3ech05lecture 140425161252-phpapp01

psychology
CHAPTER
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
third edition
learning
5

Learning Objectives
• LO 5.1Learning
• LO 5.2Classical conditioning
• LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
• LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
• LO 5.5Important concepts in operant conditioning
• LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement
• LO 5.7 How does punishment differ from reinforcement
• LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment
• LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
• LO 5.10Behavior modification
• LO 5.11Cognitive learning theory
• LO 5.12Observational learning
• LO 5.13 Real world example of use of conditioning

What is Learning?
• Learning – any relatively permanent
change in behavior brought about by
experience or practice.
– When people learn anything, some part of
their brain is physically changed to record
what they have learned.
– Any kind of change in the way an organism
behaves is learning.
LO 5.1 Learning

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist
(person who studies the workings of the
body) who discovered classical
conditioning through his work on digestion
in dogs.
• Classical conditioning - learning to make a
reflex response to a stimulus other than
the original, natural stimulus that normally
produces the reflex.
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning

Classical Conditioning Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a naturally
occurring stimulus that leads to an
involuntary response.
– Unconditioned means "unlearned" or
"naturally occurring."
• Unconditioned response (UCR) - an
involuntary response to a naturally
occurring or unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus that
becomes able to produce a learned reflex
response by being paired with the original
unconditioned stimulus.
– Conditioned means "learned."
– A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned
stimulus when paired with an unconditioned
stimulus.

• Conditioned response (CR) - learned
reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.
– Sometimes called a conditioned reflex.
– CS – ice cream truck
– CR – salivation when hear ice cream truck
bell

Classical Conditioning
UCS
Loud Noise
UCR
Startle
CS
Bunny Rabbit
UCS
Loud Noise
UCR
Startle
CS
Bunny Rabbit
CR
Startle

UCS
Dog Bite
UCR
Frightened
CS
Sight of Dog
UCS
Dog Bite
UCR
Frightened
CS
Sight of Dog
CR
Frightened

UCS
Car Crash
UCR
Racing Heart
CS
Squealing
Brakes
UCS
Car Crash
UCR
Racing Heart
CS
Squealing
Brakes
CR
Racing Heart

UCS
Kiss
UCR
Racing Heart
CS
Sight of Significant
Other
UCS
Kiss
UCR
Racing Heart
CS
Sight of
Significant Other
CR
Racing Heart

Figure 5.1 Classical Conditioning
Before conditioning takes place, the sound of the metronome does not cause salivation and is a neutral stimulus, or
NS. During conditioning, the sound of the metronome occurs just before the presentation of the food, the UCS. The
food causes salivation, the UCR. When conditioning has occurred after several pairings of the metronome with the
food, the metronome will begin to elicit a salivation response from the dog without any food. This is learning, and the
sound of the metronome is now a CS and the salivation to the bell is the CR.

• Acquisition - the repeated pairing of the
NS and the UCS; the organism is in the
process of acquiring learning.
– Although classical conditioning
– happens quite easily, there are a
– few basic principles that researchers
– have discovered:

• The CS must come before the UCS.
• The CS and UCS must come very close
together in time—ideally, only several
seconds apart.
• The neutral stimulus must be paired with
the UCS several times, often many times,
before conditioning can take place.

• The CS is usually some stimulus that is
distinctive or stands out from other
competing stimuli.
• Stimulus generalization - the tendency to
respond to a stimulus that is only similar to
the original conditioned stimulus with the
conditioned response.

• Stimulus discrimination - the tendency to
stop making a generalized response to a
stimulus that is similar to the original
conditioned stimulus because the similar
stimulus is never paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.

• Extinction - the disappearance or
weakening of a learned response following
the removal or absence of the
unconditioned stimulus (in classical
conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer
(in operant conditioning).

Figure 5.2 Strength of the Generalized Response
An example of stimulus generalization. The UCS was an electric shock and the UCR was the galvanic skin response
(GSR), a measure associated with anxiety. The subjects had been conditioned originally to a CS tone (0) of a given
frequency. When tested with the original tone, and with tones 1, 2, and 3 of differing frequencies, a clear generalization
effect appeared. The closer the frequency of the test tone to the frequency of tone 0, the greater was the magnitude of
the galvanic skin response to the tone (Hovland, 19 3 7 ).

Figure 5.3 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
This graph shows the acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and reacquisition of a conditioned salivary
response. Typically, the measure of conditioning is the number of drops of saliva elicited by the CS on each trial. Note
that on the day following extinction, the first presentation of the CS elicits quite a large response.

• Reinforcer - any event or object that, when
following a response, increases the
likelihood of that response occurring
again.
• Spontaneous recovery – the
reappearance of a learned response after
extinction has occurred.
– Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavior.

• Higher-order conditioning - occurs when a
strong conditioned stimulus is paired with
a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral
stimulus to become a second conditioned
stimulus.

Conditioned Emotional Response
• Conditioned emotional response (CER) -
emotional response that has become
classically conditioned to occur to learned
stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the
emotional reaction that occurs when
seeing an attractive person.
– CERs may lead to phobias – irrational fear
responses.
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response

Figure 5.5 Conditioning of “Little Albert”
After “Little Albert” had been conditioned to fear a white rat, he also demonstrated fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a
sealskin coat (although it remains uncertain if stimulus generalization actually occurred as this fear was to a single
rabbit, a single dog, etc.). Can you think of any emotional reactions you experience that might be classically
conditioned emotional responses?

Taste Aversion
• Vicarious conditioning - classical
conditioning of a reflex response or
emotion by watching the reaction of
another person.
• Conditioned taste aversion - development
of a nausea or aversive response to a
particular taste because that taste was
followed by a nausea reaction, occurring
after only one association.

Taste Aversion
• Biological preparedness - the tendency of
animals to learn certain associations, such
as taste and nausea, with only one or few
pairings due to the survival value of the
learning.

Why Classical Conditioning Works
• Stimulus substitution - original theory in
which Pavlov stated that classical
conditioning occurred because the
conditioned stimulus became a substitute
for the unconditioned stimulus by being
paired closely together.

Why Classical Conditioning Works
• Cognitive perspective - modern theory in
which classical conditioning is seen to
occur because the conditioned stimulus
provides information or an expectancy
about the coming of the unconditioned
stimulus.

Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning - the learning of
voluntary behavior through the effects of
pleasant and unpleasant consequences to
responses.
LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner

Operant Conditioning
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect - law stating that
if a response is followed by a pleasurable
consequence, it will tend to be repeated,
and if followed by an unpleasant
consequence, it will tend not to be
repeated.

Skinner’s Contribution
• Behaviorist; wanted to study only
observable, measurable behavior.
• Gave "operant conditioning" its name.
– Operant - any behavior that is voluntary.
• Learning depends on what happens after
the response — the consequence.

Figure 5.7 A Typical Skinner Box
This rat is learning to press the bar in the wall of the cage in order to get food (delivered a few pellets at a time in the
food trough on lower left). In some cases, the light on the top left might be turned on to indicate that pressing the bar
will lead to food or to warn of an impending shock delivered by the grate on the floor of the cage.

Reinforcement
• Reinforcement - any event or stimulus,
that when following a response, increases
the probability that the response will occur
again.
– Primary reinforcer - any reinforcer that is
naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic
biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or
touch.

Reinforcement
• Reinforcement - any event or stimulus,
that when following a response, increases
the probability that the response will occur
again.
– Secondary reinforcer - any reinforcer that
becomes reinforcing after being paired with a
primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or
gold stars.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement - the reinforcement
of a response by the addition or
experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus.
• Negative reinforcement - the
reinforcement of a response by the
removal, escape from, or avoidance of an
unpleasant stimulus.
– Example: Taking aspirin for a headache is
negatively reinforced – removal of headache!
LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning

Shaping
• Shaping - the reinforcement of simple
steps in behavior that lead to a desired,
more complex behavior.
– Successive approximations - small steps in
behavior, one after the other, that lead to a
particular goal behavior.

Other Classical Conditioning Concepts
• Extinction – occurs if the behavior
(response) is not reinforced.
• Operantly conditioned responses also can
be generalized to stimuli that are only
similar to the original stimulus.

Other Classical Conditioning Concepts
• Spontaneous recovery (reoccurrence of a
once extinguished response) also
happens in operant conditioning.
– One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum
is to ignore it. The lack of reinforcement for
the tantrum behavior will eventually result in
extinction.

Schedules of Reinforcement
• Partial reinforcement effect - the tendency
for a response that is reinforced after
some, but not all, correct responses to be
very resistant to extinction.
• Continuous reinforcement - the
reinforcement of each and every correct
response.
LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement

• Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement -
schedule of reinforcement in which the
number of responses required for
reinforcement is always the same.
• Variable interval schedule of
reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement
in which the interval of time that must pass
before reinforcement becomes possible is
different for each trial or event.

• Fixed interval schedule - of reinforcement
interval of time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible is always
the same.

• Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement -
number of responses required for
reinforcement is different for each trial or
event.

Figure 5.8 Schedules of Reinforcement
These four graphs show the typical pattern of responding for both fixed and variable interval and ratio schedules of
reinforcement. The responses are cumulative, which means new responses are added to those that come before, and
all graphs begin after the learned pattern is well established. Slash marks mean that a reinforcement has been given.
In
both the fixed interval and fixed ratio graphs, there is a pause after each reinforcement as the learner briefly “rests.”
The “scalloped” shape of the fixed interval curve is a typical indicator of this pause, as is the stair-step shape of the
fixed ratio curve. In the variable interval and ratio schedules, no such pause occurs, because the reinforcements are
unpredictable. Notice that both fixed and variable interval schedules are slower (less steep) than the two ratio
schedules because of the need to respond as quickly as possible in the ratio schedules.

Punishment
• Punishment - any event or object that,
when following a response, makes that
response less likely to happen again.
• Punishment by application - the
punishment of a response by the addition
or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus.
• Punishment by removal - the punishment
of a response by the removal of a
pleasurable stimulus.
LO 5.7 How does punishment differ from reinforcement

Punishment has several drawbacks.
• Severe punishment my cause avoidance
of the punisher instead of the behavior
being punished
• Severe punishment may encourage lying
to avoid punishment
• Severe punishment creates fear and
anxiety
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment

How to Make Punishment More Effective
• Punishment should immediately follow the
behavior it is meant to punish.
• Punishment should be consistent.
• Punishment of the wrong behavior should
be paired, whenever possible, with
reinforcement of the right behavior.
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment

Operant Stimuli and Stimulus Control
• Discriminative stimulus - any stimulus,
such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that
provides the organism with a cue for
making a certain response in order to
obtain reinforcement.
• Shaping – the reinforcement of simple
steps that leads to a desired complex
behavior
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior

Operant Stimuli and Stimulus Control
• Successive approximations – small steps,
one after another that lead to a particular
goal behavior

Behavior Resistant to Conditioning
• Instinctive drift - tendency for an animal’s
behavior to revert to genetically controlled
patterns.
– Each animal comes into the world (and the
laboratory) with certain genetically determined
instinctive patterns of behavior already in
place.
– These instincts differ from species to species.

• Instinctive drift - tendency for an animal’s
behavior to revert to genetically controlled
patterns.
– There are some responses that simply cannot
be trained into an animal regardless of
conditioning.

• Raccoons commonly dunk their food in
aand out of water before eating. This
"washing" behavior is controlled by instinct
and difficult to change even using operant
techniques.

Behavior Modification
• Behavior modification - the use of operant
conditioning techniques to bring about
desired changes in behavior.
• Token economy - type of behavior
modification in which desired behavior is
rewarded with tokens.
LO 5.10 Behavior modification

• Time-out - a form of mild punishment by
removal in which a misbehaving animal,
child, or adult is placed in a special area
away from the attention of others.
– Essentially, the organism is being "removed"
from any possibility of positive reinforcement
in the form of attention.

• Applied behavior analysis (ABA) – modern
term for a form of behavior modification
that uses shaping techniques to mold a
desired behavior or response.

Biofeedback and Neurofeedback
• Biofeedback- the use of feedback about
biological conditions to bring involuntary
responses such as blood pressure and
relaxation under voluntary control.
• Neurofeedback - form of biofeedback
using brainscanning devices (fMRI) to
provide feedback about brain activity in an
effort to modify behavior.

Cognitive Learning Theory
• Early days of learning – focus was on
behavior.
• 1950s and more intensely in the 1960s,
many psychologists were becoming aware
that cognition, the mental events that take
place inside a person’s mind while
behaving, could no longer be ignored.
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory

Latent Learning
• Edward Tolman – early cognitive scientist.
– Edward Tolman’s best-known experiments in
learning involved teaching three groups of
rats the same maze, one at a time (Tolman &
Honzik, 1930b).

Latent Learning
– Group 1 – rewarded each time at end of
maze.
 Learned maze quickly.
– Group 2 – in maze every day; only rewarded
on 10th day.
 Demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately
after receiving reward.
– Group 3 – never rewarded.
 Did not learn maze well.

Latent Learning
– Latent learning - learning that remains hidden
until its application becomes useful.

Figure 5.9 A Typical Maze
This is an example of a maze such as the one used in Tolman’s experiments in latent learning. A rat is placed in the
start box. The trial is over when the rat gets to the end box.

Figure 5.10 Learning Curves for Three Groups of Rats
In the results of the classic study of latent learning, Group 1 was rewarded on each day, while Group 2 was rewarded
for the first time on Day 11. Group 3 was never rewarded. Note the immediate change in the behavior of Group 2 on
Day 12 (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Insight - Kohler
• Insight - the sudden perception of
relationships among various parts of a
problem, allowing the solution to the
problem to come quickly.
– Cannot be gained through trial-and-error
learning alone.
– "Aha" moment.

Learned Helplessness - Seligman
• Learned helplessness - the tendency to
fail to act to escape from a situation
because of a history of repeated failures in
the past.

Figure 5.11 Seligman’s Apparatus
In Seligman’s studies of learned helplessness, dogs were placed in a two-sided box. Dogs that had no prior experience
with being unable to escape a shock would quickly jump over the hurdle in the center of the box to land on the “safe”
side. Dogs that had previously learned that escape was impossible would stay on the side of the box in which the
shock occurred, not even trying to go over the hurdle.

Observational Learning - Bandura
• Observational learning - learning new
behavior by watching a model perform that
behavior.
• Learning/performance distinction -
referring to the observation that learning
can take place without actual performance
of the learned behavior.
LO 5.12 Observational learning

Figure 5.12 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
In Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment, the doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observing an adult
model performing aggressive behavior on the later aggressive behavior of children. The children in these photos are
imitating the adult model’s behavior even though they believe they are alone and are not being watched.

Four Elements of Observational
Learning
• ATTENTION
– To learn anything through observation, the
learner must first pay attention to the model.
• MEMORY
– The learner must also be able to retain the
memory of what was done, such as
remembering the steps in preparing a dish
that was first seen on a cooking show.

Four Elements of Observational
Learning
• IMITATION
– The learner must be capable of reproducing,
or imitating, the actions of the model.
• MOTIVATION
– Finally, the learner must have the desire to
perform the action.
– (An easy way to remember the four elements
of modeling is to remember the letters AMIM,
which stands for the first letters of each of the
four elements).

Real World Example
• Training a cat to use the toilet will involve:
– Shaping.
– Preparing "the training arena."
– Positive reinforcement on a variable schedule.
LO 5.13 Real world example use of conditioning

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