1857039475 errors in english

Quick Solutions to
Common
Errorsin
English

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Quick Solutions to
Common
Errors
in
nglishE
Angela Burt An A-Zguide
to spelling
punctuation
and grammar

Published by How To Content,
A division of How To Books Ltd,
Spring Hill House, Spring Hill Road,
Begbroke, Oxford 0X5 1RX. United Kingdom.
Tel: (01865) 375794. Fax: (01865) 379162.
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All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or stored in an
information retrieval system (other than for purposes of review) without the express
permission of the publisher in writing.
The right of Angela Burt to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
© Copyright 2004 Angela Burt
First published in paperback 2004
First published in electronic form 2007
ISBN: 978 1 84803 091 6
Cover design by Baseline Arts Ltd, Oxford, UK
Produced for How To Books by Deer Park Productions, Tavistock, Devon, UK
Typeset by PDQ Typesetting, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffs, UK
NOTE: The material contained in this book is set out in good faith for general
guidance and no liability can be accepted for loss or expense incurred as a result of
relying in particular circumstances on statements made in the book. The laws and
regulations are complex and liable to change, and readers should check the current
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Introduction
Quick Solutions to Common Errors in English is a
reference book which has been written for the student
and the general reader. It aims to tackle the basic
questions about spelling, punctuation, grammar and
word usage that the student and the general reader are
likely to ask.
Throughout the book there are clear explanations, and
exemplar sentences where they are needed. When it's
helpful to draw attention to spelling rules and patterns,
these are given so that the reader is further empowered
to deal with hundreds of related words. The aim always
has been to make the reader more confident and
increasingly self-reliant.
This is a fast-track reference book. It is not a
dictionary although, like a dictionary, it is arranged
alphabetically. It concentrates on problem areas; it
anticipates difficulties; it invites cross-references. By
exploring punctuation, for example, and paragraphing, it
goes far beyond a dictionary's terms of reference. It is
not intended to replace a dictionary; it rather
supplements it.
Once, in an evening class, one of my adult students
said, 'If there's a right way to spell a word, I want to
know it.' On another occasion, at the end of a
punctuation session on possessive apostrophes, a college
student said rather angrily, 'Why wasn't I told this years
ago?'
This book has been written to answer all the
questions that my students over the years have needed
to ask. I hope all who now use it will have their
questions answered also and enjoy the confidence and
the mastery that this will bring.
Angela Burt
v

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How to use this book
For ease of reference, all the entries in this book have
been listed alphabetically rather than being divided into
separate spelling, usage, punctuation and grammar
sections.
You will therefore find hypocrisy following
hyphens; paragraphing following paraffin; who or
whom? following whiskey or whisky?; and so on.
Want to check a spelling?
Cross-referencing will help you locate words with tricky
initial letters.
aquaint Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINT.
Plural words are given alongside singular nouns, with
cross-referencing to relevant rules and patterns.
knife (singular) knives (plural). See PLURALS (v).
There is also a general section on plurals and another
on foreign plurals.
If it's the complication of adding an ending that is
causing you trouble, you will find some words listed
with a useful cross-reference.
dining or dinning?
dine + ing = dining (as in dining room)
din + ing = dinning (noise dinning in ears)
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii).
vii

There are individual entries for confusing endings like
-able/-ible; -ance,-ant/-ence,-ent; -cal/-cle; -ise or
-ize? and for confusing beginnings like ante-/anti-; for-/
fore-; hyper-/hypo-; inter-/intra- and many others.
Usage?
If you're hesitating between two words in a tricky pair
(like contagious or infectious?; disinterested or
uninterested?; imply or infer?; irony or sarcasm?),
turn to whichever word is listed first alphabetically.
There you will find a full explanation of the difference
in meaning and usage. There will be a cross-reference
from the word listed second alphabetically.
misplace See DISPLACE OR MISPLACE?.
Punctuation?
The functions of the different punctuation marks are
discussed under individual entries; apostrophes (');
brackets (round and square); capital letters; colons (:);
dashes (-); exclamation marks (!); full stops (.);
hyphens (-); inverted commas/quotation marks/
speech marks (single '' and double " "); semicolons(;);
and question marks (?).
Additional entries include commands; contractions;
end stops; andindirect/reported speech.
As well as the general entry, contractions,
commonly used contractions are listed individually as
the punctuation of these causes so much confusion.
isn't
Place the apostrophe carefully. (not is'nt)
viii

Grammar?
Many grammatical queries can be listed individually or
as a choice between two or three possibilities. Among
these are: as or like?; consist in or consist of?;
different from/to/than; due to or owing to?; fewer
or less?; I/me/myself; lay or lie?; passed or past?;
shall or will?; should or would?; who or whom?.
between you and I
Incorrect.
Write: between you and me.
See PREPOSITIONS.
theirselves
Incorrect formation.
See THEMSELVES.
At other times, however, some grammatical points have
necessarily to be grouped under general technical
headings which sound rather forbidding. (The entries
themselves, I hope, will make all clear!)
These entries are too long to be quoted here. I
suggest that you look them up to see whether they deal
with areas that cause you problems:
comparative and superlative
double negatives
nouns
paragraphing
participles
possessive pronouns
prepositions
sequence of tenses
split infinitives
subjunctive
ix

As well as using this book as a reference text (its
unwritten subtitle is A Friend at Your Elbow!), I hope
you will sometimes be tempted to browse and to follow
up cross-references. Our language is a fascinating one
and well repays careful attention.
There will come a time when you no longer need the
guidance this reference book offers. That will be real
success!
Appendices
At the end of the book there are three appendices for
further reference:
Appendix A: Literary terms
Appendix B: Parts of speech
Appendix C: Planning, drafting and proofreading
X

abandon
abandoned, abandoning, abandonment (not -bb-)
abattoir
(not -bb-)
abbreviate
abbreviated, abbreviating, abbreviation (not -b-)
abbreviations
See CONTRACTIONS.
-able/-ible
Adjectives ending in -able or -ible can be difficult to
spell because both endings sound identical. You'll
always need to be on guard with these words and
check each word individually when you are in
doubt, but here are some useful guidelines:
(i) Generally use -able when the companion word
ends in -ation:
abominable, abomination
irritable, irritation
(ii) Generally use -ible when the companion word
ends in -ion:
comprehensible, comprehension
digestible, digestion
(iii) Use -able after hard c and hard g:
practicable (c sounds like k)
navigable (hard g)
(iv) Use -ible after soft c and soft g:
forcible (c sounds like s)
legible (g sounds like j)
See also ADDING ENDINGS (n); SOFT c ANDSOFT G.
1
^K^H

ABRIDGEMENT/ABRIDGMENT
abridgement/abridgment
Both spellings are correct. Use either but be
consistent within one piece of writing.
abscess
This is a favourite word in spelling quizzes.
(not absess or abcess)
absence
absent (not absc-)
absolute
absolutely (not absoloute, absoloutely)
absorb
absorption. Notice how b changes to p here.
abstract nouns
See NOUNS.
accept or except?
We ACCEPT your apology.
Everybody was there EXCEPT Stephen.
accessary or accessory?
If you want to preserve the traditional distinction in
meaning between these two words, use ACCESSARY
to refer to someone associated with a crime and
ACCESSORY to refer to something that is added (a
fashion accessory or car accessories). However, the
distinction has now become blurred and it is
perfectly acceptable to use one spelling to cover both
meanings. Of the two, accessory is the more widely
used, but both are correct.
accessible
(not -able)
accidentally
The adverb is formed by adding -ly to accidental.
(not accidently)
2

ADAPTER OR ADAPTOR?
accommodation
This is a favourite word in spelling quizzes and is
frequently seen misspelt on painted signs.
(not accomodation or accommadation)
accross
Wrong spelling. See ACROSS.
accumulate
(not -mm-)
achieve
achieved, achieving, achievement (not -ei-) See also
ADDING ENDINGS (ii.); El/IE SPELLING RULE.
acknowledgement/acknowledgment
Both spellings are correct but be consistent within
one piece of writing.
acquaint
acquainted (not aq-)
acquaintance
(not -ence)
acquiesce
acquiesced, acquiescing (not aq-)
acquiescence
(not -ance)
acquire
acquired, acquiring, acquisition (not aq-)
acreage
Note that there are three syllables here, (not acrage)
across
(not accross)
adapter or adaptor?
Traditional usage would distinguish between these
two words and reserve -er for the person (an adapter
3

ADDENDUM
of novels, for instance) and -or for the piece of
electrical equipment. However, the distinction has
become very blurred and the two spellings are
considered by many authorities to be
interchangeable. Use either for both meanings but be
consistent within a single piece of writing.
addendum (singular) addenda (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
adding endings
Usually endings (suffixes) can be added to base words
without any complications. You just add them and
that is that!
e.g. iron + ing = ironing
steam + er = steamer
list + less = listless
However, there are four groups of words which
need especial care. Fortunately, there are some
straightforward rules which save your learning
thousands of words individually.
(i) The 1-1-1 rule
This rule applies to:
words of ONE syllable
ending with ONE consonant
preceded by ONE vowel,
e.g. drop, flat, sun, win
When you add an ending beginning with a
consonant to a 1-1-1 word, there is no change to
the base word:
drop + let = droplet
flat + ly = flatly
win + some = winsome
See CONSONANTS.
vowel to a 1-1-1 word, you double the final letter
of the base word:
4

ADDING ENDINGS
drop + ed = dropped
flat + est = flattest
win + ing = winning
sun + *y = sunny
*y counts as a vowel when it sounds like i or e.
See VOWELS.
Treat qu as one letter:
quit + ing = quitting
quip + ed = quipped
Don't double final w and x. They would look
very odd and so we have correctly:
tax + ing = taxing
paw + ed = pawed
(ii) The magic -e rule
This rule applies to all words ending with a
silent -e.
e.g. hope, care, achieve, sincere, separate
consonant, keep the -e:
hope + ful = hopeful
care + less = careless
sincere + ly = sincerely
separate + ly = separately
achieve + ment = achievement
vowel, drop the -e:
hope + ing = hoping
care + er = carer
sincere + ity = sincerity
separate + ion = separation
achieve + ed = achieved
Do, however, keep the -e in words like singeing
(different from singing) and dyeing (different
5

ADDING ENDINGS
from dying) and whenever you need to keep the
identity of the base word clear (e.g. shoeing,
canoeing).
Do remember to keep the -e with soft c and
soft g words. It's the e that keeps them soft
(courageous, traceable). (See SOFT c ANDSOFT G.)
Don't keep the -e with these eight exceptions
to the rule: truly, duly, ninth, argument, wholly,
awful, whilst, wisdom.
(iii) -y rule
This rule applies to all words ending in -y. Look
at the letter before the -y in the base word.
It doesn't matter at all what kind of ending you
are adding. When you add an ending to a word
ending in a vowel + y, keep the y:
portray + ed = portrayed
employ + ment = employment
When you add an ending to a word ending in a
consonant + y, change the y to i:
try +al = trial
empty + er = emptier
pity + less = pitiless
lazy + ness = laziness
Do keep the y when adding -ing. Two i's
together would look very odd, despite our two
words ski-ing and taxi-ing.
try + ing = trying
empty + ing = emptying
Don't apply the rule in these fourteen cases:
daily, gaily, gaiety, laid, paid, said, slain,
babyhood, shyly, shyness, dryness, slyness,
wryly, wryness.
6

ADDING ENDINGS
(iv) The 2-1-1 rule
This rule applies to:
words of TWO syllables
ending with ONE consonant
preceded by ONE vowel.
With this rule, it all depends on which syllable
of the word is stressed. The 2-1-1 words below
are stressed on the first syllable, and both vowel
and consonant endings are added without any
complications:
gossip gossiping
target targeted
limit limitless
eager eagerness
But note that kidnap, outfit, worship, always
double their final letter:
kidnapped, outfitter, worshipping
Take care with 2-1-1 words which are stressed
on the second syllable. There is no change when
you add a consonant ending:
forget + fill = forgetful
equip + ment = equipment
Double the final consonant of the base word
when you add a vowel ending:
forget + ing = forgetting
equip + ed = equipped
forbid + en = forbidden
begin + er = beginner
This rule is really valuable but you must be
aware of some exceptions:
2-1-1 words ending in -1seem to have a rule all
of their own. Whether the stress is on the first
or the second syllable, there is no change when
7

ADDRESS
a consonant ending is added:
quarrel + some = quarrelsome
instal + ment = instalment
Double the -1when adding a vowel ending:
quarrel + ing = quarrelling
instal + ed = installed
excel + ent = excellent
^ Notice how the change of stress in these words
affects the spelling:
confer conferred conferring conference
defer deferred deferring deference
infer inferred inferring inference
prefer preferred preferring preference
refer referred referring reference
transfer transferred transferring transference
See also -ABLE/-IBLE; -ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT; CAL/-CLE;
-FUL;-LY.
address
(not adr-)
adieu (singular) adieus or adieux (plural)
adrenalin/adrenaline
Both spellings are correct.
adress
Wrong spelling. See ADDRESS.
advantageous
advantage + ous
Keep the -e in this instance.
See SOFT c ANDSOFT G.
adverse or averse?
These two words have different meanings.
8

AGEING OR AGING?
The ferries were cancelled owing to ADVERSE
weather conditions. (= unfavourable)
She is not AVERSE to publicity. (= opposed)
advertisement
advertise + ment
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
advice or advise?
My ADVICE is to forget all about it. (noun =
recommendation)
What would you ADVISE me to do? (verb =
recommend)
adviser or advisor?
Adviser is the traditionally correct British spelling.
Advisor is more common in American English.
advisory
(not -ery)
aerial
Use the same spelling for the noun (a television
AERIAL) and the adjective (an AERIAL photograph).
affect or effect?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
Heavy drinking will AFFECT your liver, (verb)
The EFFECT on her health was immediate, (noun)
The new manager plans to EFFECT sweeping
changes, (verb = to bring about)
afraid
(not affraid)
ageing or aging?
Both spellings are correct but many would prefer
ageing as it keeps the identity of the base word (age)
more easily recognised.
9

AGGRAVATE
aggravate
Strictly speaking, aggravate means to make worse.
His rudeness AGGRAVATED an already explosive
situation.
It is, however, widely used in the sense of to irritate
or to annoy. Be aware that some authorities would
regard this second usage as incorrect.
aggressive
(not agr-)
agree to/agree with
The choice of preposition alters the meaning of the
verb:
I AGREED TO do what he advised.
I AGREED TO all the conditions.
I AGREED WITH all they said.
See PREPOSITIONS.
agreeable
(not agreable)
agreement
For grammatical agreement, see SINGULAR ORPLURAL?.
agressive
Wrong spelling. See AGGRESSIVE.
alga (singular) algae (plural)
See FOREIGNPLURALS.
allege
(not -dge)
alley or ally?
An ALLEY is a little lane.
An ALLY is a friend,
alley (singular), alleys (plural)
ally (singular), allies (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
10

ALL TOGETHER OR ALTOGETHER?
all most or almost?
There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar
sentences as a guide:
They were ALL (= everyone) MOST kind.
The child was ALMOST ( = nearly) asleep.
allowed or aloud?
Are we ALLOWED (= permitted) to smoke in here?
I was just thinking ALOUD (= out loud).
all ready or already?
We are ALL (= everyone) READY.
It is ALL (= everything) READY.
She was ALREADY dead (= by then).
all right or alright?
Traditional usage would consider ALLRIGHT to be
correct and ALRIGHT to be incorrect. However, the
use of 'alright' is so widespread that some would see it
as acceptable although the majority of educated users
would take care to avoid it.
all so or also?
You are ALL (= everyone) SO kind.
You are ALSO (= in addition) generous.
all together or altogether?
They were ALL (= everybody) huddled TOGETHER
for warmth.
11

ALLUDE OR ELUDE?
His situation is ALTOGETHER (= totally) different
from yours.
allude or elude?
There is a difference in meaning.
ALLUDE means to refer to indirectly.
ELUDE means to evade capture or recall.
allusion, delusion or illusion?
An ALLUSION is an indirect reference.
A DELUSIONis a false belief (often associated with
a mental disorder).
An ILLUSION is a deceptive appearance.
all ways or always?
These three routes are ALL (= each of them) WAYS
into town.
She ALWAYS (= at all times) tells the truth.
almost
See ALL MOST OR ALMOST?.
a lot
Write as two words, not as one. Bear in mind that
this construction is slang and not to be used in a
formal context.
aloud
See ALLOWED OR ALOUD?.
already
See ALL READY OR ALREADY?.
altar or alter?
The bride and groom stood solemnly before the
ALTAR.
12

AMBIGUITY
Do you wish to ALTER (= change) the
arrangements?
alternate or alternative?
We visit our grandparents on ALTERNATE
Saturdays. (= every other Saturday)
I ALTERNATE between hope and despair. (= have
each mood in turn)
An ALTERNATIVE plan would be to go by boat.
(= another possibility)
The ALTERNATIVES are simple: work or go
hungry. (= two choices)
alternatives
Strictly speaking, the choice can be between only
two alternatives (onechoice or the other).
However, the word is frequently used more
loosely and this precise definition is becoming lost.
altogether
See ALL TOGETHER OR ALTOGETHER?.
Alzheimer's disease
(not Alze-)
amateur
(not -mm-)
ambiguity
Always try to anticipate any possible confusion on
the part of your reader. Check that you have made
your meaning absolutely clear.
(i) Bear in mind that pronouns can be very vague.
Consider this sentence:
My brother told his friend that HE had won first
prize in the local photographic exhibition.
Who is 'he', my brother or his friend?
Rewrite more clearly:
13

AMBIGUITY
(a) My brother congratulated his friend on
winning first prize in the local photographic
exhibition.
(b) My brother, delighted to have won first prize
in the local photographic exhibition, told his
friend.
The other possibility is rather clumsy but is
otherwise clear:
(c) My brother told his friend that he (his friend)
had won first prize.
(d) My brother told his friend that he (my
brother) had won first prize.
(ii) Position the adverb ONLY with great care. It
will refer to the word nearest to it, usually the
word following. This may not be the meaning
you intended. See how crucial to the meaning
the position of 'only' can be:
ONLY Sean eats fish on Fridays.
(= No one else but Sean eats fish on Fridays.)
Sean ONLY eats fish on Fridays.
(= Sean does nothing else to the fish on Fridays
but eat it. He doesn't buy it, cook it, look at it,
smell it...)
Sean eats ONLY fish on Fridays.
(= Sean eats nothing but fish on Fridays.)
Sean eats fish ONLY on Fridays.
Sean eats fish on Fridays ONLY.
(= Sean eats fish on this one day in the week
and never on any other.)
(iii) Take care with the positioning of BADLY.
This room needs cleaning BADLY.
Does it? Or does it not need cleaning well?
Rewrite like this:
14

AMBIGUITY
This room BADLY needs cleaning.
(iv) Beware of causing initial bewilderment by not
introducing a comma to indicate a pause.
The shabby little riverside cafe was empty and
full of wasps and flies.
Empty and full?
The shabby little riverside cafe was empty, and
full of wasps and flies.
See COMMAS (ix).
(v) Avoid the danger of writing nonsense!
DRIVING slowly along the road, THE CASTLE
dominated the landscape.
The castle is driving?
Rewrite:
As we drove slowly along the road, we saw how
the castle dominated the landscape.
COOKED slowly, the FAMILY will enjoy the
cheaper cuts of meat.
Rewrite:
If the cheaper cuts of meat are cooked slowly,
the family will enjoy them.
See PARTICIPLES.
(vi) Make sure the descriptive details describe the
right noun!
For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 - one owner with
power-assisted steering.
Rewrite:
For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 with power-assisted
steering - one owner.
15

AMEND OR EMEND?
amend or emend?
Both words mean 'to make changes in order to
improve'. Use AMEND or EMEND when referring to
the correction of written or printed text.
Use AMEND in a wider context such as AMENDING
the law or AMENDING behaviour.
ammount
Wrong spelling. See AMOUNT.
among
(not amoung)
among/amongst
Either form can be used.
among or between?
Use BETWEEN when something is shared by two
people. Use AMONG when it is shared by three or
more.
Share the sweets BETWEEN the two of you.
Share the sweets AMONG yourselves.
However, BETWEEN is used with numbers larger
than two when it means an exact geographical
location or when it refers to relationships.
Sardinia lies BETWEEN Spain, Algeria, Corsica and
Italy.
It will take a long time before the rift BETWEEN
the five main parties heals.
amoral or immoral?
AMORAL means not being governed by moral laws,
acting outside them,
(note -m-)
IMMORAL means breaking the moral laws,
(note -mm-)
16

-ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT
amoung
Wrong spelling. See AMONG.
amount
(not ammount)
amount or number?
AMOUNT is used with non-count nouns:
a small AMOUNT of sugar; a surprising AMOUNT of
gossip.
NUMBER is used with plural nouns: a NUMBER of
mistakes; a NUMBER of reasons.
analyse
(not -yze as in American English)
analysis (singular) analyses (plural)
-ance,-ant/-ence,-ent
Words with these endings are difficult to spell and
you'll always need to be on your guard with them.
Check each word individually when in doubt, but
here are some useful guidelines:
(i) People are generally -ant: attendant, lieutenant,
occupant, sergeant, tenant (but there are
exceptions like superintendent, president,
resident...).
(ii) Use -ance, -ant, where the companion word
ends in -ation: dominance, dominant,
domination; variance, variant, variation.
(iii) Use -ence, -ent after qu: consequence,
consequent; eloquence, eloquent.
(iv) Use -ance, -ant after hard c or hard g: significance,
significant (c sounds like k); elegance, elegant
(hard g).
17

(v) Use -ence, -ent after soft c or soft g: innocence,
innocent (c sounds like s); intelligent, intelligence
(g sounds like j).
and/but
Many of us have been taught never to begin a
sentence with AND or BUT. Generally speaking this
is good advice. Both words are conjunctions and will
therefore be busy joining words within the sentence:
I should love to come AND I look forward to the party
very much.
They wanted to come BUT sadly they had to visit a
friend in hospital some miles away.
However, there are some occasions when you may
need the extra emphasis that starting a new sentence
with AND or BUT would give. If you have a good
reason to break the rules, do so!
anecdote or antidote?
An ANECDOTE is a short, amusing account of
something that has happened.
An ANTIDOTE is a medicine taken to counteract a
poison.
angsiety
Wrong spelling. See ANXIETY.
angsious
Wrong spelling. See ANXIOUS.
annex or annexe?
To ANNEX is to take possession of a country or part
of a country.
An ANNEX is another word for an appendix in an
official document.
An ANNEXE is a building added to the main
building.
18
AND/BUT

ANTENNA
annoint
Wrong spelling. See ANOINT.
announce
announced, announcing, announcer, announcement
(not -n-)
annoy
annoyed, annoying, annoyance (not anoy or annoied)
annul
annulled, annulling, annulment
See ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
anoint
(not -nn-)
anounce
Wrong spelling. See ANNOUNCE.
anoy
Wrong spelling. See ANNOY.
ante-/anti-
ANTE- means before,
antenatal = before birth
ANTI- means against,
antifreeze = against freezing
antecedent
This means earlier in time or an ancestor, (notanti-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
antediluvian
This means very old-fashioned and primitive, literally
'before the flood of Noah', (not anti-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
antenna
This word has two plurals, each used in a different
sense:
Use ANTENNAE to refer to insects.
19

ANTICLIMAX
Use ANTENNAS to refer to television aerials.
anticlimax
(not ante-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
antidote
See ANECDOTE OR ANTIDOTE?.
antirrhinum
(not -rh-)
antisocial
(not ante-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
anxiety
(not angs-)
anxious
(not angs-)
apologise/apologize
Both spellings are correct, (not -pp)
apology
apologies (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
apon
Wrong spelling. See UPON.
apostrophes
(i) Apostrophes can be used to show that letters
have been omitted:
in contractions
didn't
o'clock
you've
won't
20

APOSTROPHES
in poetry
o'er vales and hills
where'er you walk
in dialect
'Ere's 'Arry.
in retail
pick 'n' mix
salt 'n' vinegar
(ii) Apostrophes can be used to show ownership.
Follow these simple guidelines and you'll never
put the apostrophe in the wrong place.
Singular nouns or 'owners'
The tail of the dog
The dog's tail
Who 'owns' the tail? the dog
Put the apostrophe after
the owner. the dog'
Add -s. the dog's
Add what is 'owned'. the dog's tail
The smile of the princess
The princess's smile
Who 'owns' the smile? the princess
the owner. the princess'
Add -s. the princess's
Add what is 'owned'. the princess's smile
With proper names ending in -s, you have a choice,
depending upon how the name is pronounced.
Keats' poetry or Keats's poetry
But St James's Square, London, SW1
St James' (two syllables)
St James's (three syllables)
21

APPAL
Plural nouns or 'owners'
Don't worry about whether you use 's or s' in the
plural. It will sort itself out.
The tails of the dogs
The dogs' tails
Who 'owns' the tails? the dogs
the owners. the dogs'
Add -s if there isn't one. (no need here)
Add what is 'owned'. the dogs' tails
The laughter of the women
The women's laughter
Who 'owns' the laughter? the women
Put the apostrophe
after the owners. the women'
Add -s if there isn't one. the women's
Add what is 'owned'. the women's laughter
And so, when reading, you will be able to distinguish
singular and plural 'owners'.
The princess's suitors.
The princesses' suitors.
The 'owner' is the word before the apostrophe.
(iii) Apostrophes are also used in condensed
expressions of time.
The work of a moment.
A moment's work.
The work of three years.
Three years' work.
If you follow the guidelines in (ii) above, you
will never make a mistake.
appal
appalled, appalling (not -aul-)
See also ADDING ENDINGS(iv).
22

appearance
(not -ence)
appendix
This word has two plurals, each used in a different
sense.
Use APPENDIXES in an anatomical sense.
Use APPENDICES when referring to supplementary
sections in books or formal documents.
See also FOREIGNPLURALS.
appologiseMze
Wrong spelling. See APOLOGISE/APOLOGIZE.
appology
Wrong spelling. See APOLOGY.
appraise or apprise?
To APPRAISE is to evaluate.
To APPRISE is to inform.
appreciate
There are three distinct meanings of this word.
I APPRECIATE your kindness (= recognise
gratefully).
I APPRECIATE that you have had a difficult time
lately (= understand).
My cottage HAS APPRECIATED in value already
(= increased).
Some people would choose to avoid the second use
above (understand, realise) but the verb is now
widely used in this sense and this has become
acceptable.
approach
approached, approaching (not apr-)
aquaint
Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINT.
23
AOUAINT

AQUAINTANCE
aquaintance
Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINTANCE.
aquarium (singular) aquaria or aquariums (plural)
aquiesce
Wrong spelling. See ACQUIESCE.
aquiescence
Wrong spelling. See ACQUIESCENCE.
aquire
Wrong spelling. See ACQUIRE.
arange
Wrong spelling. See ARRANGE.
arbiter or arbitrator?
An ARBITER is a judge or someone with decisive
influence (an arbiter of fashion).
In addition, an ARBITER may intervene to settle a
dispute (-er).
An ARBITRATORis someone who is officially
appointed to judge the rights and wrongs of a
dispute (-or).
arbitrator or mediator?
An ARBITRATOR reaches a judgement but is not
necessarily obeyed.
A MEDIATOR attempts to bring two opposing sides
together and to settle a dispute.
archipelago
There are two interchangeable plural forms:
archipelagoes, archipelagos.
arctic
(not artic, although frequently mispronounced as
such)
24

argument
(not arguement)
arrange
arranged, arranging, arrangement (not -r-)
artefact
American: artifact
artic
Wrong spelling. See ARCTIC.
article
(not -cal)
See -CAL/-CLE.
artist or artiste?
Traditionally, an ARTIST is skilled in one or more
of the fine arts (painting, for example, or sculpture).
Traditionally, the term ARTISTE is reserved for a
performer or entertainer (a music-hall ARTISTE).
However, ARTIST is now being used to cover both
meanings in the sense of 'skilled practitioner', and
ARTISTE is becoming redundant.
as or like?
You look AS if you have seen a ghost.
You look AS though you have seen a ghost.
AS I expected, he's missed the train.
You look LIKE your mother.
asma
Wrong spelling. See ASTHMA.
asphalt
(not ashphalt, as it is frequently mispronounced)
aspirin
(not asprin, as it is frequently mispronounced)
25
ASPIRIN

assassin
(not assasin or asassin)
assma
Wrong spelling. See ASTHMA.
assume or presume?
To ASSUME something to be the case is to take it
for granted without any proof.
To PRESUME something to be the case is to base it
on the evidence available.
assurance or insurance?
Insurance companies distinguish between these two
terms.
ASSURANCE is the technical term given for
insurance against a certainty (e.g. death) where
payment is guaranteed.
INSURANCE is the technical term given for
insurance against a risk (such as fire, burglary, illness)
where payment is made only if the risk materialises.
asthma
(not asma or assma)
astrology or astronomy?
ASTROLOGY is the study of the influence of the
stars and planets on human life and fortune.
ASTRONOMY is the scientific study of the stars and
planets.
athlete
(not athelete)
athletics
(not atheletics)
attach
attached, attaching, attachment (not-tch)
audible
(not -able)
26
ASSASSIN

AXIS
audience
(not -ance)
aural or oral?
AURAL refers to the ears and hearing.
ORAL refers to the mouth and speaking.
In speech these words can be very confusing as they
are pronounced identically.
authoritative
(not authorative)
autobiography or biography?
An AUTOBIOGRAPHY is an account of his or her
life by the author.
A BIOGRAPHYis an account of a life written by
someone else.
automaton (singular) automata, automatons (plural)
avenge or revenge?
The words are very close in meaning but AVENGE is
often used in the sense of exacting just retribution,
punishing a wrong done to another.
Hamlet felt bound to AVENGE his father's death.
REVENGE is often used in the sense of 'getting
one's own back' for a petty offence.
averse
See ADVERSE or AVERSE?.
awkward
Notice -wkw-. The spelling itself looks awkward!
axis (singular) axes (plural)
27

babyhood
(not -i-)
This word is an exception to the -y rule.
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii).
bachelor
(not -tch-)
bacillus (singular) bacilli (plural)
bacterium (singular) bacteria (plural)
badly
This word is often carelessly positioned with
disastrous effects on meaning.
See AMBIGUITY (iii).
banister/bannister
banisters, bannisters (plural)
Although the first spelling is more widely used, both
spellings are correct.
bargain
(not -ian)
basically
basic + ally (not basicly)
batchelor
Wrong spelling. See BACHELOR.
bath or bathe?
I have a BATH every morning (= I have a wash in
the bath).
I BATH the baby every day (= wash in a bath).
I have had a new BATH fitted.
28
ia

BENEFIT
We BATHE every day (= swim).
BATHE the wound with disinfectant (= cleanse).
We have a BATHE whenever we can (= a swim).
beach or beech?
Budleigh Salterton has a stony BEACH.
BEECH trees retain their leaves in autumn.
beautiful
Use your knowledge of French beau to help you.
before
(not befor)
begin
Note these forms and spellings:
I begin, I am beginning.
I began, I have begun.
beginner
(not -n-)
beige
(not -ie-)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
belief
(not -ei)
believe
believed, believing, believer
benefit
benefited, benefiting
It is a common mistake to use -tt-.
29

BERTH OR BIRTH?
berth or birth?
We have a spare BERTH on our boat.
We are proud to announce the BIRTH of a
daughter.
beside or besides?
Use BESIDE in the sense of next to, by the side of:
Your glasses are BESIDE your bed.
May I sit BESIDE you?
Use BESIDES in the sense of also, as well as:
BESIDES, I can't afford it.
BESIDES being very clever, Ann also works hard.
between
See AMONG OR BETWEEN?.
between you and I
Incorrect. Write: between you and me.
See PREPOSITIONS.
bi-
This prefix means 'two'.
Hence bicycle
bifocals
bigamy, and so on.
Note, however, that some words beginning with 'bi'
can be ambiguous.
See BIMONTHLY and BIWEEKLY.
See also BIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?.
biannual or biennial?
BIANNUAL means twice a year (not -n-).
BIENNIAL means every two years (a biennial
festival) or taking two years to grow (horticultural,
etc), (not -ual)
30

BIWEEKLY
bicycle
bi + cycle
(not bycycle or bycicle)
bidding or biding?
bid + ing = bidding
The BIDDING at the auction was fast and furious.
BIDDING farewell, the knight cantered away.
bide + ing = biding
Her critics were just BIDING their time.
biege
Wrong spelling. See BEIGE.
biennial
See BIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?.
bimonthly
Avoid using BIMONTHLY as it has two conflicting
meanings. It can mean both every two months and
also twice a month. (Compare BIWEEKLY.)
binoculars
(not -nn-)
biography
See AUTOBIOGRAPHY OR BIOGRAPHY?.
biscuit
(not -iu-)
biulding
Wrong spelling. See BUILDING.
bivouac
bivouacked, bivouacking
biweekly
This word has two conflicting meanings and is
31

perhaps best avoided. It can mean both every two
weeks (i.e. fortnightly) and also twice a week.
(Compare BIMONTHLY.)
bizarre
(not -22-)
blond or blonde?
BLOND is used to describe men's hair.
BLOND/BLONDE is used to describe women's hair.
A BLONDE is a woman.
board or bored?
A BOARD is a piece of wood, also a committee or
similar group of people.
To BOARD means to get on (train, etc.) and also to
pay for living in someone's house and having food
provided.
BORED means uninterested.
boarder or border?
A BOARDER is a person who pays to live in
someone's house or school.
A BORDER is the edge or boundary of something.
boisterous
syllables)
boney/bony
Both spellings are correct, although the second
spelling is more commonly used.
border
See BOARDER OR BORDER?.
bored
See BOARD OR BORED?.
bored by, bored with
(not bored or)
32
BIZARRE
(not boistrous, although often mispronounced as two

BOUGHT ORBROUGHT?
born or borne?
Dickens was BORN in Portsmouth.
She has BORNE five children.
He has BORNE a heavy burden of guilt all his life.
borrow or lend?
May I BORROW your pen? (= use your pen
temporarily)
Please LEND me your pen. (= pass it to me and
allow me to use it)
both... and
Take care with the positioning of each half of this
paired construction. Each must introduce
grammatically similar things:
He is BOTH clever AND hardworking.
(not: He both is clever and hardworking!)
He BOTH paints AND sculpts.
He bought BOTH the gardening tools AND the DIY
kit.
Notice, however, the ambiguity in the last example.
It could mean that there were just two gardening
tools and he bought both of them. In the case of
possible confusion, always replace:
He bought the gardening tools and also the DIY kit.
He bought the two gardening tools and also the DIY
kit.
He bought both of the gardening tools and also the
DIY kit.
bought or brought?
BOUGHT is the past tense of to buy.
She BOUGHT eggs, bacon and bread.
BROUGHT is the past tense of to bring.
33

They BROUGHT their books home.
bouncy
(not -ey)
brackets
Round brackets enclose additional information which
the writer wants to keep separate from the main
body of the sentence.
Jane Austen (born in 1775) died in Winchester.
My neighbour (have you met her?) has won
£250,000.
Notice how sentences in brackets are not fully
punctuated.
They don't begin with a capital letter or have a
full stop at the end if they occur within another
sentence as in the example above. They do,
however, have a question mark or an exclamation
mark, if appropriate.
Square brackets indicate that the material has been
added to the original by another writer:
When I [Hilaire Belloc] am dead, I hope it may be
said:
'His sins were scarlet, but his books were read.'
breath or breathe?
BREATH is the noun, and rhymes with 'death'.
He called for help with his dying BREATH.
BREATHE is the verb and rhymes with 'seethe'.
BREATHE deeply and fill those lungs!
brief, briefly
(not -ei-)
Britain
(not -ian)
34
BOUNCY

BUT
Brittany
(not Britanny)
broach or brooch?
You BROACH a difficult topic or BROACH a bottle.
You wear a BROOCH.
broccoli
(not brocolli)
broken
(not brocken)
brought
See BOUGHT OR BROUGHT?.
buffalo (singular) buffalo, buffaloes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
building
(not -iu-)
buisness
Wrong spelling. See BUSINESS.
bureau
bureaux, bureaus (plural)
Both forms are correct.
bureaucracy
(not -sy)
burglar
(not burgular, as often mispronounced)
burned/burnt
business
(not buisness)
but
See AND/BUT.
35

buy/by
I need to BUY some new jeans.
The book is BY Charlotte Bronte.
Wait BY the gate.
The children rushed BY.
36
BUY/BY

cactus (singular) cactuses or cacti (plural)
caffeine
(not -ie-)
-cal/-cle
Adjectives end in -cal.
Nouns end in -cle.
e.g. critical
logical
magical
musical
nautical
physical
practical
theatrical
tropical
whimsical
calculator
(not -er)
calendar
article
bicycle
circle
cubicle
cuticle
miracle
particle
spectacle
uncle
vehicle
calf (singular) calves (plural)
See PLURALS(v).
callous or callus?
CALLOUS means cruel, insensitive, not caring
about how others feel.
CALLUS means a hard patch of skin or tissue.
Interestingly, skin may be CALLOUSED (made
hard) or CALLUSED (having calluses).
can or may?
Strictly speaking, CAN means 'being able' and MAY
means 'having permission'. It is best to preserve this
37
H

CANING OR CANNING?
distinction in formal contexts. However, informally,
CAN is used to cover both meanings:
You CAN go now (= are permitted).
caning or canning?
cane + ing = caning
CANING is now banned in all schools.
Can + ing = canning
The CANNING factory is closing down.
canister
(not -nn-)
cannon or canon?
A CANON is a cleric.
A CANNON is a large gun.
cannot or can not?
Both forms are acceptable but the second is rarely
seen.
canoe
canoed, canoeing, canoeist
canon
See CANNON OR CANON?.
can't
Contraction of CANNOT.
canvas or canvass?
CANVAS is a rough cloth.
To CANVASS is to ask for votes.
capital letters
Use a capital letter in these circumstances:
to begin a sentence:
38

CAPITAL LETTERS
My father will be fifty tomorrow,
to begin sentences of direct speech:
'You will be sorry for this in the morning,' she
said.
She said, 'You will be sorry for this in the
morning. You never learn.'
for the pronoun T wherever it comes in the
sentence:
You know that I have no money,
for all proper nouns - names of:
people (Mary Browne)
countries (Malta)
languages (French)
religious festivals (Easter, Diwali)
firms (Express Cleaners)
organisations (the British Broadcasting
Corporation)
historical periods (the Renaissance)
(the Neolithic Period)
days of the week (Monday)
months of the year (September)
but not usually the seasons
Note these adjectives derived from proper nouns also
have a capital letter:
a Jewish festival; a German poet
However, the capital is dropped when the
connection with the proper noun becomes lost:
Venetian blinds, french windows
Note also that titles are capitalised only when part of
a proper noun:
Bishop Christopher Budd, otherwise the bishop
Aunt Gladys, otherwise my aunt
39

CAPITAL LETTERS
Captain Llewellyn, otherwise the captain
to begin lines of poetry (although some poets
like e.e. cummings dispense with this
convention)
to mark the first word and the subsequent key
words in titles:
The Taming of the Shrew
An Old Wives' Tale
for emphasis:
And then - BANG!
for some acronyms and initialisms:
NATO
UNESCO
CAFOD
OXFAM
PTO
RSVP
Note that some acronyms have now become
words in their own right and are no longer
written in capitals: laser, sauna, radar.
Note also that some initialisms are usually
written in lower case: i.e., e.g., c/o, wpm.
for the Deity as a mark of respect and for sacred
books:
God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, the Almighty,
Allah, Jehovah, Yahweh
the Bible, the Koran, the Vedas
to begin each word in an address:
Mrs Anna Sendall
10 Furze Crescent
ALPHINGTON
Hants PD6 9EF
40

CARRYING
for the salutation in a letter (first word and key
words only) and for the first letter of the
complimentary close:
Dear Sir
Dear Mrs Hughes
My dear niece
Yours faithfully
Yours sincerely
With much love
With best wishes
capital punishment or corporal punishment?
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT = death
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT = beating
cappuccino
(not -p-)
capsize
This is the only verb in the English language of more
than one syllable that must end in -ize.
captain
(not -ian)
capuccino
Wrong spelling. See CAPPUCCINO.
career
(not -rr-)
cargo (singular) cargoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
Caribbean
(not -rr-, not -b-)
carreer
Wrong spelling. See CAREER.
carrying
carry + ing
41
t

CAST OR CASTE?
cast or caste?
Use CAST for a group of actors in a play and for a
plaster CAST and a CAST in an eye.
Use CASTE when referring to a social group in
Hindu society.
caster or castor?
Both caster sugar and castor sugar are correct.
Both sugar caster and sugar castor are correct.
Both casters and castors can be used when referring
to the little wheels fixed to the legs of furniture.
But castor oil, not caster oil.
catagorical
Wrong spelling. See CATEGORICAL.
catagory
Wrong spelling. See CATEGORY.
catarrh
(not -rh)
catastrophe
(not -y)
categorical
categorically (not cata-)
category (singular) categories (plural) (not cata-)
cauliflower
(not -flour)
ceiling
(not -ie-)
Cellophane
(not Sello-)
42

CEREMONY
censer, censor or censure?
A CENSER is a container in which incense is burnt
during a religious ceremony.
A CENSOR is a person who examines plays, books,
films, etc. before deciding if they are suitable for
public performance or publication.
To CENSOR is to do the work of a CENSOR.
CENSURE is official and formal disapproval or
condemnation of an action.
To CENSURE is to express this condemnation in a
formal written or spoken statement.
centenarian or centurion?
A CENTENARIAN is someone who is at least 100
years old.
A CENTURION was the commander of a company
of 100 men in the ancient Roman army.
century (singular) centuries (plural) (not centua-)
See PLURALS (iii).
cereal or serial?
CEREAL is food processed from grain.
A SERIAL is a book or radio or television
performance delivered in instalments.
ceremonial or ceremonious?
Both adjectives come from the noun CEREMONY.
CEREMONIAL describes the ritual used for a formal
religious or public event (a CEREMONIAL occasion).
CEREMONIOUS describes the type of person who
likes to behave over-formally on social occasions. It
is not altogether complimentary (a CEREMONIOUS
wave of the hand).
ceremony (singular) ceremonies (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
43

CERTAIN OR CURTAIN
certain or curtain
CERTAIN means sure.
Are you CERTAIN that he apologised?
CURTAINS are window drapes.
Do draw the CURTAINS.
Note that the c sounds like s in certain and like k in
curtain.
changeable
(not -gable)
chaos
chaotic
character
(not charachter)
chateau/chateau (singular) chateaux or chateaux (plural)
check or cheque?
Always CHECK your work.
May I pay by CHEQUE? (not 'check' as in the
United States)
cherub (singular)
This word has two plurals.
Cherubim is reserved exclusively for the angels often
portrayed as little children with wings.
Cherubs can be used either for angels or for
enchanting small children.
chestnut
(not chesnut, as it is often mispronounced)
44
t
t
t

CHORD OR CORD?
chief (singular) chiefs (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
childish or childlike?
The teenager was rebuked by the magistrate for his
CHILDISH behaviour, (i.e. which he should have
outgrown)
The grandfather has retained his sense of
CHILDLIKE wonder at the beauty of the natural
world, (i.e. marvellously direct, innocent and
enthusiastic)
chimney (singular) chimneys (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
chior
Wrong spelling. See CHOIR.
chocolate
(not choclat although often mispronounced as such)
choice
(not -se)
choir
(not -io-)
choose
I CHOOSE my words carefully.
I am CHOOSING my words carefully.
I CHOSE my words carefully yesterday.
I have CHOSEN them carefully.
chord or cord?
CHORD is used in a mathematical or musical
context.
CORD refers to string and is generally used when
referring to anatomical parts like the umbilical cord,
spinal cord and vocal cords.
Note-, you will occasionally see CHORD used instead
of CORD in a medical context but it seems very old-
fashioned now.
45

CHRISTIANITY
Christianity
(not Cr-)
Christinas
(not Cristmas or Chrismas)
chronic
(not cr-)
This word is often misused. It doesn't mean terrible
or serious. It means long-lasting, persistent, when
applied to an illness.
chrysanthemum
(not cry-)
chrystal
Wrong spelling. See CRYSTAL.
cieling
Wrong spelling. See CEILING.
cigarette
(not -rr)
cite, sight or site?
To CITE means to refer to.
SIGHT is vision or something seen.
A SITE is land, usually set aside for a particular
purpose.
clarity
See AMBIGUITY.
clothes or cloths?
CLOTHES are garments.
CLOTHS are dusters or scraps of material.
coarse or course?
COARSE means vulgar, rough:
COARSE language, COARSE cloth.
COURSE means certainly:
46

COLONEL OR KERNEL?
OF COURSE
COURSE also means a series of lectures, a direction,
a sports area, and part of a meal:
an advanced COURSE
to change COURSE
a golf COURSE
the main COURSE
codeine
(not -ie-)
colander
(not -ar)
collaborate
collaborated, collaborating
collaborator
collaboration
collapse
collapsed, collapsing
collapsible
(not -able)
colleagues
collective nouns
See NOUNS.
college
(not colledge)
colloquial
collossal
Wrong spelling. See COLOSSAL.
colonel or kernel?
A COLONEL is a senior officer.
A KERNEL is the inner part of a nut.
47

COLONS
colons
(i) Colons can introduce a list:
Get your ingredients together:
flour, sugar, dried fruit, butter and milk.
Note that a summing-up word should always
precede the colon (here 'ingredients').
(ii) Colons can precede an explanation or
amplification of what has gone before:
The teacher was elated: at last the pupils were
gaining in confidence.
Note that what precedes the colon must always
be able to stand on its own grammatically. It
must be a sentence in its own right.
(iii) Colons can introduce dialogue in a
play:
Henry (with some embarrassment): It's all my
fault.
(iv) Colons can be used instead of a comma to
introduce direct speech:
Henry said, with some embarrassment: 'It's all
my fault.'
(v) Colons can introduce quotations:
Donne closes the poem with the moving tribute:
'Thy firmness makes my circle just
And makes me end where I began.'
(vi) Colons can introduce examples as in this
reference book.
Compare SEMICOLONS.
colossal
(not -11-)
48
t

COMMAS
colour
(not color, as in American English)
colourful
comemorate
Wrong spelling. See COMMEMORATE.
comfortable
(four syllables, not three)
coming
come + ing = coming (not comming)
comission
Wrong spelling. See COMMISSION.
commands
(i) Direct commands, if expressed emphatically,
require an exclamation mark:
Stop, thief!
Put your hands up!
Stop talking!
If expressed calmly and conversationally,
however, a full stop is sufficient:
Just wait there a moment and I'll be with you.
Tell me your story once again.
(ii) Reported commands (indirect commands) never
need an exclamation mark because, when they
are reported, they become statements.
He ordered the thief to stop.
She told him to put his hands up.
The teacher yelled at the class to stop talking.
commas
Commas are so widely misused that it is worth
discussing their function in some detail. First, let us
make it very clear when commas cannot be used.
49

COMMAS
(a) A comma should never divide a subject from its
verb. The two go together:
My parents, had very strict views.
My parents had very strict views.
Take extra care with compound
subjects:
The grandparents, the parents, and the children,
were in some ways to blame.
The grandparents, the parents, and the children
were in some ways to blame.
(b) Commas should never be used in an attempt to
string sentences together. Sentences must be
either properly joined (and commas don't have
this function) or clearly separated by full stops,
question marks or exclamation marks.
Commas have certain very specific jobs to do within
a sentence. Let us look at each in turn:
(i) Commas separate items in a list:
I bought apples, pears, and grapes.
She washed up, made the beds, and had
breakfast.
The novel is funny, touching, and beautifully
written.
The final comma before 'and' in a list
is optional. However, use it to avoid
any ambiguity. See (ix) below.
(ii) Commas are used to separate terms of address
from the rest of the sentence:
Sheila, how nice to see you!
Can I help you, madam?
I apologise, ladies and gentlemen, for this delay.
Note that a pair of commas is needed in the last
example above because the term of address
50

COMMAS
occurs mid-sentence. It is a very common error
to omit one of the commas.
(iii) Commas are used to separate interjections, asides
and sentence tags like isn't it? don't you? haven't
you?. You'll notice in the examples below that
all these additions could be removed and these
sentences would still be grammatically sound:
My mother, despite her good intentions, soon
stopped going to the gym.
Of course, I'll help you when I can.
You've met Tom, haven't you?
(iv) Commas are used to mark off phrases in
apposition:
Prince Charles, the future king, has an older
sister.
The phrase 'the future king' is another way of
referring to 'Prince Charles' and is punctuated
just like an aside.
(v) A comma separates any material that precedes it
from the main part of the sentence:
Although she admired him, she would never go
out with him.
If you want to read the full story, buy The
Sunday Times.
Note that if the sentences are reversed so that
the main part of the sentence comes first, the
comma becomes optional.
(vi) Commas mark off participles and participial
phrases, whenever they come in the sentence:
Laughing gaily, she ran out of the room.
He flung himself on the sofa, overcome with
remorse.
The children, whispering excitedly, crowded
51

COMMAS
through the door.
For a definition of participles see PARTICIPLES.
(vii) Commas mark off some adjectival clauses. Don't
worry too much about the grammatical
terminology here. You'll be able to decide
whether you need to mark them off in your
own work by matching them against these
examples.
Can you see the difference in meaning that a
pair of commas makes here? Read the two
sentences aloud, pausing where the commas
indicate that you should pause in the first
sentence, and the two different meanings should
become clear:
The firemen, who wore protective clothing,
were uninjured. (= nobody injured)
The firemen who wore protective clothing were
uninjured, (but those who didn't wear it...)
(viii) Commas are used to mark a pause at a suitable
point in a long sentence. This will be very much
a question of style. Read your own work
carefully and decide exactly how you want it to
be read.
(ix) Commas are sometimes needed to clarify
meaning. In the examples below, be aware how
the reader could initially make an inappropriate
connection:
She reversed the car into the main road and my
brother waved goodbye.
She reversed the car into the main road and my
brother??
She reversed the car into the main road, and my
brother waved goodbye.
52

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
In the skies above the stars glittered palely.
In the skies above the stars??
In the skies above, the stars glittered palely.
Notice how the comma can sometimes be
essential with 'and' in a list:
We shopped at Moores, Browns, SuperValu,
Marks and Spencer and Leonards.
Is the fourth shop called Marks, or Marks and
Spencer?
Is the fifth shop called Leonards, or Spencer and
Leonards?
A comma makes all clear:
We shopped at Moores, Browns, SuperValu,
Marks and Spencer, and Leonards.
commemorate
(not -m-)
comming
Wrong spelling. See COMING.
commission
(not -m-)
commit
committed, committing, commitment
committee
common nouns
See NOUNS.
comparative
comparatively (not compari-)
comparative and superlative
(i) Use the comparative form of adjectives and
adverbs when comparing two:
53

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
John is TALLER than Tom.
John works MORE ENERGETICALLY than Tom.
Use the superlative form when comparing three
or more:
John is the TALLEST of all the engineers.
John works THE MOST ENERGETICALLY of all
the engineers.
(ii) There are two ways of forming the comparative
and superlative of adjectives:
(a) Add -er and -est to short adjectives:
tall taller tallest
happy happier happiest
(b) Use more and most with longer adjectives:
dangerous more dangerous most dangerous
successful more successful most successful
The comparative and superlative forms of
adverbs are formed in exactly the same way:
(c) Short adverbs add -er and -est.
You run FASTER than I do.
He runs the FASTEST of us all.
(d) Use more and most with longer adverbs.
Nikki works MORE CONSCIENTIOUSLY
than Sarah.
Niamh works THE MOST
CONSCIENTIOUSLY of them all.
(iii) There are three irregular adjectives:
good better best
bad worse worst
many more most
There are four irregular adverbs:
54

COMPLEMENT OR COMPLIMENT?
(iv) A very common error is to mix the two methods
of forming the comparative and the superlative:
more simpler
most easiest
(v) Another pitfall is to try to form the comparative
and superlative of absolute words like perfect,
unique, excellent, complete, ideal. Something is
either perfect or it isn't. It can't be more perfect
or less perfect, most perfect or least perfect.
compare to/compare with
Both constructions are acceptable but many people
still prefer to use 'compare with'.
comparitive
Wrong spelling. See COMPARATIVE.
competition
competitive, competitively
complacent or complaisant?
COMPLACENT = smug, self-satisfied
COMPLAISANT = obliging, willing to comply
compleatly
Wrong spelling. See COMPLETELY.
complement or compliment?
COMPLEMENT = that which completes
Half the ship's COMPLEMENT were recruited in
Norway.
To COMPLEMENT - to go well with something
Her outfit was COMPLEMENTED by well-chosen
accessories.
COMPLIMENT = praise, flattering remarks
55
well
badly
much
little
better
worse
more
less
best
worst
most
least
simpler
easiest

To COMPLIMENT = to praise
complementary or complimentary?
Use COMPLEMENTARY in the sense of completing
a whole:
COMPLEMENTARY medicine
COMPLEMENTARY jobs
Use COMPLIMENTARY in two senses:
(a) flattering
(b) free of charge
COMPLIMENTARY remarks
COMPLIMENTARY tickets
completely
complete + ly (not completly, completley or
compleatly)
complex or complicated?
Both words mean 'made up of many different
intricate and confusing aspects'. However, use
COMPLEX when you mean 'intricate', and
COMPLICATED when you mean 'difficult to
understand'.
compliment
See COMPLEMENT OR COMPLIMENT?.
compose/comprise
The report IS COMPOSED OF ten sections. (= is
made up of)
The report COMPRISES ten sections. (= contains)
Never use the construction 'is comprised of. It is
always incorrect grammatically.
comprise
(not -ize)
56
COMPLEMENTARY OR COMPLIMENTARY?

CONSISTENT
compromise
(not-ize)
computer
(not -or)
concede
conceive
conceived, conceiving, conceivable
concise
confer
conferred, conferring, conference
confidant, confidante or confident?
A CONFIDANT(male or female) or a CONFIDANTE
(female only) is someone to whom one tells one's
secrets 'in confidence'.
CONFIDENT means assured.
connection or connexion?
Both spellings are correct, but the first one is more
commonly used.
connoisseur
Used for both men and women.
conscientious
consist in or consist of?
For Belloc, happiness CONSISTED IN 'laughter and
the love of friends', (consist in = have as its
essence)
Lunch CONSISTEDOF bread, cheese and fruit.
consistent
(not-ant)
57

CONSONANT
consonant
There are 21 consonants in the alphabet, all the
letters except for the vowels:
bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyz
Note, however, that y can be both a vowel and a
consonant:
y is a consonant when it begins a word or a syllable
(yolk, beyond);
y is a vowel when it sounds like i or e (sly, baby).
contagious or infectious?
Both refer to diseases passed to others.
Strictly speaking, CONTAGIOUS means passed by
bodily contact, and INFECTIOUS means passed by
means of air or water.
Used figuratively, the terms are interchangeable:
INFECTIOUS laughter, CONTAGIOUS enthusiasm.
contemporary
(not contempory, as often mispronounced)
Nowadays, this word is used in two senses:
(a) happening or living at the same time (in the past)
(b) modern, current
Be aware of possible ambiguity if both these
meanings are possible in a given context:
Hamlet is being performed in contemporary dress,
(sixteenth-century or modern?)
contemptible or contemptuous
A person or an action worthy of contempt is
CONTEMPTIBLE.
A person who shows contempt is CONTEMPTUOUS.
continual
continually
58

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
continual or continuous?
CONTINUAL means frequently repeated, occurring
with short breaks only.
CONTINUOUS means uninterrupted.
contractions
Take care when placing the apostrophe in
contractions. It is placed where the letter has been
omitted and not where the two words are joined.
These happen to coincide in some contractions:
I'd (I would, I had)
they aren't (they are not)
it isn't (it is not)
you hadn't (you had not)
you wouldn't (you would not)
she won't (she will not)
we haven't (we have not)
I shan't (I shall not)
It was common in Jane Austen's time to use two
apostrophes in shan't (sha'n't) to show that two sets
of letters had been omitted but this is no longer
correct today.
control
controlled, controlling
controller
convenience
(not -ance)
convenient
conveniently (not convien-)
cord
See CHORD OR CORD?.
corporal punishment
See CAPITAL OR CORPORAL PUBLISHMENT?.
59
(not -or)

CORRESPOND
correspond
(not -r-)
correspondence
(not -ance)
correspondent or co-respondent?
A CORRESPONDENT is someone who writes
letters.
A CO-RESPONDENT is cited in divorce proceedings.
could of
This is incorrect and arises from an attempt to write
down what is heard. Write 'could've' in informal
contexts and 'could have' in formal ones.
I COULD'VE given you a lift.
I COULD HAVE given you a lift.
Beware also: should of/would of/must of/might of.
All are incorrect forms.
couldn't
See CONTRACTIONS.
council or counsel?
A COUNCIL is a board of elected representatives.
COUNSEL is advice, also the term used for a
barrister representing a client in court.
councillor or counsellor?
A COUNCILLOR is an elected representative.
A COUNSELLOR is one who gives professional
guidance, such as a study COUNSELLOR, a marriage
COUNSELLOR, a debt COUNSELLOR.
counterfeit
This is one of the few exceptions to the IE/El
spelling rule.
See IE/El SPELLING RULE.
60

CRYSTAL
courageous
(not -gous)
course
See COARSE OR COURSE?.
courteous
courteously, courtesy
credible or credulous?
If something is CREDIBLE, it is believable.
If someone is CREDULOUS, he or she is gullible (i.e.
too easily taken in).
crisis (singular) crises (plural)
criterion (singular) criteria (plural)
criticise/criticize
criticism
This word is frequently misspelt.
Remember critic + ism.
cronic
Wrong spelling. See CHRONIC.
crucial
cry
cried, crying
crysanthemum
Wrong spelling. See CHRYSANTHEMUM.
crystal
(not chr-)
61

CUPBOARD
cupboard
(not cub-)
curb or kerb
To CURB one's temper means to control or restrain
it.
A CURB is a restraint (e.g. a curb bit for a horse).
A KERB is the edging of a pavement.
curious
curiosity
(not -ious-)
curly
(not -ey)
currant or current?
A CURRANT is a small dried grape used in cooking.
A CURRENT is a steady flow of water, air or
electricity.
CURRENT can also mean happening at the present
time (as in CURRENT affairs, CURRENT practice).
curriculum (singular) curriculums/curricula (plural)
curriculum vitae
(abbreviation: CV)
curtain
See CERTAIN OR CURTAIN?.
62

daily
(not dayly)
This is an exception to the -y rule.
dairy or diary?
We buy our cream at a local DAIRY.
Kate writes in her DIARY every day.
dangling participles
See PARTICIPLES.
dashes
Dashes are used widely in informal notes and letters.
(i) A dash can be used to attach an afterthought:
I should love to come - that's if I can get the
time off.
(ii) A dash can replace a colon before a list in
informal writing:
The thieves took everything - video, television,
cassettes, computer, camera, the lot.
(iii) A dash can precede a summary:
Video, television, cassettes, computer, camera -
the thieves took the lot.
(iv) A pair of dashes can be used like a pair of
commas or a pair of brackets around a
parenthesis:
Geraldine is - as you know - very shy with
strangers.
(v) A dash can mark a pause before the climax is
reached:
There he was at the foot of the stairs - dead.
63
D
t

DATA
(vi) Dashes can indicate hesitation in speech:
I - er - don't - um- know what - what to say.
(vii)Dashes can indicate missing letters or even
missing words where propriety or discretion
require it:
c 1(ship of the desert)
Susan L— comes from Exeter.
He swore softly, ' it'.
data (plural) datum (singular)
Strictly speaking, DATA should be used with a plural
verb:
The DATA have been collected by research students.
You will, however, increasingly see DATA used with
a singular verb and this use has now become
acceptable.
The DATA has been collected by research students.
dates
See NUMBERS for a discussion of how to set out
dates.
deceased or diseased?
DECEASED means dead.
DISEASED means affected by illness or infection.
deceit
(not -ie)
deceive
decent or descent?
DECENT means fair, upright, reasonable.
DESCENT means act of coming down, ancestry.
decide
decided, deciding (not decied-)
64

DELAPIDATED
deciet
Wrong spelling. See DECEIT.
decieve
Wrong spelling. See DECEIVE.
decision
decolletage
(not de-)
decrepit
(not -id)
defective or deficient?
DEFECTIVE means not working properly (a
DEFECTIVE machine).
DEFICIENT means lacking something vital (a diet
DEFICIENT in vitamin C).
defer
deferred, deferring, deference
deffinite
Wrong spelling. See DEFINITE.
deficient
See DEFECTIVE OR DEFICIENT?.
definate
Wrong spelling. See DEFINITE.
definite
(not -ff-, not -ate)
definitely
deisel
Wrong spelling. See DIESEL.
delapidated
Wrong spelling. See DILAPIDATED.
65

DELUSION
delusion
See ALLUSION, DELUSION OR ILLUSION?.
denouement/denouement
dependant or dependent?
The adjective (meaning reliant) is always-ent.
She is a widow with five DEPENDENT children.
I am absolutely DEPENDENT on a pension.
The noun (meaning someone who is dependent) has
traditionally been spelt -ant. However, the American
practice of writing either -ant or -ent for the noun
has now spread here. Either spelling is now
considered correct for the noun but be aware that
some conservative readers would consider this
slipshod.
She has five DEPENDANTS/DEPENDENTS,
descent
See DECENT OR DESCENT?.
describe
(not dis-)
description
(not -scrib-)
desease
Wrong spelling. See DISEASE.
desert or dessert?
A DESERT is sandy.
A DESSERT is a pudding.
desiccated
(not dess-)
66
t

DEVICE/DEVISE
desirable
(not desireable)
desperate
(not desparate)
The word is derived from spes (Latin word for
hope). This may help you to remember the e in the
middle syllable.
dessert
See DESERT OR DESSERT?.
dessiccated
Wrong spelling. See DESICCATED.
destroy
destroyed, destroying (not dis-)
detached
(not detatched)
deter
deterred, deterring
deteriorate
(not deteriate, as it is often mispronounced)
deterrent
(not -ant)
develop
developed, developing (not -pp-)
development
(not developement)
device/devise
DEVICE is the noun.
A padlock is an intriguing DEVICE.
67
t
t
t

DIAGNOSIS
DEVISE is the verb.
Try to DEVISE a simple burglar alarm.
diagnosis (singular) diagnoses (plural)
diagnosis or prognosis?
DIAGNOSIS is the identification of an illness or a
difficulty.
PROGNOSIS is the forecast of its likely
development and effects.
diarrhoea
diary (singular) diaries (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
See DAIRY OR DIARY?.
dictionary (singular) dictionaries (plural) (not -nn-)
See PLURALS (iii).
didn't
(not did'nt)
See CONTRACTIONS.
diesel
(not deisel)
See EI/IE SPELLINGRULE.
dietician/dietitian
differcult
Wrong spelling. See DIFFICULT.
difference
(not -ance)
different
(not -ant)
different from/to/than
'Different from' and 'different to' are now both
t
68

DIRECT SPEECH
considered acceptable forms.
My tastes are DIFFERENT FROM yours.
My tastes are DIFFERENT TO yours.
Conservative users would, however, much prefer the
preposition 'from' and this is widely used in formal
contexts.
'Different than' is acceptable in American English
but is not yet fully acceptable in British English.
difficult
(not differcult, not difficalt)
dilapidated
(not delapidated)
dilemma
This word is often used loosely to mean 'a problem'.
Strictly speaking it means a difficult choice between
two possibilities.
dinghy or dingy?
A DINGHY is a boat (plural - dinghies).
See PLURALS (iii).
DINGY means dull and drab.
dingo (singular) dingoes or dingos (plural)
dining or dinning?
dine + ing = dining (as in dining room)
din + ing = dinning (noise dinning in ears)
diphtheria
(not diptheria as it is often mispronounced)
diphthong
(not dipthong as it is often mispronounced)
direct speech
See INVERTED COMMAS.
69

DISAGREEABLE
disagreeable
dis + agree + able
disappear
dis + appear
disappearance
(not -ence)
disappoint
dis + appoint
disapprove
dis + approve
disassociate or dissociate?
Both are correct, but the second is more widely used
and approved.
disaster
disastrous
(not disasterous, as it is often mispronounced)
disc or disk?
Use 'disc' except when referring to computer disks.
disciple
(not disiple)
discipline
discover or invent?
You DISCOVER something that has been there all
the time unknown to you (e.g. a star).
You INVENT something if you create it for the first
time (e.g. a time machine).
discreet or discrete?
You are DISCREET if you can keep secrets and
behave diplomatically.
Subject areas are DISCRETE if they are quite
separate and unrelated.
70

DISINTERESTED OR UNINTERESTED?
discrepancy (singular) discrepancies (plural)
discribe
Wrong spelling. See DESCRIBE.
discribtion
Wrong spelling. See DESCRIPTION.
discription
Wrong spelling. See DESCRIPTION.
discuss
discussed, discussing
discussion
disease
diseased
See DECEASED OR DISEASED?.
dishevelled
disintegrate
(not disintergrate)
disinterested or uninterested?
Careful users would wish to preserve a distinction in
meaning between these two words. Use the word
DISINTERESTED to mean 'impartial, unselfish,
acting for the good of others and not for yourself.
My motives are entirely DISINTERESTED; it is
justice I am seeking.
Use UNINTERESTED to mean 'bored'.
His teachers say he is reluctant to participate and is
clearly UNINTERESTED in any activities the school
has to offer.
Originally, DISINTERESTED was used in this sense
(= having no interest in, apathetic), and it is
interesting that this meaning is being revived in
popular speech.
71
t

DISIPLE
Avoid this use in formal contexts, however, for it is
widely perceived as being incorrect.
disiple
Wrong spelling. See DISCIPLE.
disk
See DISC OR DISK?.
displace or misplace?
To displace is to move someone or something from
its usual place:
a DISPLACED hip; a DISPLACED person
To misplace something is to put it in the wrong
place (and possibly forget where it is):
a MISPLACED apostrophe; MISPLACED kindness
dissappear
Wrong spelling. See DISAPPEAR.
dissappoint
Wrong spelling. See DISAPPOINT.
dissapprove
Wrong spelling. See DISAPPROVE.
dissatisfied
(dis + satisfied)
dissociate
See DISASSOCIATE OR DISSOCIATE?.
distroy
Wrong spelling. See DESTROY.
divers or diverse
The first is rarely used nowadays except jokingly or
in mistake for the second.
DIVERS means 'several', 'of varying types': DIVERS
reference books.
DIVERSE means 'very different': DIVERSE opinions,
72

DOUBLE NEGATIVES
DIVERSE interests.
does or dose?
DOES he take sugar? He DOES, (pronounced 'duz')
Take a DOSE of cough mixture every three hours.
doesn't
(not does'nt)
See CONTRACTIONS.
domino (singular) dominoes (plural)
See PLURALS(iv).
don't
(not do'nt)
See CONTRACTIONS.
dose
See DOES OR DOSE?.
double meaning
See AMBIGUITY.
double negatives
The effect of two negatives is to cancel each other
out. This is sometimes done deliberately and can be
effective:
I am not ungenerous. ( = 1 am very generous.)
He is not unintelligent. (= He is quite intelligent.)
Frequently, however, it is not intentional and the
writer ends up saying the opposite of what is meant:
I haven't had no tea. ( = 1 have hadtea.)
You don't know nothing. (= You know something.)
Be particularly careful with 'barely', 'scarcely',
'hardly'. These have a negative force.
I wasn't SCARCELY awake when you rang. ( = 1
was very awake.)
Be careful too with constructions like this:
73

DOUBLING RULE
I wouldn't be surprised if he didn't come.
Say either: I wouldn't be surprised if he
came,
or: I would be surprised if he
didn't come.
Sometimes writers put so many negatives in a
sentence that the meaning becomes too complicated
to unravel:
Mr Brown denied vehemently that it was unlikely
that no one would come to the concert.
Does Mr Brown think that the concert will be
popular or not?
Rewrite as either:
Mr Brown was certain the concert would be well
attended.
Or: Mr Brown feared that no one would come to the
concert.
doubling rule
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (iv).
doubt
(not dout)
The word is derived from the Latin word dubitare,
to doubt. It may help you to remember that the
silent b is there.
Down's syndrome
(not Downe's)
downstairs
(one word)
draft or draught?
A DRAFT is a first or subsequent attempt at a piece
of written work before it is finished.
A DRAUGHT is a current of cool air in a room.
74

DUE TO/OWINGTO
One also refers to a DRAUGHT of ale, a game of
DRAUGHTS and a boat having a shallow DRAUGHT.
drawers or draws?
DRAWS is a verb.
She DRAWS very well for a young child.
DRAWERS is a noun.
The DRAWERS of the sideboard are very stiff.
dreamed/dreamt
drier or dryer?
DRIER is generally used for the comparative form
(DRIER = more dry).
DRYER is generally used for a drying machine (hair
DRYER, clothes DRYER)
However, both spellings are interchangeable.
drunkenness
drunken + ness
dryness
(exception to the -y rule)
dual or duel?
DUAL means two (e.g. DUAL controls, DUAL
carriageway).
DUEL means fight or contest.
duchess
(not dutchess)
due to/owing to
Strictly speaking, 'due to' should refer to a noun:
His absence was DUE TO sickness, (noun)
The delay was DUE TO leaves on the line, (noun)
'Owing to', strictly speaking, should refer to a verb:
75

DUEL
The march was cancelled OWING TO the storm.
(verb)
OWING TO an earlier injury, he limped badly.
(verb)
However, in recent years, the use of 'due to' where
traditionally 'owing to' would be required has
become widespread. Nevertheless, some careful
writers continue to preserve the distinction and you
may wish to do so too in a formal context.
duel
See DUAL OR DUEL?.
duly
(not duely)
This is an exception to the magic -e rule.
dutchess
Wrong spelling. See DUCHESS.
dwelled/dwelt
dyeing or dying?
DYEING comes from the verb to dye.
She was DYEING all her vests green.
DYING comes from the verb to die.
She cursed him with her DYING breath.
76

earnest or Ernest?
EARNEST = serious and sincere
ERNEST = masculine first name
echo (singular) echoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
economic or economical?
ECONOMIC = related to the economy of the
country, or industry or business
ECONOMICAL = thrifty, avoiding extravagance
ecstasy (singular) ecstasies (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
77
Ecstasy
illegal drug
eczema
-ed or -t?
These can be either:
burned burnt
dreamed dreamt
dwelled dwelt
kneeled knelt
leaned leant
leaped leapt
learned learnt
smelled smelt
spelled spelt
spilled spilt
spoiled spoilt
eerie or eyrie?
EERIE = strange, weird, disturbing
EYRIE = an eagle's nest
E

effect
See AFFECT OR EFFECT?.
effective, effectual or efficient?
EFFECTIVE = able to produce a result:
an EFFECTIVE cure
an EFFECTIVE speech
EFFECTUAL = likely to be completely successful:
EFFECTUAL prayer
EFFECTUAL legislation
EFFICIENT = working well without wasting time,
money or effort:
an EFFICIENT secretary
an EFFICIENT engine
ei/ie spelling rule
Remember the jingle:
i before e
except after c
or when sounded like a
as in 'neighbour' and 'weigh'.
Here are some examples which follow the rule.
There are plenty of others.
ie ei after c
achieve ceiling
believe conceited
chief conceive
field perceive
friend receive
hygiene ei sounding like a
priest eight
relief reign
retrieve reindeer
shield skein
shriek sleigh
thief vein
78
EFFECT

EITHER... OR
Proper names (e.g.of people or countries) don't
follow the rule: Deirdre, Keith, Neil, Sheila, Madeira,
etc.
eighth
(notice -hth)
either
(not -ie-) An exception to the EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
either.. .or
(i) Take care with singular and plural verbs.
Either Jack or Tom was there, (singular verb to
match Jack (singular) or Tom (singular))
Either Jack or his brothers were there, (plural
verb to match 'brothers' (plural) which is closer
to it than 'Jack' (singular))
Either his brothers or Jack was there, (singular
verb this time because 'Jack' (singular) is closer
to the verb than 'brothers')
(ii) Be careful to place each part of the 'either... or'
construction correctly.
I have decided either that I have to build an
extension or I have to move.
I have decided that either I have to build an
extension or I have to move.
79
18 exceptions
caffeine forfeit seize
codeine heifer sheikh
counterfeit height sovereign
either leisure surfeit
Fahrenheit neither weir
foreign protein weird
t

In the example above, there are these two
possibilities:
I have to build an extension.
I have to move.
'Either' precedes the first one and 'or' precedes
the second.
The second one could be shortened:
extension or (I have to) move.
extension or move.
It is important that the two constructions
following 'either' and 'or' should be parallel
ones:
either meat or fish
either green or red
either to love or to hate
either with malice or with kindness.
If the second construction is shortened to avoid
repetition, this is fine. The missing words are
obvious and can be supplied readily.
elf (singular) elves (plural)
See PLURALS(v).
eligible or legible?
ELIGIBLE = suitably qualified
LEGIBLE = able to be read
eloquent
elude
See ALLUDE OR ELUDE?.
embargo (singular) embargoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
ELF
80

END STOPS
embarrass
embarrassed, embarrassing (not -r-)
embarrassment
emend
See AMEND OR EMEND?.
emergency (singular) emergencies (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
emigrant or immigrant?
An EMIGRANT leaves his or her country to live in
another.
An IMMIGRANT moves into a country to live
permanently.
eminent or imminent?
EMINENT = famous
IMMINENT = about to happen
emperor
emphasise/emphasize
encyclopaedia/encyclopedia
endeavour
end stops
There are three end stops: a full stop (.), an
exclamation mark (!), and a question mark (?).
Use a full stop to end a statement.
There are five eggs in the fridge.
Use an exclamation mark with a command or an
exclamation.
Get out!
Use a question mark to end a question.
81

ENDINGS
Where do you live?
See EXCLAMATION MARKS.
FULL STOPS.
QUESTION MARKS.
endings
See ADDING ENDINGS.
enemy (singular) enemies (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
enormity
This refers to a grave sin or a crime, or a disaster on
a huge scale.
We gradually realised the full ENORMITY of the
tragedy.
It is often used in popular speech to mean
'enormousness', 'hugeness', 'immensity'. This should
be avoided in a formal context.
enquiry or inquiry?
Both spellings are correct and there is no difference
in meaning. British English favours the first and
American English the second.
Some writers reserve the first for a general request
for information and the second for a formal
investigation, but this is by no means necessary.
enrol
enrolled, enrolling
(British English - enrol; American English - enroll)
enrolment
(British English - enrolment; American English -
enrollment)
ensure or insure?
to ENSURE = to make sure
to INSURE = to arrange for financial compensation
in the case of loss, injury, damage or death
82

ESPECIALLY OR SPECIALLY?
enthusiasm
(not -ou-)
enthusiastic
envelop
enveloped, enveloping, envelopment (stress on
second syllable)
envelope (singular)
envelopes (plural) (stress on third syllable)
environment
epigram or epitaph?
EPIGRAM = a short witty saying
EPITAPH = an inscription on a tombstone
equip
equipped, equipping, equipment
Ernest
See EARNEST OR ERNEST?.
erratum (singular) errata (plural)
erring
err + ing (not -r-)
erupt
(not -rr-)
especially or specially?
The two words are very close in meaning and
sometimes overlap. However, use these exemplar
sentences as a guide to exclusive uses:
I bought the car ESPECIALLY for you (= for you
alone).
We are awaiting a SPECIALLY commissioned report
(- for a special purpose).
83
(not enviroment)

ESTUARY
estuary (singular) estuaries (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
etc.
(not e.t.c. or ect.)
(i) etc. is an abbreviation of the Latin et cetera
which means 'and other things'. It is therefore
incorrect to write 'and etc.'.
(ii) Avoid using 'etc.' in formal writing. Either list all
the items indicated by the vague and lazy 'etc.',
or introduce the given selection with a phrase
like 'including', 'such as' or 'for example'.
eventually
eventual + ly (not eventully)
exaggerate
(not exagerate)
examination
exausted
Wrong spelling. See EXHAUSTED.
excellent
(not -ant)
except
See ACCEPT OR EXCEPT?.
exceptionable or exceptional?
EXCEPTIONABLE = open to objection
EXCEPTIONAL = unusual
excercise
Wrong spelling. See EXERCISE.
excite
excited, exciting, excitement
84
t

EXPENSE
exclaim
exclaimed, exclaiming
exclamation
(not -claim-)
exclamation mark
Use an exclamation mark:
(i) with exclamations
Ouch! Oh!Hey!
(ii) with vehement commands
Stop thief! Help! Jump!
See COMMANDS.
exercise
(not excercise)
exhausted
(not exausted)
exhausting or exhaustive?
EXHAUSTING = tiring
EXHAUSTIVE = thorough, fully comprehensive
exhibition
exhilarated
(not -er-)
expedition
(not expidition)
The second syllable is derived from the Latin word
pes, pedis (foot, of the foot). This may help you to
remember -ped-. The words pedal, pedestrian,
pedometer all come from this same Latin root.
expendable
(not -ible)
expense
85

EXPENSIVE
expensive
experience
(not expierience, not -ance)
The second syllable is derived from the Latin word
per, meaning through. (Experience is what we gain
from going 'through' something.)
explain
explained, explaining
explanation
(not -plain-)
explicit or implicit?
EXPLICIT = stated clearly and openly
IMPLICIT = implied but not actually stated
exspense
Wrong spelling. See EXPENSE.
exspensive
Wrong spelling. See EXPENSIVE.
exstremely
Wrong spelling. See EXTREMELY.
extraordinary
extra + ordinary
extravagance
(not -ence)
extravagant
(not -ent)
extremely
extreme + ly
extrordinary
Wrong spelling. See EXTRAORDINARY.
exuberance
(not -ence)
86

EYRIE
exuberant
(not -ent)
eyrie
See EERIE OR EYRIE?.
87

facetious
(All five vowels occur in this word once only and in
alphabetical order.)
facilities or faculties?
FACILITIES = amenities
FACULTIES = mental or physical aptitudes
facinate
Wrong spelling. See FASCINATE.
factory (singular) factories (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
Fahrenheit
(not -ie-)
faithfully
faithful + ly
See SINCERELY for guidelines when punctuating a
complimentary close to a letter (fully blocked and
also traditional layout).
familiar
(not fammiliar)
family (singular) families (plural)
(not -mm-)
farther or further?
Both words can be used to refer to physical distance
although some writers prefer to keep 'farther' for
this purpose.
I can walk FARTHER than you.
I can walk FURTHER than you.
FURTHER is used in a figurative sense:
F
88

FEWER OR LESS?
Nothing was FURTHER from my mind.
FURTHER is also used in certain expressions:
FURTHER education
until FURTHER notice
fascinate
(not facinate)
favourite
(not -ate)
feasible
(not -able)
February
Notice the word has four syllables and not three as it
is often mispronounced.
fewer or less?
FEWER is the comparative form of 'few'.
It is used with plural nouns:
FEWER vegetables
FEWER responsibilities
FEWER children
LESS is the comparative form of 'little'.
It is used in the sense of 'a small amount' rather
than 'a fewer number of:
LESS enthusiasm
LESS sugar
LESS petrol
LESS THAN is used with number alone, and
expressions of time and distance:
LESS THAN a thousand
LESS THAN ten seconds
LESS THAN four miles
89
T

FIANCE OR FIANCEE?
It is considered incorrect to use 'less' instead of
'fewer' although such confusion is frequent in
popular speech.
As a rule of thumb, remember:
FEWER = not so many
LESS = not so much
fiance or fiancee?
FIANCE = masculine
FIANCEE - feminine
Note the accent in both words.
fictional or fictitious?
FICTIONAL = invented for the purpose of fiction,
related to fiction
FICTIONAL texts
FICTIONAL writing
FICTITIOUS = false, not true
a FICTITIOUS report
a FICTITIOUS name and address
Either word can be used to describe a character in a
work of fiction: a FICTIONAL or FICTITIOUS
character.
fiery
(not firey)
fifteen
fifteenth
fifth
fifty
fiftieth
finally
final + ly (not -aly)
90

FOR- OR FORE-?
finish
finished, finishing (not -nn-)
firey
Wrong spelling. See FIERY.
flamingo (singular) flamingoes or flamingos (plural)
flammable or inflammable
Both words mean 'easily bursting into flame'. People
often think that inflammable is the negative form but
the prefix 'in' here means 'into'.
The opposite of these two words is non-flammable
or non-inflammable.
flaunt or flout?
FLAUNT = to show off. FLAUNT one's wealth.
FLOUT = to disregard. FLOUT all the rules.
flee
they fled, have fled, are fleeing
flexible
(not -able)
flu or flue?
FLU = influenza (not 'flu although an abbreviation)
FLUE = a pipe or duct for smoke and gases
fluorescent
(not flourescent)
fly
they flew, have flown, are flying
focus
focused or focussed (both correct)
focusing or focussing (both correct)
for- or fore-?
A useful rule of thumb is to remember the usual
meaning of the prefixes:
91

FORBEAR OR FOREBEAR?
FOR- = not, or something negative
(forbid, forfeit, forget, forsake)
FORE- = before
(foreboding, forecast, forefathers)
See individual entries for
FORBEAR OR FOREBEAR?
FOREWORD OR FORWARD?.
forbear or forebear?
FORBEAR (stress on second syllable) = restrain
oneself
FORBEAR or FOREBEAR (stress on first syllable)
= ancestor
forbid
forbad or forbade (both correct), forbidden,
forbidding
forcible
(not -able)
forecast
(not forcast)
forefend/forfend
Either spelling can be used.
foregather/forgather
forego/forgo
foreign
An exception to the rule.
foreign plurals
Some foreign words in English have retained their
foreign plurals. Some have both foreign and English
plurals. Take care, however, with the words that are
asterisked because the foreign plural of these is used
92

FOREIGN PLURALS
93
in a different sense from the English plural. Check
these words under individual entries for the
distinction in meaning.
singular -a
alga
antenna
formula
larva
nebula
vertebra
singular -eau
-eu
adieu
bureau
chateau
milieu
plateau
tableau
singular -ex
-ix
appendix
index
matrix
vortex
singular -is
analysis
axis
crisis
diagnosis
hypothesis
parenthesis
synopsis
singular -o
graffito
libretto
tempo
virtuoso
foreign plural
algae
antennae *
formulae*
larvae
nebulae
vertebrae
foreign plural
adieux
bureaux
chateaux
milieux
plateaux
tableaux
appendices *
indices *
matrices
vortices
analyses
axes
crises
diagnoses
hypotheses
parentheses
synopses
graffiti
libretti
tempi
virtuosi
English plural
antennas*
formulas*
-
nebulas
vertebras
English plural
adieus
bureaus
-
milieus
plateaus
appendixes*
indexes *
matrixes
vortexes
_
-
-
-
-
librettos
tempos
virtuosos

FORESAKE
singular -on
automaton
criterion
ganglion
phenomenon
singular -urn
aquarium
bacterium
curriculum
datum
erratum
memorandum
millennium
referendum
stratum
ultimatum
singular -um
ovum
singular -us
bacillus
cactus
fungus
hippopotamus
nucleus
radius
stimulus
syllabus
terminus
tumulus
foreign plural
automata
criteria
ganglia
phenomena
aquaria
bacteria
curricula
data
errata
memoranda
millennia
referenda
strata
ultimata
ova
bacilli
cacti
fungi
hippopotami
nuclei
radii
stimuli
syllabi
termini
tumuli
English plural
automatons
-
ganglions
aquariums
curriculums
-
-
memorandums
millenniums
referendums
-
ultimatums
-
cactuses
funguses
hippopotamuses
radiuses
-
syllabuses
terminuses
-
The Hebrew plural -im is found in these three words:
cherub
kibbutz
seraph
cherubim
kibbutzim
seraphim
cherubs
This list is by no means comprehensive but it does
contain most of the words that are commonly used.
foresake
Wrong spelling. See FORSAKE.
94

FORTUNATELY
forest
(not forrest)
foreword or forward?
The Poet Laureate had written a FOREWORD for
the new anthology.
I am looking FORWARD to the holiday.
Will you please FORWARD this letter?
forfeit
(not -ie-, exception to the rule)
forfend
See FOREFEND/FORFEND.
forgather
See FOREGATHER/FORGATHER.
forgo
See FOREGO/FORGO.
formally or formerly?
FORMALLY = in a formal manner
FORMERLY = previously, at an earlier time
formula (singular)
There are two plurals.
Use formulae in a scientific or mathematical context.
Use formulas in all other cases.
forrest
Wrong spelling. See FOREST.
forsake
(not fore-)
See FOR OR FORE?.
fortunately
fortunate + ly (not -atly)
95

forty
(not fourty)
forward
See FOREWORD OR FORWARD?.
frantic
frantically
frantic + ally (not franticly)
freind
Wrong spelling. See FRIEND.
frequent
(not -ant)
Use as an adjective (stress on first syllable):
There were FREQUENT interruptions.
Use as a verb (stress on second syllable):
They FREQUENT the most terrible pubs.
fresco (singular) frescoes or frescos (plural)
friend
(not -ei-)
frieze
See EI/IE SPELLINGRULE.
frighten
frightened, frightening
frolic
frolicked, frolicking, frolicsome
fuchsia
(named after Leonhard Fuchs, German botanist)
96
FORTY
(not -ei-)
(not frightend, frightning)

FUSCHIA
-ful
When full is used as an ending to a word, it is
always spelt -ful:
beautiful
careful
wonderful
hopeful, etc.
fulfil
fulfilled, fulfilling, fulfilment
full stops
See ENDSTOPS.
See COMMAS (b).
fungus (singular) fungi or funguses (plural)
See FOREIGNPLURALS.
further
See FARTHER OR FURTHER?.
fuschia
Wrong spelling. See FUCHSIA.
97

gaiety
gay + ety - an exception to the y rule
gaily
gay + ly - an exception to the y rule
gallop
galloped, galloping (not -pp-)
ganglion (singular) ganglia or ganglions (plural)
gaol
An alternative spelling is 'jail'.
garage
gastly
Wrong spelling. See GHASTLY.
gateau (singular) gateaus or gateaux (plural)
gauge
(not guage)
genealogical
(not geneo-)
generosity
(not -ous-)
generous
get
they get, have got, are getting
m
98

GOURMAND OR GOURMET?
ghastly
(not gastly)
gipsy/gypsy
Both spellings are correct,
gipsies or gypsies (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
glamorous
glamour
good will or goodwill?
Always write as one word when referring to the
prestige and trading value of a business.
He bought the GOODWILL for five thousand
pounds.
Use either two words or one word when referring to
general feelings of kindness and support.
As a gesture of GOOD WILL, she cancelled the fine.
gorgeous
(not -gous)
gorilla or guerilla?
A GORILLA is an animal.
A GUERILLA is a revolutionary fighter.
gossip
gossiped, gossiping (not -pp)
gourmand or gourmet?
A GOURMAND is greedy and over-indulges where
fine food is concerned.
A GOURMET is a connoisseur of fine food.
99
(not -our-)

GOVERNMENT
government
(not goverment as it is often mispronounced)
governor
(not -er)
gradual
gradually
gradual + ly (not gradully)
graffiti
This is increasingly used in a general sense (like the
word 'writing') and its plural force is forgotten when
it comes to matching it with a verb:
There was GRAFFITI all over the wall.
A few conservative writers would like a plural verb.
(There were GRAFFITI all over the wall.)
graffito (singular) graffiti (plural)
grammar
(not -er)
gramophone
(not grama-)
grandad/granddad
grandchild
granddaughter
grandfather
grandma
grandmother
grandparent
grandson
100

GUTTURAL
grate or great?
The fire was burning brightly in the GRATE.
GRATE the potato coarsely.
Christopher Wren was a GREAT architect.
grateful
(not greatful)
grief
(not -ei-)
grievance
(not -ence)
grievous
(not -ious)
grotto (singular)
grottoes or grottos (plural)
guage
Wrong spelling. See GAUGE.
guarantee
guardian
guess
guest
guttural
(not -er-)
101

hadn't
haemorrhage
(not -rh-)
half (singular) halves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
halo (singular) haloes or halos (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
handkerchief (singular) handkerchiefs (plural) (not -nk-)
See PLURALS (v).
hanged or hung?
People are HANGED.
Things like clothes and pictures are HUNG.
happen
happened, happening (not -nn-)
harass
(not -rr-)
hardly
See DOUBLE NEGATIVES.
hasn't
(not has'nt)
haven't
(not have'nt)
headquarters
(not headquaters)
hear or here?
You HEAR with your ear.
Use HERE to indicate place:
102
d
(not had'nt)
(not -rh-)

HIEROGLYPHICS
Come over HERE.
heard or herd?
We HEARD their voices outside.
We photographed the HERD of deer.
heifer
height
heinous
herd
See HEARD OR HERD?.
here
See HEAR OR HERE?.
hero (singular) heroes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
heroin or heroine?
HEROIN is a drug
A HEROINE is a female hero.
hers
No apostrophe is needed.
This is mine; this is HERS.
HERS has a yellow handle.
hiccough or hiccup?
Both words are pronounced 'hiccup' and either
spelling can be used. The second spelling (hiccup) is
more usual.
hiccup
hiccuped, hiccuping (not -pp-)
hieroglyphics
103

HIGH-TECH OR HI-TEC?
high-tech or hi-tec?
Both spellings are correct for the adjective derived
from high technology:
A HI-TEC factory
A HIGH-TECH computer system
Without the hyphen, each word can be used as a
noun replacing 'high technology':
A generation familiar with HIGH TECH
The latest development in HI TEC
hindrance
(not hinderance)
hippopotamus (singular) hippopotami or
hippopotamuses (plural)
historic or historical?
HISTORIC means famous in history, memorable, or
likely to go down in recorded history:
a HISTORIC meeting
HISTORICAL means existing in the past or
representing something that could have happened in
the past:
a HISTORICAL novel
a HISTORICAL fact
Note It would not be wrong to say or write an
historic meeting, an historical novel, an historical
fact. However, this usage of an before words like
hotel, historic and historical is becoming much less
common, now that the h beginning these words is
usually voiced.
hoard or horde?
To HOARD is to save something in a secret place.
A HOARD is a secret store.
104

A HORDE is a large group of people, insects or
animals.
hoarse or horse?
HOARSE means croaky, sore or rough (a HOARSE
whisper).
HORSE is an animal.
hole or whole?
She ate the WHOLE cake by herself.
You have a HOLE in your sock.
homeoepathy/homeopathy
honest
(not onnist or honist)
honorary
(Note-, this word has four syllables not three.)
An HONORARY secretary of an association is one
who works voluntarily and receives no payment.
honour
honourable
hoof (singular) hoofs or hooves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
hoping or hopping?
hope + ing = hoping
hop + ing = hopping
horde
See HOARD OR HORDE?.
horrible
(not -able)
105
HORRIBLE

horse
See HOARSE OR HORSE?.
human or humane?
HUMAN beings are naturally competitive.
There must be a more HUMANE way of slaughtering
animals.
humour
humorous (not humourous)
humourless
hundred
(not hundered)
hung
See HANGED OR HUNG?.
hygiene
(not -ei-)
hyper- or hypo-?
The prefix 'hyper' comes from a Greek word
meaning 'over', 'beyond'. Hence we have words like
these:
hyperactive (= abnormally active)
hypermarket (= a very large self-service store)
hypersensitive (= unusually sensitive)
The prefix 'hypo' comes from a Greek word
meaning 'under'. Hence we have words like these:
hypochondria (the melancholy associated with
obsession with one's health was originally believed to
originate in the organs beneath the ribs)
hypodermic (= under the skin)
hypercritical or hypocritical?
HYPERCRITICAL = excessively critical
106
HORSE

HYPOCRITICAL = disguising one's true nature
under a pretence of being better than one really is
See HYPER- OR HYPO-?.
hyperthermia or hypothermia?
HYPERTHERMIA = having an abnormally high
body temperature
HYPOTHERMIA = having an abnormally low body
temperature
hyperventilate or hypoventilate
HYPERVENTILATE = to breathe at an abnormally
rapid rate
HYPOVENTILATE = to breathe at an abnormally
slow rate
hyphens
(i) Hyphens are used to indicate word-breaks where
there is not space to complete a word at the end
of a line.
Take care to divide the word at an appropriate
point between syllables so that your reader is
not confused and can continue smoothly from
the first part of the word to the second part.
There are dictionaries of hyphenation available
that will indicate sensible places to break words.
They don't always agree with each other! You
will also notice a difference in practice between
British English and American English.
Increasingly, however, the trend is towards
American English practice, i.e. being guided by
the way the word is pronounced. Break the
word in such a way as to preserve the overall
pronunciation as far as possible. It is really a
matter of common sense. For this reason you
will avoid breaking:
107
HYPHENS

HYPHENS
father
legend
therapist
manslaughter
notable
into
into
into
into
into
fat-her
leg-end
the-rapist
mans-laughter
not-able
and so on!
Note: that the hyphen should be placed at the
end of the first line (to indicate that the word is
to be continued). It is not repeated at the
beginning of the next.
The children shouted enthusias-
tically as they raced towards the sea.
If you are breaking a word that is already
hyphenated, break it at the existing hyphen:
Both my parents are extremely absent-
minded.
Breaking a word always makes it look
temporarily unfamiliar. You will notice that in
printed books for very young readers word-
breaks are always carefully avoided. Ideally, you
also will try to avoid them. Anticipate how
much space a word requires at the end of a line
and start a new line if necessary. Whatever
happens, avoid breaking a word very close to its
beginning or its end, and never break a one-
syllabled word.
(ii) Hyphens are used to join compound numbers
between 21 and 99:
twenty-one twenty-five
fifty-five fifty-fifth
ninety-nine ninety-ninth
Hyphens are also used to join fractions when
they are written as words:
108

three-quarters
five-ninths
(iii) Hyphens are used to join compound words so
that they become one word:
my son-in-law
a twenty-pound note
her happy-go-luckysmile
You will sometimes need to check in a
dictionary whether a word is hyphenated or not.
Sometimes words written separately in a ten-
year-old dictionary will be hyphenated in a more
modern one; sometimes words hyphenated in an
older dictionary will now be written as one
word.
Is it washing machine or washing-machine,
wash-basin or washbasin, print-out or printout?
Such words need to be checked individually.
(iv) Hyphens are used with some prefixes:
co-author, ex-wife, anti-censorship
Check individual words in a dictionary if you are
in doubt.
Always use a hyphen when you are using a
prefix before a word that begins with a capital
letter:
pro-British, anti-Christian, un-American
Sometimes a hyphen is used for the sake of
clarity. There is a difference in meaning between
the words in these pairs:
re-cover and recover
re-form and reform
co-respondent and correspondent
(v) Hyphens are also used to indicate a range of
figures or dates:
109
HYPHENS

HYPOCRISY
There were 1 2 - 2 0 people in the room.
He was killed in the 1914 - 18 war.
hypocrisy
(not -asy)
hypocrite
hypocritical
See HYPERCRITICAL OR HYPOCRITICAL?.
hypothermia
See HYPERTHERMIA OR HYPOTHERMIA?.
hypothesis (singular) hypotheses (plural)
hypoventilate
See HYPERVENTILATE OR HYPOVENTILATE?.
110

I/me/myself
These three words are pronouns and cause a great
deal of confusion.
(i) Most people use the pronoun T correctly when
it is used on its own:
I love cats.
I like chocolate.
I mow the lawn every Sunday.
I am trying to lose weight.
I have two sisters.
Confusion generally arises with phrases like 'my
husband and I' and 'my husband and me'. Which
should it be?
The simplest method is to break the sentence
into two and see whether T or 'me' sounds
right:
My husband likes chocolate.
I like chocolate.
MY HUSBAND AND I like chocolate.
(ii) Most people use the pronoun 'me' correctly
when it is used on its own:
The burglar threatened ME.
It was given to ME.
Once again confusion arises when a pair is
involved. The advice remains the same. Break
the sentence into two and see whether T or
'me' sounds right:
The burglar threatened my husband.
The burglar threatened ME.
The burglar threatened MY HUSBAND ANDME.
It was given to my husband.
n
111

-IBLE
It was given to ME.
It was given to MY HUSBAND AND ME.
(iii) The pronoun 'myself has two distinct functions.
It can be used in constructions like this where it
is essential to the sense:
I cut MYSELF yesterday.
I did it by MYSELF.
It can be used to help emphasise a point. In
these cases, it can be omitted without changing
the overall sense:
I'll wrap the parcel MYSELF.
MYSELF, I would disagree.
'Myself should never be used as a substitute for T
or 'me'.
My friend and myself had a wonderful time in
Austria.
My friend and I had a wonderful time.
They presented my brother and myself with a
silver cup.
They presented my brother and me with a silver
cup.
This is from Henry and myself.
This is from Henry and me.
-ible
See -ABLE/-IBLE.
idea or ideal?
Bristolians have particular difficulty distinguishing
between these two because of the intrusive Bristol
T. These exemplar sentences should help:
Your IDEA is brilliant.
This is an IDEAL spot for a picnic.
His IDEALS prevent him from eating meat.
112

IMPLY OR INFER?
idiosyncrasy
(not -cy)
-ie-
illegible or ineligible?
ILLEGIBLE = not able to be read
INELIGIBLE = not properly qualified
illusion
See ALLUSION, DELUSION OR ILLUSION?.
imaginary or imaginative?
IMAGINARY = existing only in the imagination
IMAGINATIVE = showing or having a vivid
imagination, being creative, original
imformation
Wrong spelling. See INFORMATION.
immediately
(not immeadiately or immediatly)
immense
immensely (not immensly)
immigrant
See EMIGRANT OR IMMIGRANT?.
imminent
See EMINENT, OR IMMINENT?.
immoral
See AMORAL OR IMMORAL?.
implicit
See EXPLICIT OR IMPLICIT?.
imply or infer?
To IMPLY something is to hint at it:
She IMPLIED that there were strong moral objections
to his appointment but didn't say so in so many words.
113

IMPOSSIBLE
To INFER is to draw a conclusion:
Am I to INFER from what you say that he is
unsuitable for the post?
impossible
(not -able)
imposter/impostor
Both spellings are correct. The second form (-or) is,
however, more common.
impractical or impracticable?
IMPRACTICAL = could be done but not worth
doing
IMPRACTICABLE = incapable of being done
incidentally
incidental + ly (not incidently)
incredible
(not -able)
indefensible
(not -able)
indelible
(not -able)
independence
(not -ance)
independent
(not -ant)
index (singular) indexes or indices (plural)
See INDEXES OR INDICES?.
indexes or indices?
Both are acceptable plural forms of 'index' but they
are used differently.
Use INDEXES to refer to alphabetical lists of
references in books.
114

INEFFECTIVE OR INEFFECTUAL?
Use INDICES in mathematical, economic and
technical contexts.
indirect speech/reported speech
Unlike direct speech where the words actually
spoken are enclosed within inverted commas,
indirect speech requires no inverted commas.
Direct: 'I am exhausted,' said Sheila.
Indirect: Sheila said that she was exhausted.
Note how direct questions and commands become
straightforward statements when they are reported in
indirect speech. A full stop at the end is sufficient.
Direct: 'What is your name?' Mr Brown asked
the new boy.
Indirect: Mr Brown asked the new boy his name.
Direct: 'Fire!' commanded the officer.
Indirect: The officer commanded his men to fire.
indispensable
(not -ible)
individual
(five syllables)
This noun should correctly be used to distinguish
one person from the rest of a group or community:
the rights of the INDIVIDUAL in society
Informally it is also used in the sense of 'person':
an untrustworthy INDIVIDUAL
Avoid this use in formal contexts.
industrial or industrious?
INDUSTRIAL = associated with manufacturing
INDUSTRIOUS = hard-working
ineffective or ineffectual?
INEFFECTIVE = not producing the desired effect
115

INELIGIBLE
an INEFFECTIVE speech
INEFFECTUAL = not capable of producing the
desired effect
an INEFFECTUAL speaker
ineligible
See ILLEGIBLE OR INELIGIBLE?.
inexhaustible
in fact
(two words)
infectious
See CONTAGIOUS OR INFECTIOUS?.
infer
See IMPLY ORINFER?. See also next entry.
infer
inferred, inferring, inference
inflammable
See FLAMMABLE OR INFLAMMABLE?.
See also next entry.
inflammable or inflammatory?
INFLAMMABLE = easily bursting into flames
INFLAMMATORY = tending to arouse violent
feelings
information
(not im-)
in front
two words (not frount)
ingenious or ingenuous?
INGENIOUS = skilful, inventive, original
INGENUOUS = innocent, unsophisticated
116

INTERESTING
inhuman or inhumane?
INHUMAN = lacking all human qualities
INHUMANE = lacking compassion and kindness
innocent
innocence
innocuous
innuendo (singular) innuendoes or innuendos (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
inoculate
(not -nn-)
inquiry
See ENQUIRY OR INQUIRY?.
instal/install
installed, installing, installment/instalment
insurance
See ASSURANCE OR INSURANCE?.
intelligence
(not -ance)
intelligent
(not -ant)
intentions
(not intensions)
inter-/intra-
The prefix INTER- means between or among (e.g.
international).
The prefix INTRA- means within, on the inside (e.g.
intravenous).
interesting
(four syllables, not intresting)
117

INTERROGATE
interrogate
(not -r-)
interrupt
(not -r-)
invent
See DISCOVER OR INVENT?.
inverted commas
Inverted commas can be double (" ") or single (' ').
Use whichever you wish as long as you are
consistent. In print, single inverted commas are
generally used; in handwriting, double inverted
commas are frequently used for enclosing direct
speech and single inverted commas for enclosing
titles and quotations. There are no hard-and-fast
rules.
Direct speech
Inverted commas should enclose the actual words of
speech that are being quoted.
'You are very welcome,' she said.
She said, 'You are very welcome.'
'You are,' she said, 'very welcome.'
Note the punctuation conventions in the sentences
above. These will be examined more closely now.
Speech first and narrative second.
'You are very welcome,' she said.
'Are you tired?' she asked.
'Not at all!' he exclaimed.
Notice that the appropriate punctuation is
enclosed with the words spoken.
Note that the narrative continues with an initial
small letter: she/he.
118

INVERTED COMMAS
Narrative first and speech second.
Brian said, 'You're very late.'
Brian asked, 'What kept you?'
Sarah snapped, 'Don't cross-question me!'
Notice that a comma always divides the narrative
from the direct speech.
Note that the direct speech always begins with a
capital letter.
Note that the appropriate punctuation mark is
enclosed within the inverted commas with the
words spoken and no further end stop is required.
Speech interrupted by narrative.
'We have all been hoping,' said my mother, 'that
you will join us on Christmas Day.'
Note that the two parts of the interrupted
spoken sentence are enclosed by inverted
commas.
Note that a comma (within the inverted commas)
marks the break between speech and narrative,
and that another comma (after the narrative and
before the second set of inverted commas) marks
the resumption of the direct speech.
Note that the interrupted sentence of speech is
resumed without the need for a capital letter.
Longer speeches and the layout of dialogue.
'I should love to join you on Christmas Day,'
said Sean.
The children were ecstatic. They cried together,
'That's wonderful!'
'Indeed it is,' said my mother. 'When will you
be able to get to us?'
'By 10 o'clock.'
'Really? That's splendid!'
119

The rule is 'a new line for a new speaker' even
if the speech is only a word or two. In addition,
each new speech should ideally be indented a
little to make it easier for the reader to follow
the cut and thrust of dialogue.
Note how a speech of two or more sentences is
punctuated.
be able to get to us?'
If this were lengthened further, the close of the
second pair of inverted commas would be
delayed accordingly:
be able to get to us? Need I say "the earlier the
better"? You know that we'll be up at the crack
of dawn.'
Inverted commas are used to enclose titles.
Have you read 'Angela's Ashes' by Frank
McCourt?
Alternatively, the title can be underlined or, in
print, italicised. Inverted commas will not then
be needed.
Inverted commas are used to enclose quotations.
Like Coriolanus, I often feel that 'there is a life
elsewhere'.
Note that the final full stop comes outside the
inverted commas enclosing the quotation.
Incorporating a quotation in a sentence is
different from punctuating direct speech.
See INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH.
See TITLES.
invisible
(not -able)
120
INVISIBLE

IRRELEVANT
irational
Wrong spelling. See IRRATIONAL.
iridescent
(not -rr-)
irony or sarcasm?
IRONY is subtle, amusing, often witty.
SARCASM is deliberately hurtful and intentionally
cruel.
Irony comes from a Greek word meaning
'pretended ignorance'. Sarcasm comes from a Greek
word meaning 'to tear the flesh with one's teeth'.
Irony relies on those with insight realising that
what is said is the opposite of what is meant.
Mr Bennet in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice
frequently makes ironical remarks which only his
more perceptive listeners will understand. When he
tells one of his less musical daughters that she has
delighted the company with her piano playing for
long enough, she takes his remarks at face value.
Jane and Elizabeth, two of her sisters, know exactly
what he really meant.
Sarcasm sometimes uses this technique of irony
and says in a very cutting way (which will be very
clearly understood) the opposite of what is really
meant.
When a teacher says, 'Brilliant!', to a pupil who
fails yet again, he is being sarcastic and ironical at
the same time. When a teacher says, 'Have you lost
your tongue?' to a pupil, he is being sarcastic.
irrational
(not -r-)
irrelevant
(not irrevelant: think of 'does not relate')
121

IRREPARABLE
irreparable
irreplaceable
irrepressible
irresistible
irresponsible
irrevelant
Wrong spelling. See IRRELEVANT.
irreversible
irridescent
Wrong spelling. See IRIDESCENT.
-ise or -ize?
Most words ending with this suffix can be spelt -ise
or -ize in British English. American English is more
prescriptive and insists on -ize whenever there is a
choice.
House-styles in Britain vary from publisher to
publisher and from newspaper to newspaper. (You
may have noticed that in this book I favour -ise.)
When making your choice, bear these two points
in mind:
These nineteen words have to be -ise: advertise,
advise, apprise, arise, chastise, circumcise,
comprise, compromise, despise, devise, disguise,
enfranchise, excise, exercise, improvise, revise,
supervise, surprise, televise.
Only one verb of more than one syllable has to
be -ize: capsize.
(One syllabled verbs like 'seize' still need care,
of course.)
Whatever you decide, be consistent within one piece
of writing and be consistent with derivatives. If you
122

use 'realize' in one paragraph, you must use
'realization' and not 'realisation' at another point in
the same piece. If you use 'sympathize', then you
must refer to 'sympathizers' and not to
'sympathisers' elsewhere.
Many authorities prefer to use -ize when there is a
choice. In practice, many writers prefer to use -ise
because this choice is relatively trouble-free.
The decision is yours!
isn't
Place the apostrophe carefully, (not is'nt)
itinerary
(five syllables, not four as it is often mispronounced
and misspelt)
its or it's?
ITS is a possessive adjective like 'her' and 'his':
The book has lost ITS cover.
ITS beauty has faded.
IT'S is a contraction of 'it is' or 'it has':
IT'S very cold today. (= it is)
IT'S been a long winter. (= it has)
If you are ever in doubt, see if you can expand 'its/
it's' to 'it is' or 'it has'. If you can, you need an
apostrophe. If you can't, you don't.
Remember too that contractions like 'it's' are fine
in informal contexts but should be avoided in formal
writing. When it's inappropriate to use slang, it is
inappropriate to use these contractions. You have to
write the forms in full.
123
ITS OR IT'S?

jealous
(not jelous)
jealousy
jeopardise/jeopardize
jeopardy
jewelry/jewellery
(not jewlery as the word is often mispronounced)
jodhpurs
journey (singular) journeys (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
judgement/judgment
judicial or judicious?
JUDICIAL = pertaining to courts of law and judges
JUDICIOUS = showing good judgment, wise,
prudent
The words are not interchangeable. There is a clear
distinction in meaning, as you can see.
A JUDICIAL decision is one reached in a law court.
A JUDICIOUS decision is a wise and discerning one.
124
D

keenness
keen + ness
kerb
See CURB OR KERB?.
kernel
See COLONEL OR KERNEL?.
kibbutz (singular) kibbutzim (plural)
kidnap
kidnapped, kidnapping, kidnapper
An exception to the 2-1-1 rule.
kneel
kneeled or knelt, kneeling
knew or new?
I KNEW the answer.
Nanette has NEW shoes.
knife (singular) knives (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
know or no?
I KNOW the answer.
NO, they cannot come.
We have NO milk left.
knowledge
knowledgeable/knowledgable
125
D

laboratory (singular) laboratories (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
labour
laborious
laid
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii) (exception tO rule).
See LAYOR LIE?.
lain
See LAYOR LIE?.
lama or llama?
LAMA = a Buddhist priest
LLAMA = an animal of the camel family
landscape
(not lanscape)
language
(not langage)
larva (singular) larvae (plural)
later or latter?
LATER is the comparative of 'late',
(late, later, latest)
I will see you LATER.
You are LATER than I expected.
LATTER is the opposite of 'former'.
Cats and dogs are wonderful pets but the LATTER
need regular exercise.
Note-, use 'latter' to indicate the second of two
references; use 'last' to indicate the final one of three
or more.
126
D

LEAD OR LED?
lay or lie?
The various tenses of these verbs cause a great deal
of unnecessary confusion. Use these exemplar
to lay:
I LAY the table early every morning.
I AM LAYING the table now.
I HAVE LAID it already.
I WAS LAYING the table when you phoned.
I LAID the table before I went to bed.
My hen LAYS an egg every morning.
She IS LAYING an egg now.
She HAS LAID an egg already.
She WAS LAYING an egg when you phoned.
She LAID an egg every day last week.
to lie (down)
I LIE down every afternoon after lunch.
I AM LYING down now.
I HAVE LAIN down every afternoon this week.
I WAS LYING down when you phoned.
I LAY down yesterday afternoon.
to lie (= tell a lie)
I LIE regularly.
I AM LYING to you now.
I HAVE LIED all my life.
I WAS LYING to you last week.
I LIED to you yesterday as well.
laying
See LAYOR LIE?.
lead or led?
LEAD is the present tense.
LED is the past tense.
Go in front and LEAD us home.
He went in front and LED us home.
127

LEAF
leaf (singular) leaves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
leaned/leant
leaped/leapt
learned/learnt
leftenant
Wrong spelling. See LIEUTENANT.
legend or myth?
Both are traditional tales but legends usually have
some basis in fact (e.g. Robert the Bruce and the
spider, King Alfred and the cakes, Robin Hood and
Sherwood Forest). Myths are supernatural tales, often
involving gods or giants, which serve to explain
natural events or phenomena (e.g. Pandora's Box and
the coming of evil into the world, The Seven
Pomegranate Seeds and the seasons of the year and
so on).
legible
See ELIGIBLE OR LEGIBLE?.
leisure
(not -ie-)
lend
See BORROW OR LEND?.
less
See FEWER OR LESS?.
liaise
liaison (not liase/liason)
128

LIGHTENING OR LIGHTNING?
libel or slander?
Both refer to statements damaging to a person's
character: LIBEL is written; SLANDER is spoken.
library
(not libary)
libretto (singular) libretti or librettos (plural)
licence or license?
LICENCE is a noun. We can refer to a licence or the
licence or your licence:
Do you have your driving LICENCE with you?
LICENSE is a verb:
The restaurant is LICENSED for the consumption of
alcohol.
licorice/liquorice
lie
See LAY OR LIE?.
lied
See LAY OR LIE?.
liesure
Wrong spelling. See LEISURE.
lieutenant
life (singular) lives (plural)
See PLURALS(v).
lighted/lit
lightening or lightning?
LIGHTENING comes from the verb 'to lighten' and
so you can talk about:
129

LIKABLE/LIKEABLE
LIGHTENING a heavy load or LIGHTENING the
colour of your hair.
LIGHTNING is the flash of light we get in the sky
during a thunderstorm.
likable/likeable
like
See AS OR LIKE?.
likelihood
liqueur or liquor?
A LIQUEUR is a sweet, very strong, alcoholic drink
usually taken in small glasses after a meal.
LIQUOR refers to any alcoholic drink.
liquorice
See LICORICE/LIQUORICE.
literally
Beware of using 'literally' to support a fanciful
comparison:
X My eyes LITERALLY popped out of my head
when I saw her in a bikini. (They didn't!)
/ Myeyes popped out of my head when I sawher
in a bikini.
Everybody will understand that you are speaking
figuratively (i.e. it was as if...).
See METAPHOR.
See SIMILE.
literati
(Not litterari)
This word is used to describe well-read and well-
educated people who love literature.
literature
(four syllables)
130

A LOT
livelihood
loaf (singular) loaves (plural)
See PLURALS(v).
loath, loathe or loth?
LOATH and LOTH are interchangeable spellings and
mean unwilling or reluctant:
I was LOATH/LOTH to hurt his feelings.
LOATHE means to detest:
I LOATHE snobbery.
loathsome
loathe + some = loathsome
This word means detestable.
loaves
See LOAF.
lonely
(not lonley)
loose or lose?
I have a LOOSE tooth, (rhymes with moose)
Don't LOSE your temper, (rhymes with snooze)
loping or lopping?
lope + ing = loping
He was LOPING along with long strides,
lop + ing = lopping
LOPPING the trees will just encourage them to
grow taller.
a lot
(never alot)
131

LOVABLE/LOVEABLE
Remember that this is a slang expression and should
never be used in a formal context. Substitute 'many'
or recast the sentence altogether.
lovable/loveable
luggage
(not lugage)
luxuriant or luxurious?
LUXURIANT = growing abundantly
LUXURIANT vegetation
LUXURIOUS = rich and costly, sumptuous
a LUXURIOUS hotel
luxury
-ly
Take care when adding this suffix to a word already
ending in -1. You will have double -1:
real + ly = really
ideal + ly = ideally
special + ly = specially
usual + ly = usually
lying
See LAYOR LIE?.
132

machinery
(not -ary)
madam or madame?
Use MADAM:
as a polite term of respect:
Can I help you, madam?
in letter writing:
Dear Madam (note capital letter)
as a formal title of respect:
Thank you, Madam Speaker (note capital letter)
Use MADAME as the French equivalent:
We are going to Madame Tussaud's.
The famous French physicist, Madame Curie, was
born in Poland.
magic -e
Also known as silent -e and mute -e.
mahogany
maintain
maintenance
(not maintainance)
manageable
manager
(not manger, as is so often written!)
mango (singular) mangoes or mangos (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
133
•Ml

MANOEUVRE
manoeuvre
mantelpiece
(not mantle-)
mantelshelf
(not mantle-)
margarine
(not margerine)
marihuana/marijuana
marriage
marvel
marvelled, marvelling
marvellous
masterful or masterly?
MASTERFUL = dominating
MASTERLY - very skilful
mathematics
(not mathmatics)
mating or matting?
mate + ing = mating
mat + ing = matting
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) + (ii).
matrix (singular) matrices or matrixes (plural)
may
See CAN OR MAY?.
may or might?
(i) Use may/might in a present context and might in
a past context:
If I receive a written invitation, I MAY/MIGHT
accept, (still possible)
134

MEDITTERANEAN
If I had received a written invitation, I MIGHT
HAVE accepted, (possibility over now)
If I don't hurry, I MAY/MIGHT miss the bus.
(possibility exists)
If I hadn't hurried, I MIGHT HAVE missed the
bus. (risk now over)
(ii) Convert 'may' to 'might' when changing direct
speech to indirect or reported speech:
'MAY I come in?' she asked.
She asked if she MIGHT come in.
'You MAY be lucky,' she said.
She said that I MIGHT be lucky.
(iii) There is a slight difference between the meaning
of 'may' and 'might' in the present tense when
they are used in the sense of 'asking permission':
MAY I suggest that we adjourn the meeting?
(agreement assured)
MIGHT I suggest that we adjourn the meeting?
(suggestion more tentative)
me
See I/ME/MYSELF.
meant
(not ment, not mean't)
medal or meddle?
MEDAL = a small metal disc given as an honour
to MEDDLE = to interfere
mediaeval/medieval
medicine
(not medecine) medicinal
mediocre
Mediterranean
135

medium (singular) media or mediums (plural)
Note, however, that the two plurals differ in
meaning.
The MEDIA hounded him to his death. (= radio,
television, newspaper journalists)
She consulted a dozen MEDIUMS in the hope of
making contact with her dead husband. (= people
through whom the spirits of the dead are said to
communicate)
mediums
See MEDIUM.
meet, meet up, meet up with, or meet with?
British English distinguishes between the first and last
of these:
You MEET a person.
You MEET WITH an accident.
Avoid using 'meet up' and 'meet up with'. They are
clumsy expressions.
When shall we meet up?
When shall we meet?
We met up with friends in town.
We met friends in town.
memento (singular) mementoes or mementos (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
memorandum (singular) memoranda or memorandums
(plural)
memory (singular) memories (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
ment
Wrong spelling. See MEANT.
mention
mentioned, mentioning
136
MEDIUM

MILAGE/MILEAGE
Mesdames
(i) Plural of French Madame.
(ii) Used as a plural title before a number of ladies'
names:
Mesdames Smith, Green, Brown and Kelly won
prizes.
Always used with an initial capital letter.
message
messenger
(not messanger)
metaphor
(not metaphore)
A metaphor is a compressed comparison:
He wolfed his food, (note the apparent identification
with a wolf's eating habits)
Compare SIMILE.
meteorology
(six syllables)
meter or metre?
Put these coins in the parking METER.
You'll need a METRE of material to make a skirt.
Sonnets are always written in iambic METRE.
might
See MAY OR MIGHT?.
might of
This is an incorrect construction.
See COULD OF.
milage/mileage
137

milieu (singular) milieus or milieux (plural)
militate or mitigate?
To MILITATE (against) comes from the Latin verb
meaning 'to serve as a soldier' and it has the
combative sense of having a powerful influence on
something.
Despite his excellent qualifications, his youthful
criminal record MILITATED against his appointment
as school bursar.
To MITIGATE comes from the Latin adjective
meaning 'mild' and it means to moderate, to make
less severe.
Don't condemn the young man too harshly. There
are MITIGATING circumstances.
millennium (singular) millennia or millenniums (plural)
(not -n-)
See FOREIGNPLURALS.
millepede/millipede
mimic
mimicked, mimicking
miniature
minuscule
(not miniscule)
minute
(not minuit)
miracle
miscellaneous
miscellany
138
MILIEU

MOPING OR MOPPING?
mischief
mischievous
(not mischievious, as it is often mispronounced)
misplace
See DISPLACE OR MISPLACE?.
misrelated participles
See PARTICIPLES.
misspell
mis + spell
misspelled/misspelt
mistletoe
moccasin
modern
(not modren)
moment
(not momment)
momentary or momentous?
MOMENTARY = lasting for only a very short time
MOMENTOUS = of great significance
monastery (singular) monasteries (plural)
(not monastry/monastries)
See PLURALS (iii).
mongoose (singular) mongooses (plural)
(not mongeese)
monotonous
moping or mopping?
mope + ing = moping
mop + ing = mopping
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) + (ii).
139

MORAL OR MORALE?
moral or morale?
Denise is guided by strong MORAL principles.
My MORALE suffered badly when I failed my exams
and I lost all faith in myself for years.
Morocco
mortgage
(not morgage as it is pronounced)
mosquito (singular) mosquitoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
motto (singular) mottoes or mottos (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
mould
mouldy
moustache
mucous or mucus?
MUCOUS is an adjective, as in MUCOUS membrane.
The name of the thick secretion of the mucous
membrane is MUCUS.
murmur
murmured, murmuring (not murmer-)
mustn't
This is the contracted form of 'must not'.
Take care to place the apostrophe carefully.
must of
See COULD OF.
mute -e
Also known as magic -e and silent -e.
140

MYTH
mutual
reciprocal
Our dislike was MUTUAL.
Their marriage is based on MUTUAL respect.
Some would avoid the use of 'mutual' in expressions
such as 'our mutual friend' because a third person is
then introduced and the feelings of each person for
the other two are not necessarily identical. It might
be best here to describe the friend as one 'we have
in common'.
myself
See I/ME/MYSELF.
myth
See LEGEND OR MYTH?.
141

naive/naive
naivete/naivete/naivety/naivety
All these forms are correct.
nationalise or naturalise?
to NATIONALISE = to transfer ownership from the
private sector to the state
to NATURALISE = to confer full citizenship on a
foreigner
nebula (singular) nebulae or nebulas (plural)
necessary
necessity
negatives
neighbour
neither
neither.. .nor
Compare EITHER...OR.
nephew
-ness
Take care when adding this suffix to a word already
ending in -n. You will have double n:
cleanness
openness
suddenness
142
ra

NONE
neumonia
Wrong spelling. See PNEUMONIA.
new
See KNEW OR NEW?.
niece
nine
ninth
nineteen
nineteenth
ninety
ninetieth
no
See KNOW OR NO?.
no body or nobody?
It was believed that he had been murdered but NO
BODY was ever found, and so nothing could be
proved. (= no corpse)
NOBODY likes going to the dentist. (= no one)
none
The problem with 'none' is deciding whether to use
with it a singular or a plural verb.
Strictly speaking, a singular verb should accompany
'none':
NONE of the passengers WAS hurt. (= not one)
NONE of the milk WAS spilt. (= not any)
Colloquially, a plural verb is often used when plural
nouns follow the 'none of...' construction:
NONE of the passengers WERE hurt.
NONE of my friends LIKE pop music.
143

NO ONE
NONE of the children WANT an ice-cream.
Some reserve plural verbs in these cases for informal
occasions; others would see them as perfectly
acceptable formally as well.
no one
'No one' is singular and requires a singular verb:
NO ONE likes meanness.
'No one' should be written as two words and not
hyphenated.
nosey/nosy
Note-, for informal use only.
noticeable
(not noticable)
not only but also
Take care with the positioning of each part of this
pair:
Denise not only enjoys composing but also
conducting.
Denise enjoys two musical activities: composing,
conducting.
Put 'not only' in front of the first and 'but
also' in front of the second, and let 'enjoys' refer
to both.
Denise enjoys NOT ONLY composing BUT
ALSO conducting.
Compare BOTH...AND; EITHER...OR; NEITHER...NOR.
nouns
There are four kinds of nouns: common, proper,
abstract and collective.
144

Take care with the punctuation of proper nouns.
Because they are the special individual names of
people, towns, countries, newspapers, days of
the week, businesses, and so on, they require
initial capital letters:
Dennis Blakely
Ipswich
Sweden
The Times
Wednesday
Blazing Fireplaces Ltd.
Note that months of the year begin with a
capital letter but the seasons generally do not:
April, the spring, but the Spring term.
Do not confuse proper and common nouns.
boy - common noun
Jake - proper noun (needs initial capital)
There is a certain flexibility in sentences like
this:
Bishop Flynn will be arriving at three o'clock.
The bishop/Bishop would like to meet the
confirmation candidates before the service
begins.
Abstract nouns are the names of ideas, emotions,
states of mind, and so on.
The correct form can sometimes be difficult to
remember. Do check in a dictionary when you
are uncertain. Abstract nouns can have a huge
variety of endings:
optimism, pride, complexity, failure, diffidence,
depth, bravery, kindness, excitement,
exhilaration, and so on.
Unsophisticated writers often add -ness to an
adjective in the hope that it will then be
145
NOUNS

converted to an abstract noun. Sometimes this
works; often it doesn't.
Collective nouns (audience, flock, herd,
congregation) are treated as singular nouns if
regarded as a single whole:
The audience WAS wildly enthusiastic.
They are treated as plural nouns when regarded
as a number of units making up the whole:
The jury WERE divided over his guilt.
nucleus (singular) nuclei (plural)
nuisance
number
See SINGULAR OR PLURAL?
numbers
Should numbers be written in figures or in words? In
mathematical, scientific, technical and business
contexts, figures are used, as you would expect.
The problem arises in straightforward prose (an
essay, perhaps, or a short story or a letter).
The rule of thumb is that small numbers are
written as words and large numbers are written as
figures.
What are small numbers? Some people would say
numbers up to ten; others numbers up to twenty;
others numbers up to one hundred. If you're not
bound by the house-style of a particular organisation,
you can make up your own mind. Numbers up to
one hundred can be written in one or two words
and this is why this particular cut-off point is
favoured.
There were eight children at the party.
There were eighty-four/84 people in the audience.
146
NUCLEUS

Remember to hyphenate all compound numbers
between twenty-one and ninety-nine when they are
written as words.
Round numbers over one hundred, like two
thousand, five million, and so on, are also usually
written in words.
Write dates (21 October 2003) and sums of money
(£10.50) and specific measurements (10.5 cm) in
figures.
Time can be written in words or figures (three
o'clock/3 o'clock) but 24-hour clock times are always
written in figures (08.00).
Centuries can be written in words or figures (the
18th century/the eighteenth century).
It is important to be consistent within one piece of
writing.
nursery (singular) nurseries (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
147
NURSERY

oasis (singular) oases (plural)
obedience
(not -ance)
obedient
(not -ant)
occasion
occasional (not -ss-)
occasionally
occasional + ly
occur
occurred, occurring, occurrence
o'clock
Take care with the punctuation of this contraction.
The apostrophe represents the omission of four
letters:
o'clock = of the clock
Do not write: o'clock, O'clock or o,clock.
of or off?
These exemplar sentences may help:
He is the youngest OF four children, (pronounced ov)
Jump OFF the bus. (rhymes with cough)
Avoid the clumsy construction:
Jump off of the bus.
Jump off the bus.
official or officious?
OFFICIAL - authorised, formal
148
K9

ONTO OR ON TO?
an OFFICIAL visit
an OFFICIAL invitation
OFFICIOUS = fussy, self-important, interfering
an OFFICIOUS secretary
an OFFICIOUS waiter
often
(not offen)
omission
omit
omitted, omitting
one
This can be a useful impersonal pronoun:
ONE never knows.
However, it can be difficult to keep up in a long
sentence:
ONE never knows if ONE'S husband is likely to
approve of ONE'S choice but that is a risk ONE has
to take.
Use 'one' sparingly and beware the risk of
pomposity.
only
The position of 'only' in a sentence is crucial to
meaning.
See AMBIGUITY (ii).
onnist
Wrong spelling. See HONEST.
onto or on to?
There are circumstances when the words must
always be written separately. We will consider these
first.
149

OPHTHALMOLOGIST
Always write the words separately if 'to' is part
of an infinitive (e.g.to eat, to speak, to be, to
watch, etc.):
She drove ON TO test the brakes.
As a matter of interest you can double-check the
'separateness' of the two words by separating
them further:
She drove ON because she wanted TO test the
brakes.
Always write the words separately when 'to'
means 'towards':
We cycled ON TO Oxford.
Once again, the two words can be further
separated:
We cycled ON the few remaining miles TO
Oxford.
It is permissible to write 'onto' or 'on to' when
you mean 'to a position on':
The acrobat jumped ONTO the trapeze.
The acrobat jumped ON TO the trapeze.
It should be borne in mind, however, that many
careful writers dislike 'onto' and always use 'on to'.
'Onto' is more common in American English but
with the cautions expressed above.
ophthalmologist
(not opth-)
opinion
(not oppinion)
opposite
oral
See AURAL OR ORAL?.
150

OUT OF
organise/organize
original
originally
original + ly
ought
'Ought' is always followed by an infinitive (to visit,
to read, to do, etc).
We OUGHT to write our thank-you letters.
The negative form is 'ought not'.
We OUGHT NOT to hand our work in late.
The forms 'didn't ought' and 'hadn't ought' are
always wrong.
He didn't ought to say this.
He OUGHT NOT to say this.
He hadn't ought to have hit her.
He OUGHT NOT to have hit her.
ours
There are eight possessive pronouns:
mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs. They
never need an apostrophe:
This house is OURS.
outfit
outfitted, outfitting, outfitter
(exception to 2-1-1 rule).
out of
Avoid using 'of unnecessarily:
He threw it OUT OF the window.
He threw it OUT the window.
151

OUTRAGEOUS
outrageous
(not outragous)
over-
Take care when adding this prefix to a word already
beginning with r-. You will have-rr-:
overreact
overripe
overrule, etc.
overreact
over + react
ovum (singular) ova (plural)
owing to
See DUETO/OWING TO.
152

packed
We took a pack lunch with us.
We took a PACKED lunch with us.
paid
(exception to the -y rule; not payed)
paiment
Wrong spelling. See PAYMENT.
pajamas
American spelling. See PYJAMAS.
palate, palette, pallet
PALATE = the top part of the inside of your mouth
PALETTE = a small board with a hole for the
thumb which an artist uses when mixing paints
PALLET = a platform used to lift and to carry
goods
panic
panicked, panicking, panicky
paparazzo (singular) paparazzi (plural)
paraffin
paragraphing
There is no mystery about paragraphing although
many students find it difficult to know when to end
one paragraph and begin another.
A paragraph develops a particular point that is
relevant to the overall subject. If you wish to write a
letter or an essay that develops five or six points,
then each point will have its own paragraph and you
will add two more, one by way of an introductory
153
^•^H

PARAGRAPHING
paragraph and another at the end as a conclusion.
There are no rules about how long a paragraph
should be. Some paragraphs, often the introduction
or the conclusion, may be a single sentence; other
paragraphs may be a page or more long. Too many
short paragraphs in succession can be very jerky; too
many very long ones can look forbidding. It is best
to mix long and short paragraphs, if you can.
You may also find that a paragraph which is
becoming very long (a page or more) will benefit
from being subdivided. The topic of the paragraph
may be more sensibly developed as two or three
subsidiary points.
Clear paragraphing is not possible without clear
thinking. Think of what you want to say before you
begin to write. List the topics or points you want to
make in a sensible order. Then develop each one in
turn in a separate paragraph.
A paragraph usually contains within it one
sentence which sums up its topic. Sometimes the
paragraph will begin with this sentence (called a
topic sentence) and the rest of the paragraph will
elaborate or illustrate the point made. Sometimes the
topic sentence occurs during the paragraph. It can be
effective, from time to time, to build up to the topic
sentence as the last sentence in a paragraph.
Careful writers will try to move smoothly from
one paragraph to the next, using link words or
phrases such as: on the other hand; however; in
conclusion.
In handwriting and in typing, it is usual to mark
the beginning of a paragraph either by indenting it
by 2cm or so, or by leaving a clear line between
paragraphs. The only disadvantage of the latter
method is that it is not always clear, when a
sentence begins on a new page, whether a new
paragraph is also intended.
154

PARTICIPLES
Compare also the paragraphing of speech.
paralyse/paralyze
paralysis
paraphernalia
parent
(not perant)
parenthesis (singular) parentheses (plural)
See FOREIGNPLURALS.
parliament
parliamentary
parrafin
Wrong spelling. See PARAFFIN.
partake or participate?
PARTAKE = to share with others (especially food
and drink)
PARTICIPATE = to join in an activity; to play a
part in
They PARTOOK solemnly of lamb, herbs and salt.
Will you be able to PARTICIPATE in the firm's
pension scheme?
partener
Wrong spelling. See PARTNER.
participles
Participles help to complete some tenses.
Present participles end in -ing:
I am COOKING
They were WASHING.
You would have been CELEBRATING.
155

PARTICLE
Past participles generally end in -d or -ed but there
are many exceptions:
I have LABOURED.
You are AMAZED.
It was HEARD.
We should have been INFORMED.
Care needs to be taken with the irregular forms of
the past participle. They can be checked with a good
dictionary.
to choose chosen
to teach taught
to begin begun
The past participle is the word that completes the
construction:
having been.... ?
Participles can also be used as verbal adjectives (that
is, as describing words with a lot of activity
suggested):
a HOWLING baby
a DESECRATED grave
As verbal adjectives, they can begin sentences:
HOWLING loudly, the baby woke everyone up.
DESECRATED with graffiti, the tombstone was a sad
sight.
Take care that the verbal adjective describes an
appropriate noun or pronoun. A mismatch can result
in unintended hilarity.
See AMBIGUITY (v).
particle
particular
156

PEDAL OR PEDDLE?
particularly
particular + ly
partner
(not partener)
passed or past?
You PASSED me twice in town yesterday.
In the PAST, women had few rights.
In PAST times, women had few rights.
I walk PAST your house every day.
passenger
(not passanger)
past
See PASSED OR PAST?.
pastime
(not -tt-)
payed
Wrong spelling. See PAID.
payment
(not paiment)
See ADDING ENDINGS (Hi).
peace or piece?
There were twenty-one years of PEACE between the
two wars.
Would you like a PIECE of pie?
peculiar
(not perc-)
pedal or peddle?
a PEDAL = a lever you work with your foot
PEDDLE = to sell (especially drugs)
157

PENICILLIN
penicillin
peninsula or peninsular?
PENINSULA is a noun meaning a narrow piece of
land jutting out from the mainland into the sea. It is
derived from two Latin words: paene (almost) and
insula (island).
Have you ever camped on the Lizard PENINSULA?
PENINSULAR is an adjective, derived from the
noun:
The PENINSULAR War (1808-1814) was fought on
the Iberian PENINSULA between the French and the
British.
Note-. It may be useful in a quiz to know that the
P&O shipping line was in 1837 The Peninsular Steam
Navigation Company (it operated between Britain and
the Iberian Peninsula). In 1840, when its operation
was extended to Egypt, it became the Peninsular and
Oriental Steam Navigation Company (hence P&O).
people
(not peple)
perant
Wrong spelling. See PARENT.
per cent
(two words)
percentage
(one word)
perculiar
Wrong spelling. See PECULIAR.
perhaps
(not prehaps)
period
(not pieriod)
158

PICNIC
permanent
(not -ant)
permissible
perseverance
(not perser-)
personal or personnel?
Sarah has taken all her PERSONAL belongings with
her.
She was upset by a barrage of PERSONAL remarks.
All the PERSONNEL will be trained in first aid.
Write to the PERSONNEL officer and see if a
vacancy is coming up.
(Note the spelling of personnel with -nn-)
Note-. Personnel Officers are now often called Human
Resources Officers.
perspicacity or perspicuity?
PERSPICACITY = discernment, shrewdness,
clearness of understanding
PERSPICUITY = lucidity, clearness of expression
phenomenon (singular) phenomena (plural)
physical
physically
physique
Piccadilly
piccalilli
picnic
picnicked, picnicking, picnicker
159

PIECE
piece
See PEACE OR PIECE?.
pieriod
Wrong spelling. See PERIOD.
pigmy/pygmy (singular) pigmies/pygmies (plural)
pining or pinning?
pine +ing = pining
pin + ing = pinning
See ADDING ENDINGS (i), (ii).
plateau (singular) plateaus or plateaux (plural)
plausible
pleasant
(not plesant)
pleasure
plural
See SINGULAR OR PLURAL?.
plurals
(i) Most words form their plural by adding -s:
door doors; word words; bag bags; rainbow
rainbows; shop shops; car cars
(ii) Words ending in a sibilant (a hissing sound) add
-es to form their plural. This adds a syllable to
their pronunciation and so you can always hear
when this has happened:
bus buses; box boxes; fez fezes/fezzes; bench
benches; bush bushes; hutch hutches.
(iii) Words ending in -y are a special case. Look at
the letter that precedes the final -y. If the word
ends in vowel +y, just add -s to form the plural
(vowels: a, e, i, o, u):
160

day days
donkey donkeys
boy boys
guy guys
If the word ends in consonant + y, change the
y to i, and add -es:
lobby lobbies
opportunity opportunities
body bodies
century centuries
This rule is well worth learning by heart. There
are no exceptions. Remember an easy example as
a key like boy/boys.
(iv) Words ending in -o generally add -s to form the
plural:
piano pianos
banjo banjos
studio studios
soprano sopranos
photo photos
kimono kimonos
There are nine exceptions which add -es:
domino dominoes
echo echoes
embargo embargoes
hero heroes
mosquito mosquitoes
no noes
potato potatoes
tomato tomatoes
torpedo torpedoes
About a dozen words can be either -s or -es and
so you'll be safe with these. Interestingly, some
of these words until recently have required -es
161
PLURALS

PLURALS
(words like cargo, mango, memento, volcano).
The trend is towards the regular -s ending and
some words are in a transitional stage.
(v) Words ending in -f and -fe generally add -s to
form the plural:
roof roofs
cliff cliffs
handkerchief handkerchiefs
carafe carafes
giraffe giraffes
There are 13 exceptions which end in -ves in the
plural. You can always hear when this is the
case, but here is the complete list for reference:
knife/knives; life/lives; wife/wives; elf/elves;
self/selves; shelf/shelves; calf/calves; half/halves;
leaf/leaves; sheaf/sheaves; thief/thieves;
loaf/loaves; wolf/wolves.
Four words can be either -fs or -ves:
hoofs/hooves; scarfs/scarves; turfs/turves;
wharfs/wharves.
(vi) Some nouns are quite irregular in the formation
of their plural.
Some words don't change:
aircraft, cannon, bison, cod, deer, sheep, trout
Some have a choice about changing or staying
the same in the plural:
buffalo or buffaloes
Eskimo or Eskimos
Other everyday words have very peculiar plurals
which perhaps we take for granted:
man men ox oxen
woman women mouse mice
162

POSSIBLE OR PROBABLE?
child children louse lice
foot feet die dice
goose geese
After goose/geese, mongoose/mongooses seems
very strange but is correct.
See also FOREIGN PLURALS.
pneumonia
possability
Wrong spelling. See POSSIBILITY.
possable
Wrong spelling. See POSSIBLE.
possess
possessed, possessing
possession
possessive apostrophes
See APOSTROPHES (ii), (iii).
possessive pronouns
No apostrophes are needed with possessive
pronouns:
That is MINE. That is OURS.
That is THINE. That is YOURS.
That is HERS. That is THEIRS.
That is HIS.
That is ITS.
possessor
possibility
possible
(not -able)
possible or probable?
POSSIBLE = could happen
PROBABLE = very likely to happen
163

POTATO
potato (singular) potatoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
practical or practicable?
A PRACTICAL person is one who is good at doing
and making things.
A PRACTICAL suggestion is a sensible, realistic one
that is likely to succeed.
A PRACTICABLE suggestion is merely one that will
work. The word 'practicable' means 'able to be put
into practice'. It does not carry all the additional
meanings of 'practical'.
practice or practise?
PRACTICE makes perfect.
An hour's PRACTICE every day will yield returns.
The young doctor has built up a busy PRACTICE.
In the examples above, 'practice' is a noun.
You should PRACTISE every day.
PRACTISE now!
In these examples, 'practise' is a verb.
precede or proceed?
PRECEDE = to go in front of
PROCEED = to carry on, especially after having
stopped
prefer
preferred, preferring, preference
prehaps
Wrong spelling. See PERHAPS.
prejudice
(not predjudice)
164

preparation
prepositions
Prepositions are small words like 'by', 'with', 'for',
'to', which are placed before nouns and pronouns to
show how they connect with other words in the
sentence:
They gave the flowers TO their mother.
Let him sit NEAR you.
Two problems can arise with prepositions.
(i) Take care to choose the correct preposition. A
good dictionary will helpyou:
comply with
protest at
deficient in
ignorant of
similar to, and so on.
(ii) Don't take too seriously the oft-repeated advice
not to end a sentence with a preposition. Use
your discretion, and word your sentence
however it sounds best to you.
Do you prefer the first or the second sentence
here?
(a) WITH whom are you?
(b) Who are you WITH?
Which do you prefer here?
(c) She's a politician FOR whom I have a great
deal of respect.
(d) She's a politician I have a great deal of
respect FOR.
present
(not -ant)
165
PRESENT

PRESUME
presume
See ASSUME OR PRESUME?.
priest
primitive
(not -mat-)
principal or principle?
Rebuilding the school is their PRINCIPALaim.
(= chief)
The PRINCIPAL announced the results. (= chief
teacher)
His guiding PRINCIPLE was to judge no one hastily.
(= moral rule)
privilege
(not privelege or priviledge)
probable
See POSSIBLE OR PROBABLE?.
probably
(not propably)
procedure
(not proceedure)
proceed
See PRECEDE OR PROCEED?.
proclaim
proclamation
(not -claim-)
profession
(not -ff-)
professional
166

PROPHECY OR PROPHESY?
professor
profit
profited, profiting
prognosis
See DIAGNOSIS OR PROGNOSIS?.
prognosis (singular) prognoses (plural)
program or programme?
Use PROGRAM when referring to a computer
program.
Use PROGRAMME on all other occasions.
prominent
(not -ant)
pronounceable
(not pronouncable)
See SOFT c AND SOFT G.
pronouns
See I/ME/MYSELF.
See WHO/WHOM.
See POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
pronunciation
(not pronounciation)
propably
Wrong spelling. See PROBABLY.
propaganda
(not propo-)
proper nouns
See NOUNS.
prophecy or prophesy?
These two words look very similar but are
pronounced differently.
167

PROPOGANDA
The last syllable of PROPHECY rhymes with 'sea';
the last syllable of PROPHESY rhymes with 'sigh'.
Use the exemplar sentences as a guide:
Most of us believed her PROPHECY that the world
would end on 31 December, (prophecy = a noun)
In the example above, you could substitute the noun
'prediction'.
We all heard him PROPHESY that the world would
end at the weekend, (prophesy = a verb)
In the example above, you could substitute the verb
'predict'.
propoganda
Wrong spelling. See PROPAGANDA.
protein
psychiatrist
psychiatry
psychologist
psychology
publicly
(not publically)
punctuation
See under individual entries:
APOSTROPHES; BRACKETS; CAPITAL LETTERS; COLONS;
COMMAS; DASHES; EXCLAMATION MARKS; HYPHENS;
INVERTED COMMAS; SEMICOLONS; QUESTIONMARKS.
See also ENDSTOPS.
pyjamas
(American English: pajamas)
168

quarrel
quarrelled, quarrelling
quarrelsome
quarter
question marks
A question mark is the correct end stop for a
question. Note that it has its own built-in full stop
and doesn't require another.
Has anyone seen my glasses?
Note that indirect questions do not require question
marks because they have become statements in the
process and need full stops.
He asked if anyone had seen his glasses.
See INDIRECT SPEECH/REPORTED SPEECH.
questionnaire
(not -n-)
questions (direct and indirect)
See QUESTION MARKS.
queue
queued, queuing or queueing
quiet or quite?
The children were as QUIET as mice, (quiet = two
syllables)
You are QUITE right, (quite = one syllable)
quotation or quote?
169
•II

QUOTATION MARKS
Use as many QUOTATIONS as you can.
Use as many quotes as you can. (quotation = a
noun)
I can QUOTE the whole poem, (quote = a verb)
quotation marks
170

radiator
(not -er)
radically
radical + ly
radius (singular) radii or radiuses (plural)
raise or rise?
Let us look at these two words first as verbs (doing
words):
My landlord has decided to RAISE the rent.
He RAISED the rent a year ago.
He has RAISED the rent three times in four years.
My expenses RISE all the time.
They ROSE very steeply last year.
They have RISEN steadily this year.
Now let us look at them as nouns (a raise, a rise):
You should ask your employer for a RISE.
You should ask your employer for a RAISE.
An increase in salary is called 'a rise' in the UK and
'a raise' in America.
raping or rapping?
rape + ing = raping
rap + ing = rapping
See ADDING ENDINGS (i), (ii).
rapt or wrapped?
RAPT = enraptured (RAPT in thought)
WRAPPED = enclosed in paper or soft material
raspberry
(not rasberry)
171
^^••^^1

RATABLE/RATEABLE
ratable/rateable
realise/realize
really
real + ly
reason
reasonable
rebut or refute?
REBUT = to take the opposite side in an argument
REFUTE = to prove an assertion or allegation to be
wrong
reccomend
Wrong spelling. See RECOMMEND.
receipt
receive
recent or resent?
RECENT = happening not long ago
RESENT = to feel aggrieved and be indignant
recipe
recognise/recognize
recommend
recover or re-cover?
Bear in mind the difference in meaning that the
hyphen makes:
RECOVER = get better, regain possession
RE-COVER = to cover again
See HYPHENS (iv).
172

RELIEF
rediculous
Wrong spelling. See RIDICULOUS.
refectory
(not refrectory)
refer
referred, referring, referee, reference
referee or umpire?
REFEREE = football, boxing
UMPIRE = baseball, cricket, tennis
refrigerator
(abbreviation = fridge)
refute
See REBUT OR REFUTE?
regal or royal?
REGAL = fit for a king or queen; resembling the
behaviour of a king or queen
ROYAL = having the status of a king or queen, or
being a member of their family
regret
regretted, regretting, regrettable, regretful
regretfully or regrettably?
REGRETFULLY = with regret
REGRETTABLY - unfortunately
rehearsal
rehearse
relevant
(not revelant)
relief
173

REMEMBER
remember
(not rember)
repellent or repulsive?
Both words mean 'causing disgust or aversion'.
REPULSIVE, however, is the stronger of the two; it
has the sense of causing 'intense disgust', even
horror in some circumstances.
REPELLENT can also be used in the sense of being
able to repel particular pests (a mosquito repellent)
and in the sense of being impervious to certain
substances (water-repellent).
repetition
(not -pit-)
repetitious or repetitive?
Both words are derived from 'repetition'. Use
REPETITIOUS when you want to criticise
something spoken or written for containing tedious
and excessive repetition. 'Repetitious' is a derogatory
term.
Use REPETITIVE when you want to make the point
that speech, writing or an activity involves a certain
amount of repetition (e.g. work on an assembly line
in a factory). 'Repetitive' is a neutral word.
reported speech
representative
repulsive
See REPELLENT OR REPULSIVE?.
resent
See RECENT OR RESENT?.
reservoir
From 'reserve', (not resevoir)
174

resistance
reson
Wrong spelling. See REASON.
resonable
Wrong spelling. See REASONABLE.
responsibility
(not -ability)
responsible
(not -able)
restaurant
restaurateur
(not restauranteur)
resuscitate
(not rescusitate)
revelant
Wrong spelling. See RELEVANT.
revenge
See AVENGE OR REVENGE?.
reverend or reverent?
REVEREND = deserving reverence; title for a cleric
The Revd. C. Benson
The Rev.C. Benson
REVERENT = showing reverence
REVERENT pilgrims
reversible
(not -able)
rheumatism
rhubarb
rhyme
175
RHYME

rhythm
ridiculous
(not rediculous)
The word comes from the Latin ridere, meaning 'to
laugh'.
rigorous or vigorous?
RIGOROUS = exhaustive, very thorough, exacting
physically or mentally
VIGOROUS = full of energy
robing or robbing?
robe + ing = robing
rob + ing = robbing
rococo
Romania/Rumania
A third variant, Roumania, is now considered old-
fashioned and should be avoided.
roof (singular) roofs (plural) (not rooves)
royal
See REGAL OR ROYAL?.
176
RHYTHM

sacrifice
(not sacra-)
sacrilege
(not sacra-)
safely
safe + ly
said
salary
salmon
sanatorium (singular) sanatoria or sanatoriums (plural)
sandwich
(not sanwich)
sarcasm
See IRONY OR SARCASM?.
sat
See SIT.
satellite
Saturday
saucer
scan
Scan has a number of meanings in different subject
areas:
It can mean to analyse the metre of a line of
poetry.
177
B

It can mean 'to look at all parts carefully in
order to detect irregularities' (as in radar
SCANNING and body SCANNING).
It can mean to read intently and quickly in order
to establish the relevant points.
When we talk of 'just SCANNING the headlines', we
shouldn't mean 'glancing quickly over them without
taking them in'. Scanning is a very intensive and
selective process.
scarcely
This word needs care both in spelling and in usage.
scarf (singular) scarfs or scarves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
scaring or scarring?
scare + ing = scaring
scar + ing = scarring
scarsly
Wrong spelling. See SCARCELY.
scenery
(not -ary)
sceptic or septic?
A SCEPTIC is one who is inclined to doubt or
question accepted truths.
SEPTIC is an adjective meaning 'infected by bacteria'
(a SEPTIC wound).
It also describes the drainage system in country areas
which uses bacteria to aid decomposition (SEPTIC
drainage, a SEPTIC tank).
schedule
scheme
178
SCARCELY

SECRETARY
scissors
Scotch, Scots or Scottish?
Use SCOTCH only in such phrases as SCOTCH
broth, SCOTCH whisky, SCOTCH eggs, SCOTCH
mist and so on.
When referring to the people of Scotland, call
them the SCOTS or the SCOTTISH. The term
SCOTCH can cause offence.
The words SCOTS is often used in connection
with aspects of language:
He has a strong SCOTS accent.
The SCOTS language is quite distinct from English.
What is the SCOTS word for 'small'?
We also talk about SCOTS law being different from
English law.
In connection with people, we have the rather
formal terms Scotsman/Scotsmen and
Scotswoman/Scotswomen. Remember also the
Scots Guards.
SCOTTISH is used rather more generally to refer
to aspects of landscape and culture:
SCOTTISH history, SCOTTISH dancing, SCOTTISH
traditions, SCOTTISH universities, the SCOTTISH
Highlands
search
seasonable or seasonal?
SEASONABLE = normal for the time of year
(SEASONABLE weather)
SEASONAL = happening at a particular season
(SEASONAL employment)
secretary (singular) secretaries (plural) (not secer-)
See PLURALS (iii).
179

SEIZE
seize
(not -ie-; an exception to the EI/IE SPELLING RULE)
self (singular) selves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
Sellophane
Wrong spelling. See CELLOPHANE.
Sellotape
(not cellotape)
semicolons
Semicolons have two functions.-
(i) They can replace a full stop by joining two
related sentences.
Ian is Scottish. His wife is Irish.
Ian is Scottish; his wife is Irish.
(ii) They can replace the commas in a list which
separate items. Semicolons are particularly useful
with longer items where commas might be
needed for other reasons.
Emily has bought some lovely things for her new
flat: five huge, brightly coloured floor cushions;
some woven throws, in neutral colours and of
wonderful textures; an Afghan rug; a brilliant
blue glass vase; and a wine-rack, very elegant,
shaped like two Ss on their backs.
sensual or sensuous?
SENSUAL = appealing to the body (especially
through food, drink and sex)
SENSUOUS = appealing to the senses aesthetically
(especially through music, poetry, art)
sentence
(not -ance)
180

SEQUENCE OF TENSES
sentiment or sentimentality?
SENTIMENT = a sincere emotional feeling
SENTIMENTALITY = over-indulgent, maudlin
wallowing in emotion (sometimes with the
suggestion of falseness and exaggeration)
sentimental
This adjective comes from both 'sentiment' and
'sentimentality' and so can be used in a fairly neutral
way as well as a pejorative way:
SENTIMENTAL value (from sentiment)
for SENTIMENTAL reasons (from sentiment)
sickly SENTIMENTAL songs (from sentimentality)
separate
(not seperate)
Remember that there is A RAT in
sep/A/RAT/e.
separate
separated, separating, separation
septic
See SCEPTIC OR SEPTIC?.
sequence of tenses
This means that tenses must match within a
sentence. You have to keep within a certain time-
zone:
I telephoned everyone on the committee and tell
them exactly what I thought.
I telephoned everyone on the committee and
TOLD them exactly what I thought.
He said that he will ask her to marry him.
He said that he WOULD ask her to marry him.
I should be grateful if you will send me an
application form.
181

I should be grateful if you WOULD send me an
application form.
Fergal smiles at us, waves goodbye and was
gone.
Fergal smiles at us, waves goodbye and IS gone.
sergeant
(not sergant)
serial
See CEREAL OR SERIAL?.
servere
Wrong spelling. See SEVERE.
serviceable
(not servicable)
sesonable
Wrong spelling. See SEASONABLE OR SEASONAL?.
sesonal
Wrong spelling. See SEASONABLE OR SEASONAL?.
several
(three syllables)
severe
(not servere)
severely
severe + ly
sew or sow?
Sarah can SEW and knit beautifully.
She is SEWING her trousseau now.
She SEWED my daughter's christening gown by
hand.
She has SEWN all her life.
182
SERGEANT

SHAMING OR SHAMMING?
The best time to SOW broad beans is in the autumn.
He's out now SOWING parsley and sage.
He SOWED seed that he saved from the year before.
He has SOWN the last of the lettuce seed.
sewage or sewerage?
SEWAGE = the waste products carried off by means
of sewers
SEWERAGE = the provision of a drainage system
shall or will?
The simple future tense uses 'shall' with I and we
and 'will' with the other pronouns:
I shall drive
you (singular) will drive
he/she/it will drive
we shall drive
you (plural) will drive
they will drive
By reversing 'shall' and 'will' you introduce a note
of determination.
I will drive
you shall drive
he/she/it shall drive
we will drive
you shall drive
they shall drive
This distinction is lost in the contraction: I'll drive.
However, in speech, the tone of voice will indicate
which is intended.
shaming or shamming?
shame + ing = shaming
sham + ing = shamming
183

shan't
This contraction for 'shall not' would at one time
have been punctuated with two apostrophes to
indicate where letters have been omitted (sha'n't).
Use just one apostrophe nowadays (shan't).
See CONTRACTIONS.
sheaf (singular) sheaves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
shear or sheer?
SHEAR is a verb (a doing word) and means to cut
off.
SHEER is an adjective and means very thin (SHEER
material), almost perpendicular (a SHEER cliff) or
whole-hearted (SHEER delight).
sheikh
(also sheik, shaikh, shaykh - but these are less usual
spellings)
shelf (singular) shelves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
sheriff
(not -rr-)
shining or shinning?
shine + ing = shining
shin + ing = shinning
shoe
These are the tricky tenses of the verb 'to shoe':
The blacksmith SHOES the horse.
He is SHOEING the horse now.
He SHOD the horse last week.
He has SHOD the horse regularly.
should or would?
'Should' and 'would' follow the pattern of 'shall' and
'will'.
184
SHAN'T

SHYLY
I should work
you (singular) would work
he/she/it would work
we should work
you (plural) would work
they would work
The correct construction often needed in a formal
letter is:
I SHOULD be grateful if you WOULD send me...
In the sense of 'ought to', use 'should' in all cases:
I know I SHOULD apologise.
You SHOULD write to your parents.
She SHOULD understand if you explain.
He SHOULD understand.
We SHOULD repair the shed.
You all SHOULD work harder.
They SHOULD resign.
shouldn't
(note the position of the apostrophe)
should of
See COULD OF.
shriek
(not shreik)
shy
shyer, shyest
Follows the -y rule.
shyly
185

SHYNESS
shyness
siege
(not -ei)
sieve
sieze
Wrong spelling. See SEIZE.
sight
See CITE, SIGHT OR SITE?.
silent -e
Also known as magic -e and mute -e.
silhouette
silicon or silicone?
SILICON = element used in electronics industry
(SILICON chip)
SILICONE = compound containing silicon and used
in lubricants and polishes and in cosmetic surgery
(SILICONE implants)
similarly
similar + ly
simile
(not similie)
A simile is a comparison, usually beginning with
'like' or 'as'/'as if'.
You look as if you've seen a ghost.
Her hair was like silk.
Compare METAPHOR.
186

SINGULAR OR PLURAL?
sincerely
sincere + ly (not sincerly)
Note the punctuation required when 'sincerely' is
used as part of a complimentary close to a letter.
Traditional layout:
Yours sincerely,
Aisling Hughes
Fully blocked layout:
Yours sincerely
Aisling Hughes
singeing or singing?
singe + ing = singeing
sing + ing = singing
singular or plural?
(i) Always match singular subjects with singular
verbs. Always match plural subjects with plural
verbs.
The dog (singular) is barking (singular).
The dogs (plural) are barking (plural).
These pronouns are always singular:
everyone, everybody, everything
anyone, anybody, anything
someone, somebody, something
no one, nobody, nothing
either, neither, each
Everybody (singular) loves (singular) a sailor.
Remember that double subjects (compound
subjects) are plural.
The Alsatian and the Pekinese (two dogs =
plural subject) are barking (plural).
187

SINGULAR OR PLURAL?
(ii) 'Either.. .or' and 'neither.. .nor' are followed by
a singular verb.
Either James or Donal is lying and that's certain,
(singular)
(iii) The choice between 'there is' (singular) and
'there are' (plural) will depend on what follows.
There is (singular) a good reason (singular) for
his bad behaviour.
(iv) Take care to match nouns and pronouns.
Ask any teacher (singular) and they (plural)
will tell you what they (plural) think (plural)
about the new curriculum.
Ask any teacher (singular) and he or she
(singular) will tell you what he or she
(singular) thinks (singular) about the new
curriculum.
(v) Don't be distracted by any additional details
attached to the subject.
The variety (singular) of courses available at
the colleges were (plural) impressive.
The variety (singular) of courses available at
the colleges was (singular) impressive.
The addition (singular) of so many
responsibilities makes (singular) the job very
stressful.
(vi) Collective nouns are singular when considered as
a whole but plural when considered as combined
units.
The audience (singular) was divided (singular)
in its (singular) response.
The audience (here seen as a crowd of single
people) were divided (plural) in their (plural)
response.
188

SLAIN
site
See CITE, SIGHT OR SITE?.
siting or sitting?
site + ing = siting
sit + ing = sitting
sizable/sizeable
skein
skilful
skilfully
skilful + ly
slain
(exception to -y rule)
189
sirocco/scirocco
sit
Don't confuse the grammatical formation of tenses:
We SIT by the fire in the evening and relax.
We ARE SITTING by the fire now.
We ARE SEATED by the fire.
We HAVE BEEN SITTING here all evening.
We HAVE BEEN SEATED here all evening.
We SAT by the fire yesterday.
We WERE SITTING by the fire when you phoned.
We WERE SEATED by the fire when you phoned.
Never write or say:
Say
We were sat.
We were sitting/we were seated.

slander
See LIBEL OR SLANDER?.
slily/slyly
Both spellings are correct but the second is more
commonly used.
sloping or slopping?
slope + ing = sloping
slop + ing = slopping
sly
slyer, slyest
slyly
See SLILY/SLYLY.
slyness
smelled/smelt
sniping or snipping?
snipe + ing = sniping
snip + ing = snipping
sobriquet/soubriquet
social or sociable?
SOCIAL = related to society
a SOCIAL worker, a SOCIAL problem, SOCIAL
policy, SOCIAL housing
SOCIABLE = friendly
a very SOCIABLE person
These two words are quite distinct in meaning even
though they may be used with the same noun:
a SOCIAL evening = an evening organised for the
purpose of recreation
a SOCIABLE evening = a friendly evening where
190
SLANDER

SOMEBODY
everyone mixed well
With any luck the social evening was also a sociable
one!
soft c and soft g
The letter c has two sounds. It can be hard and
sound like k or it can be soft and sound like s.
The letter g has two sounds. It can be hard and
sound like g in got and it can be soft and sound
like j.
Usually, but not always, c and g sound hard when
they precede a, o, u:
cat cot cut
gap got gut
They are generally soft when they precede e and i
(and y):
cell cider cyberspace
germ gin gyrate
Sometimes an extra e is inserted into a word before
a, o, u, so that the c or g in the word can sound
soft:
noticeable (not noticable)
manageable (not managable)
Sometimes an extra k is inserted into a word
between c and e, i, y, so that c can sound hard:
picnicker (not picnicer)
trafficking (not trafficing)
soldier
Take care with the spelling of this word,
(soldiers of the Queen, not soliders!)
soliloquy
somebody
(not sombody)
191

SOMERSAULT
somersault
something
(not somthing)
some times or sometimes?
Use the exemplar sentences as a guide:
There are SOME TIMES when I want to leave
college. (= some occasions)
SOMETIMES I want to leave college. (= occasionally)
soubriquet
See SOBRIQUET/SOUBRIQUET.
souvenir
sovereign
(exception to the -ie-rule)
SOW
See SEWORsow?,
spaghetti
speach
Wrong spelling. See SPEECH.
speak
specially
See ESPECIALLY OR SPECIALLY?.
speech
(not speach)
speech marks
spelled/spelt
spilled/spilt
192

STAND
split infinitive
The infinitive of a verb is made up of two words:
to eat,to speak, to begin, to wonder
If a word (or a group of words) comes between the
two words of an infinitive, the infinitive is said to be
'split'.
It is not a serious matter atall!
You may sometimes find it is effective to split an
infinitive. Do so. On other occasions to split the
infinitive may seem clumsy. Avoid doing so on those
occasions. Use your own judgement.
Here are some examples of split infinitives:
to boldly go where no man has gone before
to categorically and emphatically deny any
wrongdoing
to sometimes wonder how much will be achieved
They can easily be rewritten:
to go boldly
to deny categorically and emphatically
to wonder sometimes
spoiled/spoilt
stand
Don't confuse the grammatical formation of tenses.
We STAND by the window after breakfast.
We ARE STANDING now.
We HAVE BEEN STANDING for an hour.
We STOOD by the window yesterday.
We WERE STANDING there when you called.
Never write or say:
Say
193
We were stood.
We were standing.

STATIONARY OR STATIONERY?
stationary or stationery?
STATIONARY = standing still (a STATIONARY
car)
STATIONERY - notepaper and envelopes
stiletto (singular) stilettos (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
stimulant or stimulus?
Both words are related to 'stimulate' but there is a
difference in meaning:
A STIMULANT is a temporary energiser like drink or
drugs.
A STIMULUS is something that motivates (like
competition).
stimulus (singular) stimuli (plural)
stomach ache
stood
See STAND.
storey (plural storeys) or story (plural stories)?
STOREY = one floor or level in a building
A bungalow is a single-STOREY structure.
A tower block can have twenty STOREYS.
STORY = a tale
I read a STORY each night to my little brother.
Children love STORIES.
strategem or strategy?
STRATEGEM = a plot, scheme, sometimes a trick,
which will outwit an opponent or overcome a
difficulty
STRATEGY = the overall plan for conducting a war
or achieving a major objective
194

SUBMIT
strategy or tactics?
STRATEGY = the overall plan or policy for
achieving an objective
TACTICS = the procedures necessary to carry out
the strategic policy
stratum (singular) strata (plural)
subjunctive
The subjunctive form of the verb is used to express
possibilities, recommendations and wishes:
If he WERE a gentleman (and he's not) he would
apologise on bended knee.
(X If he was a gentleman...)
If I WERE rich (and I'm not), I would help you.
(X If I was rich...)
I wish I WERE going with you (and sadly I'm not!).
(X I wish I was going with you.)
I recommend that he BE sacked immediately.
(X ... he is sacked)
I propose that the treasurer LEAVE the room.
(/ .... leaves)
It is vital that these questions BE answered.
(X ... are answered)
The subjunctive is also used in these expressions but
there is no change to the verb.
God SAVE the Queen.
God BLESS you.
Heaven FORBID.
submit
submitted, submitting
195

SUBTLE
subtle
subtlety
subtly
success (singular) successes (plural)
See PLURALS (ii).
successful
successfully
successful + ly
sufferance
suffixes
See ADDING ENDINGS.
suggest
(not surjest)
superlative
See COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.
supersede
(not -cede)
supervise
(not -ize)
surfeit
(not -ie-, exception to rule)
surjest
Wrong spelling. See SUGGEST.
surprise
(not suprise or surprize)
surprising
surreptitious
196

SYNOPSIS
survivor
(not -er)
swam or swum?
Note these tenses of 'to swim':
I SWAM the Channel last year.
I have SWUM the Channel five times.
swinging or swingeing?
swing + ing = swinging
swinge + ing = swingeing
swum
See SWAM OR SWUM?.
syllabus (singular) syllabuses or syllabi (plural)
synchronise/synchronize
synonym
synonymous
synopsis (singular) synopses (plural)
197

tableau (singular) tableaux (plural)
tactics
See STRATEGY OR TACTICS?.
taping or tapping?
tape + ing = taping
tap + ing = tapping
tariff
(not -rr-)
taught or taut?
Mrs Jenkins TAUGHT maths.
Hold the line TAUT. Pull it tight.
technical
tee shirt/T-shirt
Both versions are correct.
temperature
(four syllables)
tempo (singular) tempi or tempos (plural)
temporarily
temporary
(four syllables)
temprature
Wrong spelling. See TEMPERATURE.
tendency
(not -ancy)
198
T

THEIR, THERE OR THEY'RE?
tenses
See SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
See entries for individual verbs.
terminus (singular) termini or terminuses (plural)
terrible
(not -able)
testimonial or testimony?
TESTIMONIAL = formal statement in the
form of an open letter bearing witness to someone's
character, qualifications and relevant experience
TESTIMONY = formal written or spoken statement
of evidence, especially in a court of law
thank you or thank-you?
(never thankyou!)
I should like to THANK YOU very much for your
help.
THANK YOU for your help.
I have written all my THANK-YOU letters.
You will see that 'thank you' is NEVER written as one
word. It is hyphenated only when used as a compound
adjective describing 'letter' or another noun.
Those who care about such things can never bring
themselves to buy otherwise attractive thank-you cards
that have THANKYOU or THANK-YOU printed on
them!
their, there or they're?
They have sold THEIR house.
He is waiting for you over THERE.
THERE is no point in lying to me.
THEY'RE going to Krakow for Christmas. (= they
are)
199

THEIRS
theirs
(no apostrophe)
This is my dog; THEIRS has a white patch on his
forehead.
theirselves
Incorrect formation. See THEMSELVES.
themselves
They blame THEMSELVES for the crash.
They THEMSELVES were there.
there
See THEIR, THERE OR THEY'RE?.
there is/there are
See SINGULAR OR PLURAL? (iii).
thesis (singular) theses (plural)
they're
See THEIR, THERE OR THEY'RE?.
thief (singular) thieves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
thorough
thoroughly
thorough + ly
threshold
(not -hh-)
tingeing
tiny
(not -ey)
tired
(not I am tiered)
200

TOMATO
I feel very TIRED today.
titbit
(not tidbit)
titles
When punctuating the title of a book, film, poem,
song, etc., take care to begin the first word and all
subsequent key words with a capital letter.
Have you read 'To Kill a Mockingbird' by Harper
Lee?
Titles can be italicised (in print and word-processing)
or underlined or enclosed in inverted commas (single
or double).
The film Schindler's List is based on the book by
Thomas Keneally called Schindler's Ark.
I'm so pleased that Diary of a Nobody is being
serialised.
Have you seen the new production of 'Macbeth' at
the Barbican?
to, too or two?
You should give this TO the police.
Do you know how TO swim?
(part of infinitive = to swim)
I was TOO embarrassed to say anything.
(= excessively)
Can we come TOO? (= also)
They have TWO houses, one in London and one in
France.
tolerant
(not tollerant or tolerent)
tomato (singular) tomatoes (plural)
(an exception to rule)
See PLURALS (iv).
201

TOMORROW
tomorrow
(not tommorrow)
tonsillitis
tornado (singular) tornadoes or tornados (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
torpedo (singular) torpedoes (plural)
(an exception to rule)
See PLURALS (iv).
tortuous or torturous?
TORTUOUS = full of twists and turns, complex,
convoluted
TORTUROUS = painful, agonising, excruciating
total
totally
total + ly
toupee
(not toupee)
traffic
trafficked, trafficking, trafficker
tragedy
(not tradgedy)
tragic
(not tradgic)
transfer
transferred, transferring, transference
transpire
Strictly speaking, this verb has two meanings:
to give off moisture (of plant or leaf)
to come slowly to be known, to leak out (of
secret information)
202

TRY
It is often used loosely in the sense of 'to happen'.
Why not use 'to happen' instead of this rather
pompous word?
travel
travelled, travelling, traveller
trivia
This is a plural noun and should be matched with a
plural verb.
Such TRIVIA are to be condemned.
troop or troupe?
TROOP refers to the armed forces or to groups of
people or particular animals:
a TROOP of scouts
a TROOP of children
a TROOP of monkeys
TROUPE refers to a group of touring actors,
dancers, musicians or other entertainers.
trooper or trouper?
TROOPER = cavalry soldier or member of an
armoured unit
He swears like a TROOPER at nine years old.
TROUPER = a touring entertainer
Jack Densley is a grand old TROUPER.
truly
(not truely, an exception to the -y rule)
try
tried, trying
203

TUMULUS
tumulus (singular) tumuli (plural)
See FOREIGNPLURALS.
turf (singular) turfs or turves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
twelfth
(not twelth, as it is often mispronounced)
twentieth
twenty
typical
typically
typical + ly
204

ultimatum (singular) ultimata or ultimatums (plural)
umbrella
(not umberella)
umpire
See REFEREE OR UMPIRE?.
un-
Remember that when un- is added to a word
beginning with n-, you will have
-nn-:
un + natural = unnatural
un + nerve = unnerve
unconscious
under-
Remember that when you add under- to a word
beginning with r-, you will have -rr-:
under + rate = underrate
underlay or underlie?
to UNDERLAY = to lay or place under
You should UNDERLAY the carpet with felt if your
floorboards are very uneven.
I UNDERLAID this carpet with very thick felt
because the floorboards were so uneven.
This carpet IS UNDERLAID with felt.
to UNDERLIE = to be situated under (esp. rocks)
Granite UNDERLIES the sandstone here.
Granite UNDERLAY the sandstone, as we soon
discovered.
205
U

UNDERRATE
The sandstone here IS UNDERLAIN by granite.
also:
The UNDERLYING problem is poverty.
Compare LAYOR LIE?.
underrate
under + rate
undoubtedly
unequivocally
unequivocal + ly (not unequivocably)
unexceptionable or unexceptional?
UNEXCEPTIONABLE = inoffensive, not likely to
cause criticism or objections
UNEXCEPTIONAL = ordinary, run-of-the-mill
Compare EXCEPTIONABLE OR EXCEPTIONAL?.
unget-at-able
(not un-get-at-able)
uninterested
See DISINTERESTED OR UNINTERESTED?.
unique
Remember, that 'unique' is absolute. It means 'the
only one of its kind'. Something is either unique or
it's not. It can't be 'quite unique' or 'very unique'.
unmanageable
(not unmanagable)
unmistakable/unmistakeable
unnatural
un + natural
206

USURPER
unnecessary
un + necessary
unparalleled
until
(not untill)
unusually
unusual + ly
upon
(not apon)
upstairs
(one word)
urban or urbane?
URBAN = relating to a town or city
URBAN population
URBANE = suave, courteous
used to
I USED TO like him very much
The negative form is:
I USED NOT TO like him very much.
I didn't used to like him.
useful
useless
usurper
(not -or)
207

vase
vechicle
Wrong spelling. See VEHICLE.
vegetable
(not vegtable)
vegetation
vehicle
(not vechicle)
veil
venal or venial?
VENAL = open to bribery and corruption
VENIAL = minor, excusable, pardonable
vengeance
(not vengance)
ventilation
(not venta-)
veracity or voracity?
VERACITY - truthfulness
VORACITY - greed
veranda/verandah
vertebra (singular) vertebrae (plural)
veterinary
(five syllables!)
208
V

VOWELS
vice versa
vicious
view
vigorous
(not vigourous)
See also RIGOROUS OR VIGOROUS?.
vigour
villain
violent
virtuoso (singular) virtuosi or virtuosos (plural)
visible
(not -able)
visitor
(not -er)
vocabulary
(five syllables)
volcano (singular) volcanoes or volcanos (plural)
See PLURALS(iv).
voluntary
volunteer
volunteered, volunteering
voracity
See VERACITY OR VORACITY?.
vortex (singular) vortexes or vortices (plural)
vowels
Five letters of the alphabet are always vowels:
a e i o u
209

VOWELS
The letter y is sometimes a vowel and sometimes a
consonant.
Y is a vowel when it sounds like e or i:
pretty, busy
sly, pylon
Y is a consonant at the beginning of syllables and
words and has a different sound:
yellow, beyond
210

waist or waste?
Tie this rope around your WAIST.
Don't WASTE paper.
What do you do with WASTE paper?
Industrial WASTE causes pollution.
waive or wave?
WAIVE = to give something up or not exact it
I shall WAIVE the fine on this occasion.
WAVE = to move something to and fro
WAVE to the Queen.
wander or wonder?
I love to WANDER through the forest,
(rhymes with girl's name, Wanda)
I WONDER what has happened to him.
(rhymes with 'under')
wasn't
Place the apostrophe carefully.
waste
See WAIST OR WASTE?.
wave
See WAIVE OR WAVE?.
weak or week?
WEAK = feeble
WEEK = seven days
weather or whether?
The WEATHER this winter has been awful.
I don't know WHETHER I can help. (= if)
211
W

WEDNESDAY
Wednesday
(not Wensday)
week
See WEAK OR WEEK?.
weir
(exception to the -ie- rule)
weird
(exception to the -ie- rule)
Wensday
Wrong spelling. See WEDNESDAY.
were or where?
We WERE walking very fast, (rhymes with 'her')
WHERE are you? (rhymes with 'air')
Do you know WHERE he is?
This is the house WHERE I was born.
weren't
Place the apostrophe carefully.
wharf (singular) wharfs or wharves (plural)
where
See WERE OR WHERE?.
whether
See WEATHER OR WHETHER?.
whilst
(exception to magic -e rule)
whiskey or whisky?
WHISKEY is distilled in Ireland.
WHISKY is distilled in Scotland.
212

WHO OR WHOM?
who or whom?
The grammatical distinction is that 'who' is a subject
pronoun and 'whom' is an object pronoun.
(i) Use this method to double-check whether you
need a subject pronoun or an object pronoun
when who/whom begins a question:
Ask yourself the question and anticipate the
answer. If this could be one of the subject
pronouns (I, he, she, we or they), then you need
'who' at the beginning of the question:
Who/whom is there?
The answer could be: / am there.
WHO is there?
If the answer could be one of the object
pronouns (me, him, her, us or them), then you
need 'whom' at the beginning of the question:
Who/whom did you meet when you went to
London?
The answer could be: I met him.
WHOM did you meet?
(ii) Use this method if who/whom comes in the
middle of a sentence:
Break the sentence into two sentences and see
whether a subject pronoun (I, he, she, we, they)
is needed in the second sentence or an object
pronoun (me, him, her, us, them).
Here is the man who/whom can help you.
Divide into two sentences:
Here is the man. He can help you.
Here is the man WHO can help you.
He is a writer who/whom I have admired for
years.
213

WHOLE
Divide into two sentences:
He is a writer. I have admired him for years.
He is a writer WHOM I have admired for years.
whole
See HOLE OR WHOLE?.
wholly
(exception to the magic e- rule)
who's or whose?
WHO'S been eating my porridge? (= who has)
WHO'S coming to supper? (= who is)
WHOSE calculator is this? (= belonging to whom)
There's the girl WHOSE cat was killed.
wierd
Wrong spelling. See WEIRD.
wife (singular) wives (plural)
See PLURALS(v).
wilful
(not willful)
will
See SHALL OR WILL?.
wining or winning?
wine + ing = wining
win + ing = winning
wisdom
(exception to magic -e rule)
See ADDING ENDINGS(ii).
withhold
(not withold)
214

WRITE
wolf (singular) wolves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
woman (singular) women (plural)
See PLURALS (vi).
wonder
See WANDER OR WONDER?.
won't
See CONTRACTIONS.
woollen
(not woolen)
worship
worshipped, worshipping, worshipper
(exception to 2-1-1 rule)
would
See SHOULD OR WOULD?.
wouldn't
Take care to place the apostrophe correctly.
would of
Incorrect construction.
See COULD OF.
wrapped
See RAPT OR WRAPPED?.
wreath or wreathe?
She lay a WREATH of lilies on his grave. (= noun)
Look at him WREATHED in cigarette smoke, (verb,
rhymes with 'seethed')
write
Use these sentences as a guide to tenses:
I WRITE to her every day.
215

WRITER
I AM WRITING a letter now.
I WROTE yesterday.
I have WRITTEN every day.
writer
(not writter)
wry
wrier or wryer, wriest or wryest
wryly
(exception to the y- rule)
wryness
216

-y rule
See ADDINGS ENDINGS (iii).
See PLURALS (iii).
yacht
yield
yoghurt/youghourt/yougurt
All these spellings are correct.
yoke or yolk?
The YOKE of the christening gown was beautifully
embroidered.
The oxen were YOKED together.
She will eat only the YOLK of the egg.
your or you're?
YOUR essay is excellent. (= belonging to you)
YOU'RE joking! (= you are)
yours
This is YOURS.
No apostrophe needed!
217
Y

zealot
zealous
zealously
Zimmer frame
zloty (singular) zloties or zlotys (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
zoological
zoology
218
Z

APPENDIX A Literary terms
Here are a few of the most widely used literary devices.
You will probably be familiar with them in practice but
perhaps cannot always put a name to them.
alliteration the repetition of sounds at the beginning
of words and syllables
Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascals ran.
climax
epigram a short pithy saying
Truth is never pure, and rarely simple. (Oscar
Wilde)
euphemism an indirect way of referring to distressing
or unpalatable facts
I've lost both my parents. (= they've died)
She's rather light-fingered. (= she's a thief)
hyperbole exaggeration
Jack cut his knee rather badly and lost gallons of
blood.
What's for lunch? I'm starving.
I loved Ophelia. Forty thousand brothers
Could not, with all their quantity of love,
Make up my sum. (Shakespeare: 'Hamlet')
irony saying one thing while clearly meaning the
opposite
For Brutus is an honourable man. (Shakespeare:
'Julius Caesar')
litotes understatement
He was not exactly polite. (= very rude)
I am a citizen of no mean city. (- St Paul
boasting about Tarsus and hence about himself)
metaphor a compressed comparison
219
I came; I saw; I conquered!

APPENDIX A LITERARY TERMS
Prfwaflew downstairs, (i.e. her speed resembled
the speed of a bird in flight)
Sleep that knits up the ravelled sleeve of care.
(Shakespeare: 'Macbeth')
No man is an island, entire of itself. (John
Donne)
metonymy the substitution of something closely
associated
The bottle has been his downfall. (= alcohol)
The kettle's boiling. (= the water in the kettle)
The pen is mightier than the sword. (= what is
written)
onomatopoeia echoing the sound
Bees buzz; sausages sizzle in the pan; ice-cubes
tinkle in the glass.
Frequently, alliteration, vowel sounds and selected
consonants come together to evoke the sounds being
described:
Only the monstrous anger of the guns
Only the stuttering rifles' rapid rattle
Can patter out their hasty orisons.
(Wilfred Owen: 'Anthem for Doomed Youth')
oxymoron apparently contradictory terms which
make sense at a deeper level
The cruel mercy of the executioner brought him
peace at last.
paradox a deliberately contradictory statement on the
surface which challenges you to discover the
underlying truth
If a thing is worth doing, it's worth doing badly.
(G. K. Chesterton)
personification describing abstract concepts and
inanimate objects as though they were people
Death lays his icy hand on kings. Qames Shirley)
220

APPENDIX A LITERARY TERMS
Often human feelings are also attributed. This
extension of personification is called the pathetic
fallacy.
The wind sobbed and shrieked in impotent rage.
pun a play on words by calling upon two meanings at
once
Is life worth living? It depends on the liver.
rhetorical question no answer needed!
Do you want to fail your exam?
simile a comparison introduced by 'like', 'as', 'as if
or 'as though'
O, my Luve's like a red red rose
That's newly sprung in June. (Robert Burns)
I wandered lonely as a cloud. (William
Wordsworth)
You look as if you've seen a ghost.
synecdoche referring to the whole when only a part
is meant, or vice versa
England has lost the Davis Cup. (= one person)
All hands on deck!
transferred epithet moving the adjective from the
person it describes to an object
She sent an apologetic letter.
He tossed all night on a sleepless pillow.
zeugma grammatical play on two applications of a
word
She swallowed her pride and three dry sherries.
She went straight home in a flood of tears and a
sedan chair. (Charles Dickens: 'The Pickwick
Papers')
221

APPENDIX B - Parts of speech
Each part of speech has a separate function.
Verbs are 'being' and 'doing' words.
It seems.
She is laughing.
All the pupils have tried hard.
Note also these three verb forms: the infinitive (to
seem); the present participle (trying); the past
participle (spoken).
Adverbs mainly describe verbs.
He spoke masterfully. (= how)
She often cries. (= when)
My grandparents live here. (= where)
Nouns are names (of objects, people, places, emotions,
collections, and so on).
common noun: table
proper noun: Emma
abstract noun: friendship
collective noun: swarm
Pronouns take the place of nouns.
He loves me. This is mine. Who cares? / do.
Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns.
a hard exercise a noisy class red wine
Conjunctions are joining words.
co-ordinating: fish and chips; naughty but nice;
now or never
subordinating: We trusted him because he was
honest.
She'll accept if you ask her.
Everyone knows that you are doing
your best.
Prepositions show how nouns and pronouns relate to
the rest of the sentence.
Put it in the box. Phone me on Thursday. Give it to
me. Wait by the war memorial. She's the boss o/Tesco.
223

APPENDIX B PARTS OF SPEECH
Interjections are short exclamations.
Hi! Ouch! Hurray! Ugh! Oh! Shh!Hear, hear!
The articles: definite (the}
indefinite (a;an - singular; some -
plural)
224

APPENDIX C - Planning, drafting and proofreading
Planning
Whenever you have an important essay, letter, report or
article to write, it's well worth taking time to work out
in advance exactly what you want to say. Consider also
the response you hope to get from those who read the
finished document and decide on the tone and style
which would be most appropriate.
Next, jot down, as they come into your head, all
the points that you want to include. Don't try to
sort them into any order. Brainstorm. (It's better
to have too much material at this stage than too
little.)
Then, read through these jottings critically,
rejecting any that no longer seem relevant or
helpful.
Group related points together. These will form
the basis of future paragraphs.
Sequence these groups of points into a logical
and persuasive order.
Decide on an effective introduction and
conclusion.
Drafting
Now you are ready to write the first draft.
Concentrate on conveying clearly all that you
want to say, guided by the structure of your
plan.
Choose your words with care. Aim at the right
level of formality or informality.
Put to one side any doubts about spelling,
punctuation, grammar or usage. These can be
checked later. (If you wish, you can pencil
225

APPENDIX C - PLANNING, DRAFTING AND PROOFREADING
queries in the margin, or key in a run of question
marks - ?????.)
When you have finished this first draft, read it
critically, concentrating initially on content. (It
can help to read aloud.) Have you included
everything? Is your meaning always clear? Should
some points be expanded? Should some be
omitted? Have you repeated yourself
unnecessarily?
Read the amended text again, this time checking
that you have maintained the appropriate tone.
Make any adjustments that may be needed.
Examine the paragraphing. Does each paragraph
deal adequately with each topic? Should any
paragraphs be expanded? Should any be divided?
Should the order be changed? Does each
paragraph link easily with the next? Are you
happy with the opening and closing paragraphs?
(Sometimes they work better when they are
reversed.) Should any paragraphs be jettisoned?
Are you happy with the layout and the
presentation?
If you have made a lot of alterations, you may
wish to make a neat copy at this stage. Read
through again, critically, making any adjustments
that you feel necessary. You may find third and
fourth drafts are needed if you are working on a
really important document. Don't begrudge the
time and effort. Much may depend on the
outcome.
Proofreading
When you are happy with the content, style and tone,
you are ready to proofread. Proofreading means
scrutinising the text for spelling, punctuation, grammar,
usage and typographical errors.
226

APPENDIX C - PLANNING, DRAFTING AND PROOFREADING
Make yourself read very slowly. Best of all, read
aloud. Read sentence by sentence, paragraph by
paragraph. Read what is actually there, not what
you meant to write.
Check anything that seems doubtful. Check all
the queries you tentatively raised earlier. Don't
skimp this vital penultimate stage. Don't rely
wholly on a computer spellcheck; it will take you
only so far (and, in some cases, introduce errors
of its own).
If you know you have a particular weakness
(spelling, perhaps, or not marking sentence
boundaries - commas are not substitutes for full
stops!), then devote one read-through exclusively
to this special area.
When you are satisfied that you have made this
important document as good as you possibly can,
you are ready to make the final neat version. If,
in the process, you make any small errors, don't
simply cross them out and don't use correction
fluid. Rewrite. When the last "word is written,
you can be satisfied that you have done your
very best. Good luck!
Note-. If you have a form to fill in, it is well worth
making a few photocopies before you start. Practise
what you want to say on the photocopies. Fit what
you want to say carefully in the space available.
Then complete the original form. It's well worth the
extra time taken.
227

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