163 ch 17_lecture_presentation
- 1. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Meg Flemming Austin Community College C H A P T E R Metabolism and Energetics 17
- 2. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 17 Learning Outcomes • 17-1 • Define metabolism and energetics, and explain why cells need to synthesize new organic molecules. • 17-2 • Describe the basic steps involved in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport system, and summarize the energy yields of glycolysis and cellular respiration. • 17-3 • Describe the pathways involved in lipid metabolism, and summarize mechanisms of lipid transport and distribution. • 17-4 • Discuss protein metabolism and the use of proteins as an energy source.
- 3. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 17 Learning Outcomes • 17-5 • Discuss nucleic acid metabolism and the limited use of nucleic acids as an energy source. • 17-6 • Explain what constitutes a balanced diet, and why such a diet is important. • 17-7 • Define metabolic rate, describe the factors involved in determining an individual's BMR, and discuss the homeostatic mechanisms that maintain a constant body temperature. • 17-8 • Describe the age-related changes in dietary requirements.
- 4. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Nutrients and Energetics (17-1) • Nutrients • Essential substances needed for cells to generate energy in the form of ATP • ATP supports cell growth and division, contraction, secretion, and other functions • Energetics • The study of flow of energy and how it changes from one form to another
- 5. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Metabolism (17-1) • The sum total of all chemical reactions in the body • Cellular metabolism provides energy needed for homeostasis • Catabolism • Breakdown of organic molecules for synthesis of ATP • Anabolism • Synthesis of new organic molecules for storage
- 6. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 17-1 Cellular Metabolism. INTERSTITIAL FLUID Plasma membrane • Maintenance and repairs • Growth • Secretion • Stored nutrient reserves ANABOLISMCATABOLISM NUTRIENT POOL Organic Molecules • Amino acids • Lipids • Simple sugars Anaerobic catabolism in the cytosol releases small amounts of ATP that are significant only under unusual conditions. Aerobic Metabolism (in mitochondria) 40%60% CYTOPLASM HEAT Other ATP Expenses • Locomotion • Contraction • Intracellular transport • Cytokinesis • Endocytosis • Exocytosis Results of Anabolism
- 7. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Four Reasons to Synthesize New Compounds (17-1) 1. To perform structural maintenance and repairs • Metabolic turnover is ongoing removal and replacement of cell structures 2. To support growth 3. To produce secretions 4. To build nutrient reserves • Glucose stored as glycogen, triglycerides in adipose tissue
- 8. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Nutrient Pool (17-1) • Source for both catabolism and anabolism • Anabolic activities require amino acids, some lipids, and few carbohydrates • Catabolic reactions break down carbohydrates first, then lipids, and rarely amino acids • Mitochondria use specific organic molecules to form ATP, water, and carbon dioxide • Utilizes the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain
- 9. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 17-2 Nutrient Use in Cellular Metabolism. Structural, functional, and storage components Triglycerides Glycogen Proteins Amino acidsGlucoseFatty acids Nutrient pool Small carbon chains MITOCHONDRIA CoenzymesCitric acid cycle Electron transport system
- 10. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-1) 1. Define energetics. 2. Define metabolism. 3. Compare catabolism and anabolism.
- 11. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Carbohydrate Metabolism (17-2) • Most cells use glucose to form ATP • C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O and 36 ATP • Glucose + oxygen yields carbon dioxide + water and 36 molecules of ATP • Anaerobic metabolism • Does not require oxygen • Aerobic metabolism or cellular respiration • Requires oxygen, occurs in mitochondria
- 12. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Glycolysis (17-2) • Breakdown of glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules • C6H12O6 2CH3—CO—COOH– • Loses an H+ , becomes pyruvate, enters mitochondria • Glycolysis requires: • Glucose and cytoplasmic enzymes • ATP and ADP, NAD – a coenzyme that removes H+ • Invest 2 ATP, produce 4 ATP, for a net gain of 2 ATP
- 13. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 17-3 Glycolysis. As soon as a glucose molecule enters the cytosol, a phosphate group is attached to the molecule. A second phosphate group is attached. Together, steps 1 and 2 cost the cell 2 ATP. The six-carbon chain is split into two three-carbon molecules, each of which then follows the rest of this pathway. Another phosphate group is attached to each molecule, and NADH is generated from NAD. The atoms in each three-carbon molecule are rearranged and each molecule produces 2 ATP. Glucose Glucose-6-phosphatea From mitochondria To mitochondria 1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid Pyruvate To mitochondria Steps in Glycolysis CYTOSOL INTERSTITIAL FLUID ENERGY SUMMARY Steps 1 & 2: Step 5: –2 ATP +4 ATP NET GAIN: +2 ATP
- 14. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Mitochondrial Structure (17-2) • Surrounded by two membranes • Outer is permeable to pyruvate • Inner uses carrier protein to transport pyruvate into mitochondrial matrix • Citric acid cycle occurs within mitochondria
- 15. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Citric Acid Cycle (17-2) • Also called tricarboxylic acid (TCA) or Krebs cycle • Pyruvate interacts with NAD and coenzyme A (CoA) • Product is acetyl-CoA • Goes through citric acid cycle, transferring H+ to NAD and FAD • Forms ATP from GTP, NADH, and FADH2 • NADH and FADH2 transfer H+ to electron transport system
- 16. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 17-4 The Citric Acid Cycle. ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM An overview of the citric acid cycle, showing the distribu- tion of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms Citric acid 6-carbon Coenzyme A Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA 4-carbon 5-carbon CITRIC ACID CYCLE Coenzyme A 4-carbon (from GTP)
- 17. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Electron Transport System (17-2) • ETS • Embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane • Provides 95 percent of all cellular energy • A series of protein-pigment cytochromes • Electrons from H+ enter ETS • Travel along the ETS and release energy • Energy drives H+ pumps creating gradient for H+ • Gradient energy converts ADP to ATP
- 18. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 17-5 The Electron Transport System (ETS) and ATP Formation. Hydrogen atoms from NADH and FADH2 are split into electrons and protons. The protons (H+ ) are released and coenzyme Q passes the electrons to the electron transport system. Inner membrane Intermembrane space Outer membrane CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX Flow of H+ Flow of electrons KEY ATP synthase
- 19. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Summary of Energy Yield from Carbohydrates (17-2) • Glycolysis in cytoplasm yields 2 ATP and 2 pyruvate • Citric acid cycle yields 2 ATP, one from each pyruvate • ETS yields 28 ATP • Sum total from one molecule of glucose is 36 ATP • All but two are produced in mitochondria
- 20. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Electron Transport System and Citric Acid Cycle (Aerobic): Glycolysis (Anaerobic): Energy Summary net gain to cell from complete catabolism of one glucose molecule ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM MITOCHONDRIA Citric Acid Cycle (2 turns) GLYCOLYSIS Glucose (6-carbon) CYTOSOL Pyruvate (3-carbon) Acetyl CoA Intermediate electron carriers 2 2 Figure 17-6 A Summary of the Energy Yield of Aerobic Metabolism.
- 21. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Gluconeogenesis (17-2) • The synthesis of "new" glucose from non- carbohydrate molecules • Needed because glycolysis is not a reversible reaction • Pyruvate cannot be converted back to glucose • Instead, cells use other 3-carbon molecules • Lactate, glycerol, some amino acids • Glucose from gluconeogenesis can undergo further catabolic reactions to be stored as glycogen
- 22. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CYTOSOL Glycerol Other carbohydrates 3-carbon intermediates Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA MITOCHONDRIA Lactate The reaction that converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA cannot be reversed. Some amino acids Glucose Glycogen G L U C O N E O G E N E S I S G L Y C O L Y S I S Figure 17-7 Carbohydrate Metabolism.
- 23. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Alternate Catabolic Pathways (17-2) • Aerobic glucose metabolism is most efficient • Without oxygen, cells will die • Without glucose, cells find alternatives • First, will switch to lipid-based ATP production • Proteins catabolized only under starvation conditions • Nucleic acids rarely catabolized for energy
- 24. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Triglycerides Glycogen Proteins Fatty acids Glycerol Glucose Amino acids Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Citric acid cycle MITOCHONDRIA Figure 17-8 Alternate Catabolic Pathways.
- 25. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-2) 4. What is the primary role of the citric acid cycle in the production of ATP? 5. Hydrogen cyanide gas is a poison that produces its lethal effect by binding to the last cytochrome molecule in the electron transport system. What effect would this have at the cellular level? 6. Define gluconeogenesis.
- 26. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipid Catabolism (17-3) • Also called lipolysis • Hydrolysis reaction breaks triglycerides into glycerol and three fatty acids • One 18-carbon fatty acid can yield 144 ATP • Glycerol is converted to pyruvate, enters citric acid cycle • Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation • Occurs in mitochondria, generates NADH and FADH2 • Some fragments combine to form ketone bodies
- 27. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipids and Energy Production (17-3) • Lipids are stored in fat droplets • Difficult for water-soluble enzymes to reach lipid • Lipids can provide a lot of energy, but not quickly • Skeletal muscle fibers access glucose for quick energy • Skeletal muscle fibers access fatty acids during rest
- 28. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipid Synthesis (17-3) • Also called lipogenesis • Glycerol is synthesized from a product of glycolysis • Other lipids, steroids, and fatty acids are derived from acetyl-CoA • Body cannot build every fatty acid it needs • Essential fatty acids must be in diet
- 29. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipid Transport and Distribution (17-3) • Lipids not soluble in water, need transport mechanisms • Most circulated in plasma as lipoproteins • Free fatty acids (FFA) • Come from catabolized adipose tissue, available during starvation periods • Bind to albumin for transport
- 30. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipoproteins (17-3) • Contain triglycerides and cholesterol, covered in phospholipids and proteins • Chylomicrons in intestinal epithelium are largest • Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) • "Bad cholesterol" deposited in arterial plaques • High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) • "Good cholesterol" transports cholesterol to liver
- 31. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipoproteins and Lipid Transport and Distribution The liver absorbs chylomicrons from the blood- stream and removes the triglycerides. It combines the cholesterol from the chylomicron with synthe- sized or recycled cholesterol, and alters the surface proteins. It then releases low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) into the circulation, which deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissues. Some of the cholesterol is used by the liver to synthesize bile salts; excess cholesterol is excreted in the bile. The HDLs return the cholesterol to the liver where it is extracted, and packaged in new LDLs or excreted with bile salts in bile. The LDLs released by the liver leave the bloodstream and enter capillaries. Once in peripheral tissues, the LDLs are absorbed. The cholesterol not used by the cells re-enters the bloodstream. There it gets absorbed by high density lipoproteins (HDLs). The cell extracts the cholesterol and uses it in various ways. Excess cholesterol is excreted with the bile salts Low cholesterol High cholesterol Cholesterol extracted Lysosomal breakdown Used in synthesis of membranes, hormones, other materials Triglycerides removed Chylomicrons Cholesterol release Figure 17-9 Lipoproteins and Lipid Transport.
- 32. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-3) 7. Define lipolysis. 8. Define beta-oxidation. 9. Why are high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) considered beneficial?
- 33. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Protein Metabolism (17-4) • Usually proteins are recycled inside cells • Proteins are broken down, amino acids are used to synthesize new proteins • If carbohydrates and lipids are not available for energy: • Amino acids can undergo catabolism in the citric acid cycle • ATP benefits vary, but average that of carbohydrates
- 34. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Amino Acid Catabolism (17-4) • Removal of amino group requires vitamin B6 • Transamination moves amino group to other small carbon chain • Forms "new" amino acid • Deamination prepares amino acid for the citric acid cycle • Removes amino group and forms ammonium ion (NH4 + ) • Liver cells combine CO2 with NH4 + to produce urea • Eliminated in urine
- 35. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Amino Acid Catabolism (17-4) • Carbon chains, depending on structure, can: • Be converted to pyruvate and go through gluconeogenesis • Or be converted to acetyl-CoA and go through the citric acid cycle • Or be converted to ketone bodies • Acetone is one example, gives breath distinctive odor • Ketone bodies can be used by other cells that convert them back into acetyl-CoA • High ketone body concentration is called ketosis
- 36. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Amino Acid Catabolism (17-4) • An impractical source of quick energy because: 1. Proteins are more difficult to break apart than fats and carbohydrates 2. Ammonium ions are toxic to cells 3. Structural proteins are essential for homeostasis • Catabolism can alter cellular and systemic functions
- 37. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Amino Acid and Protein Synthesis (17-4) • Nonessential amino acids • Can be synthesized in cells through amination or transamination • Essential amino acids • Must be included in diet • Include isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, valine, methionine, arginine, and histidine
- 38. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Protein Deficiency Diseases (17-4) • Inadequate consumption of essential amino acids • Caused by malnutrition • Inherited metabolic disorders • For example, phenylketonuria (PKU) • Cannot convert phenylalanine to tyrosine due to defective enzyme • Reaction essential to produce norepinephrine, epinephrine, and melanin • Infants' CNS development is inhibited
- 39. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-4) 10. Define transamination. 11. Define deamination. 12. How would a diet deficient in vitamin B6 affect protein metabolism?
- 40. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Triglycerides Glycogen Proteins Glucose Fatty acids Glycerol Amino acids Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA Citric acid cycle Electron transport system Coenzymes carry H MITOCHONDRIA G l u c o n e o g e n e s i s G l y c o l y s i s LIPIDS CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS KEY Catabolic pathway Anabolic pathway Figure 17-10 A Summary of Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways.
- 41. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. RNA Catabolism (17-5) • Broken into individual nucleotides • Most are recycled • Some broken down, but only sugar, cytosine, uracil can go through the citric acid cycle to generate ATP • Adenine and guanine are deaminated, excreted as uric acid • Hyperuricemia can cause crystals to form • Causes gout
- 42. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Nucleic Acid Synthesis (17-5) • DNA synthesis occurs only in mitosis and meiosis • Most cells synthesize RNA • Transcribed by RNA polymerase • Messenger RNA only when needed and is short-lived • Ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA are longer lasting
- 43. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-5) 13. Why do cells not use DNA as an energy source? 14. What are nitrogenous wastes? 15. Elevated levels of uric acid in the blood could indicate an increased catabolic rate for which type of macromolecule?
- 44. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Adequate Nutrition (17-6) • Nutrition • The absorption of essential nutrients • Balanced diet • Contains all nutrients needed for homeostasis • Prevents malnutrition
- 45. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Food Groups and MyPlate (17-6) • USDA food guide www.choosemyplate.gov • Five basic food groups 1. Grains 2. Vegetables 3. Fruits 4. Dairy 5. Protein
- 46. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Balanced Diets (17-6) • Meet quantity and quality requirements • Complete proteins • Found in meat, eggs, dairy • Have all essential amino acids and vitamin B12 • Incomplete proteins • Found in grains, fruits, and vegetables • Vegetarians require balance and fortified cereal or tofu
- 47. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fruits Grains Vegetables Protein Dairy ChooseMyPlate.gov Figure 17-11 The MyPlate Food Guide.
- 48. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 17-1 Basic Food Groups and Their Effects on Health
- 49. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Minerals (17-6) • Inorganic ions from dissociation of electrolytes • Required in diet because: 1. Na+ and Cl– determine osmotic concentration of body fluids 2. Various ions needed in maintaining membrane potential, muscle contraction, buffers, etc. 3. Ions function as cofactors in enzymatic reactions
- 50. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 17-2 Minerals and Mineral Reserves
- 51. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fat-Soluble Vitamins (17-6) • Vitamins A, D, E, and K • Absorbed from the digestive tract • Can be stored easily in cells • Avitaminosis (or vitamin deficiency disease) • Rarely occurs due to lack of fat-soluble vitamins • Hypervitaminosis • Excess fat-soluble vitamins build up in storage
- 52. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Water-Soluble Vitamins (17-6) • Most are components of coenzymes • Easily absorbed from the gut • Excess readily excreted in urine • Gut bacteria help prevent avitaminosis • Hypervitaminosis • Occurs rarely and usually when taking excessive vitamin supplements
- 53. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 17-3 The Fat-Soluble Vitamins
- 54. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 17-4 The Water-Soluble Vitamins
- 55. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Water (17-6) • Basic daily requirement is 2.5 L/day • May need more or less based on activity and body temp • Most obtained through consumed food and water • Some a product of ETS in mitochondria
- 56. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Diet and Disease (17-6) • Long-term issues result from unbalanced diet • U.S. diets too high in sodium, lipids, and calories • Results are epidemic-proportioned incidence of: • Obesity • Heart and vascular diseases • Hypertension • Diabetes
- 57. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-6) 16. Identify the two types of vitamins. 17. What is the difference between foods described as containing complete proteins and those described as containing incomplete proteins? 18. How would a decrease in the amount of bile salts in the bile affect the amount of vitamin A in the body?
- 58. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Units of Energy (17-7) • Calorie – unit of heat energy • Metabolic reactions release heat • Calorie (cal) is the amount of energy required to raise temp of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius • Kilocalorie (kcal) or Calorie (Cal) • More practical in human metabolic studies • Amount of energy required to raise I kg of water 1o C
- 59. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Energy Content of Food (17-7) • Calorimeter • A test chamber where food, water, and oxygen are ignited • Food is completely burned to ash • Water temp before and after test is compared • Catabolism of: • Lipids release 9.46 Cal/g • Proteins and carbohydrates 4.32 and 4.18 Cal/g, respectively
- 60. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Energy Expenditure: Metabolic Rate (17-7) • Measure of sum of all anabolic and catabolic reactions in body • Units of Cal/hour, Cal/day, or Cal/unit body weight/day • Basal metabolic rate (BMR) • Testing done under resting, fasting conditions • Average BMR is 70 Cal/hour • Variations due to age, sex, condition, weight, and genetics
- 61. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Resting Slow walking Speed walking Climbing stairs Jogging Competitive swimming 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Caloriesperhour Estimated calories expended by a 70 kg (154 lb) individual Figure 17-12 Caloric Expenditures for Various Activities.
- 62. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Balance of Caloric Intake and Output (17-7) • Weight gain occurs if energy intake exceeds output • Weight loss occurs if energy intake is lower than output • Best weight-control programs have both: • Calorie counting • Increase in daily exercise
- 63. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Thermoregulation (17-7) • Homeostatic process of maintaining body temperature • In spite of external environment • Required to maintain enzymatic viability • Body temp below 36o C or above 40o C causes disorientation • Above 42o C causes convulsions and permanent cell damage
- 64. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer (17-7) 1. Radiation • Accounts for more than half of body's heat loss • Heat is lost as infrared radiation 2. Conduction • Direct transfer due to physical contact with cold object • Not very effective in gaining or losing heat
- 65. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer (17-7) 3. Convection • Conductive heat loss to the air • Heat rises away from skin, cool air replaces it 4. Evaporation • Water changes from liquid to vapor, absorbing energy • Sensible perspiration from sweat glands varies • Insensible perspiration from lungs and skin is consistent
- 66. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Radiation Evaporation Convection Conduction Figure 17-13 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer.
- 67. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Mechanisms of Temperature Balance (17-7) • Altering heat gain and heat loss activities • Coordinated by heat-loss center and heat-gain center • In hypothalamus • Heat-loss uses parasympathetic pathways • Heat-gain uses sympathetic pathways
- 68. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Promoting Heat Loss (17-7) • When body temp rises above set point: 1. Vasomotor center inhibited • Peripheral blood vessels dilate • Increased radiation and convection 2. Sweat glands stimulated • Increased evaporation 3. Respiratory center stimulated • Increased evaporation from lungs
- 69. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Promoting Heat Gain (17-7) • To prevent hypothermia, heat-loss center is inhibited, heat-gain center is activated • Stimulates vasomotor center • Vasoconstriction limits radiation, convection, conduction • Shivering thermogenesis • Activates brief contractions of skeletal muscles • Nonshivering thermogenesis is stimulated hormonally • Thyroid hormones and epinephrine
- 70. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-7) 19. Compare a pregnant woman's BMR (basal metabolic rate) to her BMR when she is not pregnant. 20. Under what conditions would evaporative cooling of the body be ineffective? 21. What effect would vasoconstriction of peripheral blood vessels have on body temperature on a hot day?
- 71. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Caloric Needs Decline with Age (17-8) • Nutritionally required quality and balance of food doesn't change with age • Caloric requirement does decrease about 10 percent after age 50 • Need for calcium and vitamin D3 increases • Need to support skeletal system • Elderly on low income may lack protein and iron
- 72. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Checkpoint (17-8) 22. Which changes with aging: nutritional requirements or caloric requirements?