2013 Naval E Journal

NAVAL ENGINEERS JOURNAL June 2013 n No. 125-2 n 127
T E C H N I C A L P A P E R
PP keywords
ballast water
sediments
environmental impact
ship construction
pollution and invasive species
BSc. Geert J. Prange and Dr. Newton Narciso Pereira
Ship Ballast Tank Sediment Reduction Methods
ABSTRACT
PP Steel ships constructed after the beginning
of the twentieth century are provided with
tanks for the storage of ballast water (BW).
Together with the water, sediments are also
collected. The solid sediments accumu-
lated in ballast tanks contribute, when
discharged in other locations, as much
as the BW itself, since they contain living
species that are alien to the discharge areas
and are, therefore, likely to contaminate
their new “habitat”. The accumulation of
sediments derives from the obstruction of
the scallops in the tanks’ structures, and
by the non-direction of sediments towards
the BW suction bell. To minimize this
problem, this paper proposes modifica-
tions in the deballasting systems of ships
that can be implemented in either existing
ships or incorporated in new construction.
The proposed alterations ensure the struc-
tural and operational integrity of ships, as
well as facilitating the flow and subsequent
removal of sediments from within the
ballast tanks.
Introduction
As a consequence of the impact caused by the discharge of ballast water (BW) in
various places around the world, several studies are in progress to develop methods
and procedures to control this problem (Bolch and Hallegraeff, 1993; Carlton, 1995;
Endresen et al., 2004). In spite of these numerous studies and attempts to eliminate
the introduction and transfer of invasive (i.e., “exotic”) marine species transported
by ships (Carlton, 1995), in compliance with regulations of the International Mari-
time Organizations (IMO), emphasis has been focused on ballast water treatment in
compliance with these international requirements through the exchange or treat-
ment of ballast water (Carney et al., 2011). Few studies have been conducted on the
organisms that are found in sediment on the bottom of the ballast tanks of ships
(Johengen et al., 2005; Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992).
The types of sediment normally found deposited on the bottom of ballast tanks of
ships are solid substances (sand, silt, clay, et al.). They are admitted with BW during
the ballasting of a ship, along with native species existing in the area of the BW
uptake (National Research Council, 1996).
Therefore, The Non Ballast On Board (NOBOB) ships also present a considerable
risk to the environment, since even a residual amount of BW can allow the survival
of benthic and planktonic organisms on the bottom of tanks (Drake et al., 2005).
Such organisms were the responsible for a series of invasions in both the Chesa-
peake Bay and the Great Lakes in the 1980s, when no effective regulations existed for
residual sediments on the bottom of tanks (Drake et al., 2007).
Conversely, systematic removal of sediments only occurs during mandatory dry
docking. This complies with the Rules and Regulations of the respective Classifica-
tion Societies. The tanks must be empty and totally clean for the inspection of the
internal structure and thickness gauging. In general, tanks are constructed with
metallic components (e.g., plates and profiles), followed by repairs (when needed)
and anti-corrosion treatment. Drake et al. (2005) explain that tens of tons of sedi-
ments are accumulated in the ballast tanks of ships. Johengen et al. (2005) state that
it is possible to find up to 200 tons of sediment on the bottom of merchant vessel
ballast tanks. These authors have examined 103 foreign ships that called at ports of
Canada and the USA between 2000 and 2002, and verified that approximately 68%
of these ships contained residues of ballast in the tanks.

128 n June 2013 n No. 125-2 NAVAL ENGINEERS JOURNAL
It is not uncommon for a layer of sediment in
a ballast tank to reach 10-15 centimeters, which
must be manually removed during dry docking.
This happens normally in tanks that are not easily
accessible, and are subdivided by athwartship
floors and bottom longitudinals. These struc-
tures are called “egg crates” and they lack natural
lighting and ventilation, which makes the clean-
ing process of these tanks slow and difficult. The
consequence is expensive manual labour, since
all residue inside the tanks must be removed
ashore preceding final destination.
For example, a Panamax-type bulk carrier,
with a LOA of 220 m and a breadth of 32.20 m,
contains ballast tanks that encompass a joint area
of about 150 m length by about 30 m width, ren-
dering an area of approximately 4,500 m2
. A layer
of 0.10 m of sediment over this bottom would
result in a mean volume of 450 m3
.
With an estimated average density of 1.5 kg/
dm3
, this sediment would amount to 675 tons.
It creates a habitat for numerous exotic organ-
isms and is transported across oceans, and it
detrimentally affects the full dead weight of the
ship. Naturally, there are logistical problems that
surround the removal of sediment from tanks
during dry docking. For these reasons, sediment
is an enormous problem.
From an economic perspective of maximizing
the ship capacity, the transportation of sediment
over five years not only results in loss of cargo
capacity, but also the loss of tens of thousands of
dollars in freight revenue.
This paper proposes alterations to the current
deballasting system that would minimize the
deposit of sediments. These proposed altera-
tions can be implemented individually, or can be
integrated into existing ships and into the design
and construction of new vessels.
Ballast water tanks and deposit of sediments
The shape and arrangement of ballast tanks has
been the subject of study by various authors for
many years. Parsons and Kotinis (2002) focused
on a typical section of a bulk carrier. These authors
studied the overall shape of the vessel to alter the
arrangement of tanks, which allowed the exchange
of BW as well as the removal of sediments from
within the tanks. This developed system was called
Ballast-Free. Although this system has been proven
efficient, it is not applicable to all types of vessels.
New methods can be used in the design of new
ships to minimize the accumulation of sediment,
and to increase management and treatment
options for a higher level of efficiency. For exist-
ing ships, adaptations or modifications of piping
and equipment would be necessary (Taylor and
Rigby, 2001).
Resolution MEPC.150 (55) of the Marine
Environment Protection Committee (MEPC-
2006) supplies directives for design and con-
struction that facilitate the control of sediment,
and give some parameters for the construction of
ballast tanks that minimize the accumulation of
sediment on the bottom of ballast water tanks.
The National Academy of Sciences (1996)
performed a study on ballast water, addressing such
topics as the transportation of species inside the
ballast tanks of ships and the processes and projects
of ships’ tanks, focussing on the control of BW.
It is not unusual to find 5 cm of residual water
on the bottom of tanks after a deballasting opera-
tion (Stocks, 2002). Together with the water that
remains inside a tank, the presence of accumulated
sediments is confirmed after every voyage. In the
National Academy study, the author evaluated the
use of using sodium hypochlorite inside the tank
to eliminate the presence of microorganisms in the
sediment. However, the author verified that the
sediment inside the tank might inhibit the applica-
tion of the treatment, since the sediment itself
prevents the elimination of the microorganisms
that are located below the deposits.
Therefore, it is evident that treatment alterna-
tives for the accumulation of sediments inside bal-
last tanks need to be further explored. This paper
presents slight modifications in the arrangement
of ballast water tanks that may reduce the accu-
mulation of sediments inside those tanks, with no
impact on the structural resistance of the ship.
Ballast Water Tanks
The vast majority of ballast tanks of merchant
ships belong, normally, to three main categories:
a) Collision Tanks, b) Side Tanks, and c) Double
Bottom Tanks (DBT). Collision Tanks are located
at the extremities of the hull (bows and stern), and
possess configurations that taper down toward the
keel of the ship, with intermediate structures of
non-integral platforms that allow the concentrated
draining of sediment toward the bottom of the
tank, where they can be easily removed.

Side Tanks, especially in tanker ships, are
situated vertically between cargo tanks (or
holds) and the side shells, located symmetrically,
extend from the bottom of the structure up to the
exposed (strength) deck. Their cavernous size
allows easy cleaning.
Double Bottom Tanks (DBTs) are situated
between the bottom of the cargo holds (tank-
tops) and the bottom plating of the ship, varying
in height between 1.6 m and 1.9 m.
Structurally, there are significant differences
amongst the three types of tanks, as a result of the
function that each type has to carry out during the
lifespan of the vessel. On one hand, the Colli-
sion Tanks situated at the extremities of the ship
contain structures that are specially reinforced to
sustain frontal impacts, either from the sea itself
or from another ship. The Side Tanks, notably
the “designated tanks” (solely employed for BW),
are fitted with well-spaced web-frames to absorb
lateral impacts, therefore establishing the so-called
“double hull” now required for all new tankers.
Double Bottom Tanks, however, especially in
dry cargo ships (e.g., bulk carriers and general
cargo ships), are meant to support and distribute
the weight of the cargo loaded into the holds
above them. It is not uncommon for the weight
loaded into the hold of a bulk carrier to exceed the
weight of 10,000 tons, exerting a pressure in excess
of 10-ton/m2
on the structure of the adjacent DBT.
As a consequence, the internal structure of a DBT
is constructed of many components, across and
lengthwise which, after being united, result in an
“egg crate” configuration within a frame spacing
that normally is not in excess of 1.0 m.
In the case of all three types of tanks, joint-
ing of structural components is performed by
electric welding (MIG, TIG, slag), as opposed to
ancient ships in which the jointing was carried
out by riveting. This newer system avoids the
concentration of residual tensions during weld-
ing in the so-called “hard spots”. Small apertures
opened in the upper and lower corners of the
used profiles in the shape of quarter circles (i.e.,
“scallops”), prevent the meeting of several weld-
ing seams at any one point.
These apertures normally possess a radius of 5
cm (2"), sufficient to allow a weld fillet to return to
the opposite side of the same metallic profile with-
out connecting to the other welds of the jointed
profiles. Figure 1 demonstrates a use of scallops in
the joining of athwartship floors to bottom longi-
tudinals on the bottom plates of a tank.
These small apertures were originally con-
ceived to allow the flow-to-aft of BW, toward its
removal by the ship’s ballast pumps located in the
engine room. These openings, however, are soon
obstructed by sediment contained in the tank, as
well as by the rust scales that are produced over
the time by the steel construction and ballast
piping when not regularly treated. Consequently,
the sediment cannot be carried aft by BW
when drained at the aft end of a tank, since the
apertures are either too small or are obstructed.
As result, the natural sediment in the BW is not
eliminated from the tank, with the corresponding
expenses and problems already outlined.
Proposal of change in the tanks
We propose the following solution to the mat-
ter of sediment retention on board with minor
alterations in the structural design of new ships,
which can also be made on existing ships. We
developed three alternatives to changes of tanks.
Figure 1. Schematic of typical scallops.

ALTERNATIVE 1
As a solution to the matter of sediment retention,
the following minor alterations are proposed in
the structural design of new ships, which can also
be made on existing ships:
a) The increase of the radius of the scallops
from 5 cm to 7.5 cm at the joining of the
several profiles.
b) The opening of additional scallops along the
lower edges of the transverse elements of the
bottom structure, in the shape of half moons,
with the same radius of 7.5 cm, in a spacing
not greater than 1.5 m between adjacent
scallops, as demonstrated in Figure 2.
c) The opening of identical scallops on the lower
edges of longitudinal profiles, at the rate of
one scallop for each frame space.
d) Installation of water jets against the bottom of
the tanks, for the stirring of the accumulated
sediments on the bottoms.
In this proposed system, only a very small
reduction will occur in the Section Modulus of
the ships, either longitudinally or athwart ships,
easily accomplished when the Scantling Plan of
the ship is prepared.
It must be noted that the scantlings of the
intended metallic profiles already predict a reduc-
tion in the original thickness that may reach up to
20%, depending upon the region in the hull. This
permitted thickness reduction is, in fact, much
greater than the reduction in strength imposed
by the opening of the additional scallops.
It is worth mentioning, at this point, that the
structural elements of a DBT are also systemati-
cally fitted with lightening holes (openings of
elliptic shape with average size of 600 mm by 400
mm). These elements are designed for the passage
of people during construction as well as through-
out the life cycle of the ship, and also decrease the
rigidity of the aforementioned elements. If care
is taken to not place the proposed new scallops
immediately below the lightening holes, the rigid-
ity of the structural element remains integral.
ALTERNATIVE 2: MODIFICATION OF THE
DEBALLASTING SYSTEM
The most commonly used deballasting system,
employed around the world, is based upon the
fitting of one suction mouth close to the bot-
tom plates at the aft end of the tank, as close as
possible to the ship’s centerline, and connects
to the ballast pump in the engine room through
a manifold. This suction mouth, in the shape
of a bell, is located above a striking plate (disk),
welded against the bottom plating as protection
against erosion and/or corrosion during the
pumping operations.
The operation of deballasting a ship is nor-
mally carried out from fore to aft of the ballast
tanks, thus obtaining a trim-by-stern of the ship,
favouring the flow of the BW towards the suction
bells, and allowing an almost complete “strip-
ping” of the tanks.
Notwithstanding, as result of the eventual
obstruction of the small scallops in the struc-
ture of the DBT, sediment contained within a
tank can not find a clear path to be dragged and
drained to aft, remaining confined in the various
pockets of the “egg crate”.
This modification recommends that the ballast
piping inside a DBT be subdivided into branches
Figure 2. Schematic change in section of DB tank.

that reach each and every interval between
adjacent bottom longitudinals. All are connected
to the same main suction line, and terminate
in suction mouths that resemble the mouth of
a vacuum cleaner (rectangular and wide) close
to the bottom of the tank. Figure 3 shows an
example of this application.
Therefore, with the opening of scallops on the
lower edges of the structural elements of a DBT
and with the suggested branching-out of the
suction piping, it is extremely likely that the sedi-
ment on the bottom of a DBT will be eliminated
during deballasting operations.
ALTERNATIVE 3: INJECTION OF WATER AGAINST
THE BOTTOM OF TANKS
Although the aforementioned proposed altera-
tions may result in a substantial increase in the
efficiency of eliminating sediment existing in
ballast tanks, it must be stressed that the manda-
tory cleaning and removal of sediment is only
carried out at five-year intervals. This means that,
basically, the clayish sediment will have had a
long period to agglutinate and compact against
the bottom plating of the tanks.
Like a hydraulic cannon normally found
assembled in suction dredges, the compacted
layer of sediment could be stirred and agitated
by using a piping system provided with sprinkler
nozzles directed against the bottom plates at each
frame spacing interval.
This suggested system should be employed on
every deballasting operation for more efficient
sediment removal, and employed until air is
sucked into the suction bell of the deballasting
system. It is suggested that the proposed piping
system be 3" in diameter, with a working pressure
of not less that 3 kg/cm2
.
Discussion
These presented alternatives to traditional ballast-
ing methods would reduce the deposit of sediment
within ballast tanks of ships without compromis-
ing operation or safety. The amount of sediment
could be reduced with an increase in the diameter
and number of scallops. Although this increase in
scallop diameter is only 50% when compared to
the current size, it would allow the flow of BW to
carry the sediment from tank to aft during debal-
lasting operations more efficiently. With more
scallops distributed along the same sections, the
flow of BW would increase and, consequently, the
amount of sediment removed during the deballast-
ing operation would also increase. These proposed
alterations would not alter the resistance of the
structural elements of the ship.
Distribution of an auxiliary deballasting piping
system within the tanks would allow a greater
collection capacity of the sediment deposited
inside the tanks. The conventionally used central
piping system concentrates only on the collec-
tion operation of the sediment.
Figure 3. Schematic of ballast water system change.

The injection of water against the bottom of a
tank tends to stir upward the accumulated sediment
on the bottom of the tank during a deballasting
operation. Therefore, the sediment is in suspension
and is mixed with the water, and is therefore sucked
by the discharge bell along with BW. On the other
hand, the suspension of sediments in the ballast
water during the deballasting operation could affect
the efficiency of the ballast water treatment. Treat-
ment based on UV radiation is very sensitive to the
presence of suspended sediment since this alters UV
efficiency (Mebashi, 2004). In this sense, the pro-
posed agitation tends to be most feasible during the
ballast exchange operation in open sea, because this
would not compromise the efficiency of treatment
for the elimination of exotic species.
If the proposed alterations were jointly imple-
mented, there would be a greater efficiency in the
discharge ballasting system of water and sediment.
For new ships (new construction), the number of
scallops and their size are currently defined by a
computer-aided design program and manufacturer
(CAD-CAM), and could be altered with virtually
little or no additional construction costs, since this
work is performed by machine. For the fitting of
more enlarged scallops in existing ships, the work
could be carried out during a scheduled dry dock-
ing, employing small templates for use by shipyard
labourers after the required cleaning of the DB
tanks and prior to the surface treatment of the steel
profiles. The additional scallops and the increased
size of the scallops at the jointing of bottom
profiles would not alter or invalidate class require-
ments for the applicable welding procedures.
This work could be completed within 2-3 days,
and would not substantially increase the total cost
of docking a ship, which normally lasts for about
two weeks if no other major repairs are scheduled.
Therefore, the cost could be diluted into the total
cost, and would have a positive environmental
impact as well.
From an operational perspective, the transport
of sediment becomes accompanying fauna, and as
such it impacts the cargo capacity of the vessel and
creates unnecessary problems for the cleaning of
tanks during dry docking.
For future research work, the authors are develop-
ing a computer simulation model using Moving
Particle Semi-implicit (MPS) (Pan et al., 2008; Arai
and Cheng, 2004). This MPS model will assess
the impact of the proposed scallops’ increasing
number and diameter against the residual volume of
sediment at the tank bottom. The MPS allows the
separation of the particles of water and the sedi-
ment. Thus, it would be possible to verify the BW
and sediment residual volume in the tank after it has
been deballasted. Moreover, it would be possible
to evaluate the fluid flow through the scallops. This
would allow the calculation of the optimal number
of scallops needed to minimize sediment deposit in
the BW tanks.
Ship designers should focus more on new systems
that are more efficient for the removal of sediment
from within ballast tanks. Lately, many studies have
been focused on the development of BW treatment
systems for the elimination of exotic species trans-
ported on ships, but these systems do not address
the removal of sediment from ballast tanks.
Final considerations
Since a dry cargo vessel, as well as a tanker, needs
to eliminate BW before or during loading opera-
tions, several or many times per year, the elimi-
nation of sediment from ballast tanks could be
carried out systematically at every mandatory
exchange of BW in ocean waters (IMO – MEPC-
868/A), instead of only during the statutory dry
docking of the vessels.
Another important consideration in doing so is
that ships transport sediment within ballast tanks
unintentionally through the course of years, creat-
ing columns of sediments that may reach 30 cm
(Hamer et al., 2001). These proposed alterations
would significantly reduce this highly-polluting
material. The accumulation of bacteria and viruses
inside the sediment can effect BW treatment,
mainly in the treatment systems that are applied
during deballasting operations.
Finally, this paper presents simple modifica-
tions in ballast tanks that would result in a positive
impact in the reduction of sediment. Further
laboratory, or even on real scale studies that can
be implemented on docked ships, are needed.
Once original configurations are updated, they
will require continuous assessment to evaluate the
efficacy of the proposed method.
This paper has attempted to start a precedent for
new alternatives to be tested based on our propos-
als. The intention is to demonstrate that simple
and inexpensive solutions can efficiently improve
the management of sediment on ships.

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Author biographies
Geert J. Prange graduated in Naval Engineering
at the Polytechnic College of the University of São
Paulo in 1965, traveling to Holland in April 1966 for a
job as a trainee in Dutch shipyard SMS, specializing
in dredging equipment, and returned to Brazil in
November 1967.
He settled in harbor city of Paranaguá, State of
Paraná (South Brazil) in the same year, and engaged
for 9 years in dredging activities of port expansion
and urban land reclaiming projects for Brazilian
contractors, until January 1976.
In 1976, he shifted to activities as an independent
marine surveyor, having gradually been appointed
as a non-exclusive surveyor for international
classification societies, amongst which were ABS, BV,
DNV, GL, and NKK, and he acted as a case-by-case
surveyor for various PI Clubs.
In later years, he received appointments as
Flag State Surveyor for Maritime Administrations
of Cyprus, Liberia, and Malta, as well as an
appointment as Maritime Incident Inspector
for Panama. He was given the title of Honorary
Citizen in 2009 from the city of Paranaguá, and
is the bearer of the Order of Naval Merit, in the
grade of Knight, since June 2010, which is the highest
decoration from the Brazilian Navy, apart from
previous decorations from same the armed force,
which include the medals “Amigo da Marinha”
(Navy Friend), and “Mérito Tamandaré”.
He speaks and writes fluently in Dutch, Portuguese,
English, and Spanish, and is moderately versed in
German and French. During his professional career,
he has surveyed more than 4,000 ocean-going ships.
NewtonNarcisoPereira is the Senior
Researcher of Innovation Centre of Logistics and Ports
Infrastructure at the Department of Naval Architecture
and Oceanic Engineering, School of Engineering -
University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil.
He has a Ph.D. degree in Naval Engineering from
USP about Ballast Water Onshore Treatment. He
is been doing a post-doctoral in remote monitoring
of ballast water inside of ballast water tank at USP.
His main research areas are port operation, maritime
transportation, and environment impact. For long time,
he has been developing several research projects with
great port companies in Brazil.

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