 • Dentin makes up most of tooth • Pulp cavity has blood vessels and nerves through root canal • Periodontal ligament, with cementum, binds to bone
- 26. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Teeth (16-2) • Incisors • At front, blade-shaped for cutting • Cuspids • Or canines, for tearing or slashing • Bicuspids or premolars and molars • Have flattened crowns with ridges • For crushing, mashing, and grinding
- 27. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Dental Succession (16-2) • Deciduous • Primary, baby or milk teeth, usually 20 in number • Periodontal ligaments and roots erode during eruption of adult teeth • Secondary dentition • Permanent teeth 32 in number • Third molars or wisdom teeth are last to come in
- 28. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Crown Neck Root Pulp cavity Enamel Dentin Gingiva Cementum Periodontal ligament Root canal Bone of alveolus Branches of blood vessels and nerve Diagrammatic section through a typical adult tooth Figure 16-6a Teeth: Structural Components and Dental Succession.
- 29. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Central incisors (7.5 mo) UPPER JAW Lateral incisor (9 mo) Cuspid (18 mo) Primary 1st molar (14 mo) Primary 2nd molar (24 mo) Primary 2nd molar (20 mo) Primay 1st molar (12 mo) Cuspid (16 mo) Lateral incisor (7 mo) LOWER JAWCentral incisors (6 mo) Primary teeth, with the age at eruption given in months Hard palate Figure 16-6b Teeth: Structural Components and Dental Succession.
- 30. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Central incisors (7–8 yr) Upper dental arch Hard palate Lower dental arch Lateral incisor (8–9 yr) Cuspid (11–12 yr) 1st Premolar (10–11 yr) 2nd Premolar (10–12 yr) 1st Molar (6–7 yr) 2nd Molar (12–13 yr) 3rd Molar (17–21 yr) 3rd Molar (17–21 yr) 2nd Molar (11–13 yr) 1st Molar (6–7 yr) 2nd Premolar (11–12 yr) 1st Premolar (10–12 yr) Cuspid (9–10 yr) Lateralincisor (7–8 yr) Central incisors (6–7 yr) Adult teeth, with the age of eruption given in years Figure 16-6c Teeth: Structural Components and Dental Succession.
- 31. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-2) 6. Name the structures associated with the oral cavity. 7. The oral cavity is lined by which type of epithelium? 8. The digestion of which nutrient would be affected by damage to the parotid salivary glands? 9. Which type of tooth is most useful for chopping off bits of raw vegetables?
- 32. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Pharynx (16-3) • Food passes through oropharynx and laryngopharynx to esophagus • Mucosa is stratified squamous epithelium • Lamina propria contains mucous glands and tonsils • Muscles cooperate with oral cavity and esophageal muscles for swallowing
- 33. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Esophagus (16-3) • Muscular tube acts as passageway from pharynx to stomach • Posterior to trachea • Enters abdominal cavity through esophageal hiatus in diaphragm • Lined with stratified squamous epithelium • Circular muscles at either end form upper and lower esophageal sphincters
- 34. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Swallowing (16-3) • Also called deglutition • Initiated voluntarily, proceeds automatically • Tongue forms bolus or small mass • Three phases 1. Buccal phase • Voluntary 2. Pharyngeal phase 3. Esophageal phase • Pharyngeal and esophageal phases are involuntary due to swallowing reflex triggered by pharyngeal stretch
- 35. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-7 The Swallowing Process. Buccal Phase Soft palate Bolus Epiglottis Esophagus Trachea Pharyngeal Phase Tongue Bolus Esophageal Phase Peristalsis Trachea Bolus Enters Stomach Thoracic cavityLower esophageal sphincter Stomach
- 36. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-3) 10. Describe the function of the pharynx. 11. Name the structure connecting the pharynx to the stomach. 12. What process is occurring when the soft palate and larynx elevate and the glottis closes?
- 37. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Stomach (16-4) • Four functions 1. Temporary storage of ingested food 2. Mechanical breakdown of ingested food 3. Chemical digestion by acids and enzymes 4. Production of intrinsic factor needed for vitamin B12 absorption • Chyme is mixture of food and gastric secretions
- 38. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Stomach (16-4) • Four regions 1. Cardia • Where the esophagus connects 2. Fundus • Bulge of superior stomach 3. Body • Largest area between fundus and pylorus 4. Pylorus • Most distal, connects stomach to small intestine • Pyloric sphincter regulates flow of chyme into small intestine
- 39. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Stomach (16-4) • Can expand to accommodate up to 1.5 liters • Rugae are folds of mucosa when stomach is empty • Muscularis externa • Has circular, longitudinal, and third oblique layer • Greater omentum • Peritoneal pouch extends from stomach down over viscera • Lesser omentum • Extends from stomach to liver
- 40. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Gastric Wall (16-4) • Lined with simple columnar epithelium with numerous mucous cells • Secretes alkaline mucus that protects epithelium • Gastric pits • Shallow depressions that open to surface • Neck cells undergo active mitosis, replacing mucosal cells • Gastric glands • In fundus, body, and pylorus, secrete through gastric pits • Cells produce 1.5 liters/day of gastric juice
- 41. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Gastric Gland Cells (16-4) • Parietal cells secrete: • Intrinsic factor for vitamin B12 absorption • Hydrochloric acid (HCl) • Lowers pH of gastric juice to 1.5–2.0 • Kills microorganisms and activates enzymes • Chief cells secrete: • Pepsinogen, activated by HCl into proteolytic enzyme, pepsin
- 42. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Esophagus Cardia Diaphragm Body Lesser curvature (medial surface) Lesser omentum Fundus Pylorus Greater curvature (lateral surface) Greater omentum This anterior view of the stomach shows important superficial landmarks. Rugae Figure 16-8a The Anatomy of the Stomach.
- 43. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-8b The Anatomy of the Stomach. Liver Pancreas Duodenum Rectum Diaphragm Lesser omentum Mesentery Transverse colon Greater omentum Parietal peritoneum Small intestine Uterus The stomach is surrounded by the peritoneal cavity. Its position is maintained by the greater and lesser omenta. Mesentery Stomach Bladder
- 44. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-8c The Anatomy of the Stomach. Artery and vein Lymphatic vessel Myenteric plexus This diagrammatic section shows the organization of the stomach wall. Layers of the Stomach Wall Gastric pit (opening to gastric gland) Mucous epithelium Lamina propria Submucosa Oblique muscle Longitudinal muscle Mucosa Muscularis mucosae Muscularis externa Circular muscle Serosa
- 45. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-8d The Anatomy of the Stomach. Lamina propria Mucous cells Neck Gastric pit Gastric gland This diagram of a gastric gland shows the sites of parietal cells and chief cells. Cells of Gastric Glands Parietal cells G cell Chief cells Smooth muscle cell
- 46. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Three Phases of Regulation of Gastric Activity (16-4) 1. Cephalic phase 2. Gastric phase 3. Intestinal phase
- 47. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Cephalic Phase (16-4) • Triggered by sight, smell, taste, thought of food • Prepares stomach to receive food • Parasympathetic stimulation of gastric cells increases production of gastric juice
- 48. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Gastric Phase (16-4) • Begins when food enters stomach • Stretch reflexes increase myenteric stimulation of mixing waves • Submucosal plexus • Stimulates parietal and chief cells • Stimulates G cells to produce gastrin • Results in rapid increase in gastric juice production
- 49. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Intestinal Phase (16-4) • Begins when chyme enters small intestine • Mostly inhibitory slowing gastric emptying • Enterogastric reflex inhibits gastrin production • Intestinal hormones secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) reduce gastric activity • Ensures efficient intestinal functions • Secretion, digestion, and absorption
- 50. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-9 The Phases of Gastric Secretion. Cephalic Phase Sight, smell, taste, or thoughts of food Central nervous system Vagus nerve (N X) Submucosal plexus Mucous cells Chief cells Parietal cells Gastrin KEY Stimulation Food G cells Mucus Pepsinogen HCI Slide 1
- 51. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-9 The Phases of Gastric Secretion. Gastric Phase Stretch receptors ChemoreceptorsElevated pH Submucosal and myenteric plexuses by bloodstream Gastrin Partly digested peptides HCI Pepsinogen Mucus Distension Mixing waves Mucous cells Chief cells Parietal cells G cells Slide 2
- 52. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-9 The Phases of Gastric Secretion. Myenteric plexus Intestinal Phase Enterogastric reflex Duodenal stretch and chemoreceptors Chief cells Parietal cells Peristalsis Inhibition KEY Decreased pH Presence of lipids and carbohydrates Secretin GIP CCK by bloodstream Slide 3
- 53. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Digestion in the Stomach (16-4) • Pepsin initiates protein digestion to small peptides • Salivary amylase will digest carbohydrates until pH <4.5 • No nutrients are absorbed in the stomach • Mucosa covered in alkaline mucous • Epithelial cells lack transport mechanisms • Gastric lining is impermeable to water • Digestion is incomplete, nutrients are still complex
- 54. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-4) 13. Name the four main regions of the stomach. 14. Discuss the significance of the low pH in the stomach. 15. When a person suffers from chronic gastric ulcers, the branches of the vagus nerves that serve the stomach are sometimes cut in an attempt to provide relief. Why might this be an effective treatment?
- 55. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Three Segments of the Small Intestine (16-5) • Major site of digestion and absorption 1. Duodenum 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum
- 56. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Duodenum (16-5) • Closest to the stomach • C-shape curves around pancreas • Receives chyme from stomach, plus liver and pancreatic secretions • Mostly retroperitoneal, or behind peritoneum
- 57. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Jejunum and Ileum (16-5) • Jejunum • Most chemical digestion and absorption here • Supported by mesentery and within peritoneum • Ileum • The longest segment • Ends at ileocecal valve that controls flow into large intestine
- 58. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Circular folds Regions of the Small Intestine Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Large intestine Rectum The positions of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum in the abdominopelvic cavity A representative view of the jejunum Figure 16-10 The Segments of the Small Intestine.
- 59. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Intestinal Wall (16-5) • Has three levels of increased surface area 1. Circular folds or plicae circulares • Transverse ridges 2. Villi • Fingerlike projections of mucosa covered with simple columnar epithelium 3. Microvilli • Modified apical surface of columnar cells • Also called the brush border
- 60. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Villus (16-5) • Each villus has: • Intestinal glands • Secrete mucous and intestinal juice • Capillary bed • Transports gases • Transports absorbed nutrients to hepatic portal system • Lacteal or lymphatic capillary • Transports fatty acids, packaged into chylomicrons
- 61. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Circular fold Villi A single circular fold and multiple villi Capillaries Mucous cells Lacteal Brush border Tip of villus LM x 250 A villus in sectional view Villi Intestinal gland Lymphoid nodule Lacteal Layers of the Small Intestine Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa Submucosal artery and vein Muscularis mucosae Lymphatic vessel Submucosal plexus Circular layer of smooth muscle Myenteric plexus Longitudinal layer of smooth muscle The organization of the intestinal wall Internal structures in a single villus, showing the capillary network and lacteal VenuleArteriole Lymphatic vessel Smooth muscle cell Lamina propria Capillary network Nerve Lacteal Mucous cell Columnar epithelial cell Figure 16-11 The Intestinal Wall.
- 62. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-11a The Intestinal Wall. Circular fold Villi A single circular fold and multiple villi
- 63. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-11b The Intestinal Wall. Villi Intestinal gland Lymphoid nodule Lacteal Layers of the Small Intestine Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa Submucosal artery and vein Muscularis mucosae Lymphatic vessel Submucosal plexus Circular layer of smooth muscle Myenteric plexus Longitudinal layer of smooth muscle The organization of the intestinal wall
- 64. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-11c The Intestinal Wall. Internal structures in a single villus, showing the capillary network and lacteal VenuleArteriole Lymphatic vessel Smooth muscle cell Lamina propria Capillary network Lacteal Mucous cell Columnar epithelial cell Nerve
- 65. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-11d The Intestinal Wall. Capillaries Mucous cells Lacteal Brush border Tip of villus LM x 250 A villus in sectional view
- 66. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Intestinal Movements (16-5) • Weak peristaltic contractions • Initiated locally by neural network independent of CNS • Gastroenteric reflex • Initiated by distention of stomach • Increased peristaltic contractions empty duodenum • Gastroileal reflex • Triggered by gastrin, relaxes ileocecal valve
- 67. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Intestinal Secretions (16-5) • Intestinal juice is about 1.8 liters/day • Mostly water from mucosa by osmosis • Rest is secreted by intestinal glands • Activated during cephalic phase of gastric secretions • Buffers to raise pH of acidic chyme • Activation of enzymes for digestion
- 68. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Intestinal Hormones (16-5) • Gastrin in response to high-protein chyme • Stimulates production of acid and enzymes • Secretin in response to low-pH chyme • Increases buffers and bile secretions • Cholecystokinin (CCK) in response to high-fat chyme • In pancreas, increases enzyme production • In gallbladder, causes the ejection of bile • Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) in response to high-fat and high-glucose chyme
- 69. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 16-1 Important Gastrointestinal Hormones and Their Primary Effects
- 70. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Liver and gallbladder Bile secretion and ejection from gallbladder into duodenum by common bile duct Food in stomach Chyme in duodenum Materials enter jejunum KEY Stimulation Inhibition Food movement Absorption Secretion Hormone Nutrients absorbed NUTRIENT UTILIZATION BY ALL TISSUES Enzymes and buffers secreted into duodenum by pancreatic duct Secretin and CCK release Exocrine pancreas Endocrine pancreas Inhibition GIP release Gastrin release Increased gastric acid production and motility Insulin released Figure 16-12 The Activities of Major Digestive Tract Hormones.
- 71. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Digestion in the Small Intestine (16-5) • Most important digestive processes are completed in small intestine • Most is done by enzymes and buffers from pancreas and liver • Small intestine enzymes reside on brush border
- 72. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-5) 16. Which ring of muscle regulates the flow of chyme from the stomach to the small intestine? 17. Name the three segments of the small intestine from proximal to distal. 18. How is the small intestine adapted for the absorption of nutrients?
- 73. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Pancreas (16-6) • Lies behind stomach, extends from duodenum toward spleen, and is retroperitoneal • Major tissues and functions • Pancreatic islets are endocrine cells that secrete insulin and glucagon • Pancreatic acinar cells are exocrine and produce digestive enzymes and buffers • Secrete pancreatic juice
- 74. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Histology of the Pancreas (16-6) • Acinar cells are organized into pouches called pancreatic acini • Duct networks converge into pancreatic duct • Empties into duodenum • Pancreatic enzymes are in four classes • Carbohydrases, lipases, nucleases, and proteases
- 75. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Common bile duct Accessory pancreatic duct Pancreatic duct Lobules Tail of pancreas Body of pancreas Head of pancreas Duodenum Duodenal papilla The gross anatomy of the pancreas. The head of the pancreas is tucked into a C-shaped curve of the duodenum that begins at the pylorus of the stomach. Duct Pancreatic acini (exocrine) Pancreatic islet (endocrine) Cellular organization of the pan- creas showing a pancreatic islet. Pancreas LM x 75 Figure 16-13 The Pancreas.
- 76. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Control of Pancreatic Secretions (16-6) • High-acid chyme triggers secretin release • Acts to increase sodium bicarbonate to buffer chyme • CCK • Stimulates production and release of enzymes • Pancreatic amylase breaks down carbohydrates • Pancreatic lipase breaks down fats • Pancreatic proteases • Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase
- 77. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anatomy of the Liver (16-6) • Found in right hypochondriac and epigastric abdominopelvic regions • Encapsulated and covered by visceral peritoneum • Four lobes • Large left and right • Smaller caudate and quadrate • Anterior has falciform ligament, posterior has round ligament
- 78. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-14 The Surface Anatomy of the Liver. Liver Coronary ligament Falciform ligament Round ligament Gallbladder Anterior surface of the liver Gallbladder Quadrate lobe Hepatic artery proper Hepatic portal vein Common bile duct Caudate lobe Inferior vena cava Posterior surface of the liver Left hepatic vein Coronary ligament Right lobe Right lobe Left lobe Left lobe
- 79. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Histology of the Liver (16-6) • Lobes divided into about 100,000 liver lobules • Functional unit of liver • Hepatocytes covered in microvilli, arranged in plates • Sinusoids, specialized capillaries, empty into central vein • Portal triad found at each of six corners of lobule • Branch of hepatic portal vein • Branch of hepatic artery • Bile duct
- 80. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Blood Flow through the Liver (16-6) • Blood comes from hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein • As it flows through sinusoids, hepatocytes: • Absorb nutrient molecules • Secrete plasma proteins • Blood leaves sinusoid into central canal • Merge to form hepatic veins • Drains into IVC
- 81. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Histology of the Bile Production in the Liver (16-6) • Hepatocytes secrete bile into bile canaliculi • Between adjacent liver cells • Empty into bile duct in triad • Bile flows into common hepatic duct • Into common bile duct into duodenum if hepatopancreatic sphincter is open • Or will back up into cystic duct and into gallbladder
- 82. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. A diagrammatic view of liver structure, showing relation- ships among lobules Interlobular septum Bile duct Branch of hepatic portal vein Portal area Bile ductules Branch of hepatic artery proper Branch of hepatic portal vein (containing blood) Hepatocytes Sinusoid Bile duct Portal area A sectional view showing the vessels and ducts within a portal area Sinusoids Hepatocytes Branch of hepatic artery proper Bile duct A single liver lobule and its cellular components Branch of hepatic portal vein Bile canaliculi Central vein Kupffer cells LM x 350 Figure 16-15 Liver Histology.
- 83. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-15a Liver Histology. A diagrammatic view of liver structure, showing relation- ships among lobules Interlobular septum Branch of hepatic portal vein Bile ductules Bile duct Portal area
- 84. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-15b Liver Histology. Bile duct Hepatocytes Sinusoid Branch of hepatic artery proper A single liver lobule and its cellular components Branch of hepatic portal vein Bile canaliculi Central vein Kupffer cells
- 85. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-15c Liver Histology. Portal area Branch of hepatic artery proper Branch of hepatic portal vein (containing blood) A sectional view showing the vessels and ducts within a portal area Sinusoids Hepatocytes Bile duct LM x 350
- 86. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Metabolic Regulation by the Liver (16-6) • Hepatocytes • Extract nutrients and toxins from blood • Store and synthesize nutrient molecules • Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are stored • Monitor and adjust circulating nutrients • High blood glucose triggers synthesis of glycogen • Low blood glucose triggers breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose
- 87. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Hematological Regulation by the Liver (16-6) • Phagocytic Kupffer cells remove old or damaged RBCs, debris, and pathogens from blood • Hepatocytes synthesize plasma proteins • Determine osmotic pressure of plasma • Function as nutrient transporters • Key elements of clotting and complement cascades
- 88. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Production and Role of Bile (16-6) • Bile contains: • Water and ions that dilute and buffer • Bilirubin from destroyed RBCs • Cholesterol and bile salts • Emulsification by bile salts • Breaks apart large fat globules into smaller ones • Increases surface area of lipids for enzymatic action
- 89. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 16-2 Major Functions of the Liver
- 90. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Gallbladder (16-6) • Hollow, pear-shaped organ tucked up under liver • Stores and concentrates bile • CCK triggers contractions of gallbladder and relaxation of hepatopancreatic sphincter • Concentration of bile allows for efficient storage • Too concentrated bile can form gallstones
- 91. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Cystic duct Gallbladder Common bile duct Liver Duodenum Common bile ductHepatopancreatic sphincter Duodenal papilla Intestinal lumen Pancreatic duct Pancreas This interior view of the duodenum shows the opening at the duodenal papilla and the location of the hepatopancreatic sphincter. A view of the inferior surface of the liver reveals the position of the gallbladder and the ducts that transport bile from the liver to the gallbladder and duodenum. Common hepatic artery Hepatic portal vein Cut edge of lesser omentum Common hepatic duct Pancreas Stomach Figure 16-16 The Gallbladder.
- 92. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-6) 19. Does a high-fat meal raise or lower the level of cholecystokinin (CCK) in the blood? 20. The digestion of which nutrient would be most impaired by damage to the exocrine pancreas? 21. What effect would a decrease in the amount of bile salts in bile have on the digestion and absorption of fats?
- 93. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Large Intestine (16-7) • Begins at ileocecal valve, ends at anus • Horseshoe-shaped, frames the small intestine • Functions • Reabsorb water, compacting chyme into feces • Absorption of vitamins freed by bacterial action • Storage of feces prior to defecation
- 94. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Cecum (16-7) • An expanded pouch • Chyme enters through ileocecal valve • Functions to initiate compaction • Appendix on posteromedial surface • Functions • Contains lymphoid nodules for immune function • Inflammation is called appendicitis
- 95. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Colon (16-7) • Large diameter, lacks villi, and has abundant mucous cells • Externally has: • Haustra: pouches that distend and elongate • Taeniae coli: three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle • Segments • Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon
- 96. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Rectum (16-7) • Expandable organ for storing feces • Anal canal is last portion • Contains longitudinal anal columns • Anus is the exit of the anal canal • Internal anal sphincter made of smooth muscle of muscularis externa, under ANS control • External anal sphincter is voluntary, skeletal muscle
- 97. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Aorta Hepatic portal vein Superior mesenteric vein Inferior vena cava TRANSVERSE COLON ASCENDING COLON Ileocecal valve Cecum Vermiform appendix Anal canal Anal columns Internal anal sphincter External anal sphincter Anus The gross anatomy and regions of the large intestineRectum SIGMOID COLON Taenia coli Haustra DESCENDING COLON Greater omentum (cut) Inferior mesenteric vein Superior mesenteric artery Inferior mesenteric artery Ileum Rectum Anatomical details of the rectum and anus Splenic vein Figure 16-17 The Large Intestine.
- 98. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Aorta Hepatic portal vein Superior mesenteric vein Inferior vena cava TRANSVERSE COLON ASCENDING COLON Ileocecal valve Cecum Vermiform appendix The gross anatomy and regions of the large intestine SIGMOID COLON Taenia coli Haustra DESCENDING COLON Greater omentum (cut) Inferior mesenteric vein Superior mesenteric artery Inferior mesenteric artery Splenic vein Figure 16-17a The Large Intestine.
- 99. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-17b The Large Intestine. Anal canal Anal columns Internal anal sphincter External anal sphincter Anus Rectum Anatomical details of the rectum and anus
- 100. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Absorption in the Large Intestine (16-7) • Reabsorbs water • Of 1500 mL of chyme that enters cecum/day, 1300 mL are reabsorbed • Reabsorbs bile salts • Enters hepatic portal circulation to return to liver
- 101. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Absorption of Vitamins (16-7) • Bacteria in colon make three key vitamins 1. Vitamin K • Needed for production of clotting factors 2. Biotin • Essential for glucose metabolism 3. Vitamin B5 • Required for synthesis of neurotransmitters and steroid hormones
- 102. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Absorption of Organic Wastes (16-7) • Bacteria convert bilirubin into: • Absorbable forms • Are then eliminated in urine, giving yellow color • Non-absorbable forms • Remain in feces, giving brown color
- 103. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Absorption of Organic Wastes (16-7) • Bacterial action breaks down peptides • Ammonia, nitrogenous compounds, hydrogen sulfide • Ammonia and other toxins absorbed • Liver converts them into harmless forms eliminated by kidneys • Indigestible carbohydrates • Provide nutrient source for bacteria, forming flatus, gas
- 104. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Movements of the Large Intestine (16-7) • Transit time very slow • Allowing for water reabsorption • Mass movements • Powerful peristaltic contractions • Occur 3–4 times/day • Triggered by distention of stomach, "gastrocolic reflex"
- 105. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Defecation Reflex (16-7) • Involves two feedback loops 1. Short loop • Stretch receptors in rectal walls stimulate local peristalsis • Moves feces toward anus, distends rectum 2. Long loop • Stimulates parasympathetic reflex • Triggers involuntary relaxation of internal sphincter • Conscious relaxation of external sphincter
- 106. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-7) 22. Identify the four segments of the colon. 23. What are some structural differences between the large intestine and the small intestine? 24. A narrowing of the ileocecal valve would hamper movement of chyme between what two organs?
- 107. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Processing and Absorption of Nutrients (16-8) • Diets include: • Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, large organic molecules • Broken down into absorbable forms by enzymes • Hydrolysis reactions • Taken up by cells to produce ATP or synthesize other molecules • Fats, water, electrolytes, and vitamins • No processing, but require special transport mechanisms
- 108. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption (16-8) • Begins in mouth, mastication, and salivary amylase • Carbohydrates broken into di- or trisaccharides • Pancreatic amylase continues process • Brush border enzymes complete process into: • Monosaccharides • Absorbed through facilitated diffusion or cotransport
- 109. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipid Digestion and Absorption (16-8) • Triglycerides enter duodenum in large fat droplets • Bile salts emulsify, pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes into: • Fatty acids and monoglycerides • Combine with bile salts to form micelles • Diffuse into epithelial cells, converted into triglycerides • Coated with proteins to form chylomicrons • Absorbed into lacteals
- 110. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Protein Digestion and Absorption (16-8) • Initiated by mastication and exposure to HCl • Pepsin breaks proteins into large peptides • Pancreatic proteases break them down into short peptide chains • Peptidases on brush border • Complete process by cleaving off individual amino acids • Amino acids absorbed by carrier proteins
- 111. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 16-3 Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions
- 112. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16-18 Chemical Events in Digestion LIPIDS Lingual lipase Bile salts and pancreatic lipase Monoglycerides, Fatty acids in micelles DIFFUSION Monoglycerides, Fatty acids Triglycerides Chylomicrons EXOCYTOSIS Lacteal Chylomicrons REGION ORAL CAVITY ESOPHAGUS STOMACH SMALL INTESTINE INTESTINAL MUCOSA Brush border Cell body CARBOHYDRATES Salivary amylase Disaccharides Trisaccharides Pancreatic alpha-amylase Disaccharides Trisaccharides Lactase Maltase, Sucrase FACILITATED DIFFUSION AND COTRANSPORT Monosaccharides FACILITATED DIFFUSION Capillary Monosaccharides ROUTE TO BLOODSTREAM PROTEINS Pepsin Polypeptides Trypsin Chymotrypsin Elastase Carboxypeptidase Short peptides, Amino acids FACILITATED DIFFUSION AND COTRANSPORT Dipeptidases Amino acids FACILITATED DIFFUSION AND COTRANSPORT Capillary Amino acids
- 113. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Water and Electrolyte Absorption (16-8) • Intestinal epithelial cells absorb dissolved nutrients and ions • Water "follows" through osmosis • Na+ and Cl– key in promoting water reabsorption • Other ions include K+ , Mg2+ , I+ , HCO– , Fe2+ , and Ca2+ • Ca2+ absorption under control of parathyroid hormone and calcitriol
- 114. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Absorption of Vitamins (16-8) • Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K • Absorbed in micelles along with lipids • Vitamin K also produced in colon by bacteria • Water-soluble vitamins: B vitamins and C • All but B12 are easily absorbed by digestive epithelium • B12 requires intrinsic factor • Bacteria in gut are also source of water-soluble vitamins
- 115. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-8) 25. An increase in which component of a meal would increase the number of chylomicrons in the lacteals? 26. Removal of the stomach would impair the absorption of which vitamin? 27. Why is diarrhea potentially life threatening but constipation is not?
- 116. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Age-Related Changes in the GI Tract (16-9) • Division rate of epithelium declines • Peptic ulcers more likely • Smooth muscle tone decreases • Slows rate of peristalsis, leads to constipation • Straining leads to hemorrhoids • Cumulative damage becomes apparent • Tooth loss, liver disease
- 117. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Age-Related Changes in the GI Tract (16-9) • Increase in cancer rate • Colon and stomach cancers • Dehydration • Osmoreceptor sensitivity declines • Aging of other systems affects digestive tract • Bone loss can lead to tooth loss • Loss of taste and olfactory sensations change diets
- 118. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-9) 28. Identify general digestive system changes that occur with aging.
- 119. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Digestive System Integration with Other Systems (16-10) • Functionally connected to all other systems • Anatomically connected to nervous, cardiovascular, endocrine, and lymphatic systems
- 120. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Provides vitamin D3 needed for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus Skull, ribs, vertebrae, and pelvic girdle support and protect parts of digestive tract; teeth are important in mechanical processing of food Protects and supports digestive organs in abdominal cavity; controls entrances and exits of digestive tract ANS regulates movement and secretion; reflexes coordinate passage of materials along tract; control over skeletal muscles regulates ingestion and defecation; hypothalamic centers control hunger, satiation, and feeding Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate constriction of sphincters and depress digestive activity; hormones coordinate activity along digestive tract Distributes hormones of the digestive tract; carries nutrients, water, and ions from sites of absorption; delivers nutrients and toxins to liver Tonsils and other lymphoid nodules defend against infection and toxins absorbed from the digestive tract; lymphatic vessels carry absorbed lipids to venous system Increased thoracic and abdominal pressure through contraction of respiratory muscles can assist in defecation Provides lipids for storage by adipocytes in hypodermis Absorbs calcium and phosphate ions for incorporation into bone matrix; provides lipids for storage in yellow marrow Liver regulates blood glucose and fatty acid levels, metabolizes lactate from active muscles Provides substrates essential for neurotransmitter synthesis Provides nutrients and substrates to endocrine cells; endocrine cells of pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon; liver produces angiotensinogen Absorbs fluid to maintain normal blood volume; absorbs vitamin K; liver excretes heme (as bilirubin), synthesizes coagulation proteins Secretions of digestive tract (acids and enzymes) provide innate (nonspecific) defense against pathogens Pressure of digestive organs against the diaphragm can assist in exhalation and limit inhalation The DIGESTIVE System For all systems, the digestive system absorbs organic substrates, vitamins, ions, and water required by all cells. SYSTEM INTEGRATOR Body System Digestive System Digestive System Body System IntegumentaryeSkeletalMuscularNervousEndocrineCardiovascularLymphaticRespiratory Integumentary (Page138) Skeletal (Page188) Muscular (Page241) Nervous (Page302) Endocrine (Page376) Cardiovascular (Page467) Lymphatic (Page500) Respiratory (Page532) Urinary (Page637) Reproductive (Page671) Figure 16-19
- 121. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (16-10) 29. Identify the functional relationships between the digestive system and other body systems. 30. List the digestive system functions that are related to the cardiovascular system.