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psychology
CHAPTER
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
third edition
motivation and
emotion
9

Learning Objective Menu
• LO 9.1Instinct and drive-reduction approaches motivation
• LO 9.2Three types of needs
• LO 9.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation
• LO 9.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• LO 9.5 Bodily causes of hunger and social factors influencing hunger
• LO 9.6 Some problems in eating behavior
• LO 9.7 Three elements of emotion
• LO 9.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion
• LO 9.9Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and Cognitive-mediatio

Motivation
• Motivation - the process by which activities
are started, directed, and continued so
that physical or psychological needs or
wants are met.
• Extrinsic motivation - type of motivation in
which a person performs an action
because it leads to an outcome that is
separate from or external to the person.
LO 9.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation

Instinct Approaches to Motivation
• Instincts - the biologically determined and
innate patterns of behavior that exist in
both people and animals.
• Instinct approach - approach to motivation
that assumes people are governed by
instincts similar to those of animals.

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
• Need - a requirement of some material
(such as food or water) that is essential for
survival of the organism.
• Drive - a psychological tension and
physical arousal arising when there is a
need that motivates the organism to act in
order to fulfill the need and reduce the
tension.

• Drive-reduction theory - approach to
motivation that assumes behavior arises
from physiological needs that cause
internal drives to push the organism to
satisfy the need and reduce tension and
arousal.
• Primary drives - those drives that involve
needs of the body such as hunger and
thirst.

• Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives
that are learned through experience or
conditioning, such as the need for money
or social approval.
• Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to
maintain a steady state.

Figure 9.1 Homeostasis
In homeostasis, the body maintains balance in the body’s physical states. For example, this diagram shows how
increased hunger (a state of imbalance) prompts a person to eat. Eating increases the level of glucose (blood sugar),
causing the feelings of hunger to reduce. After a period without eating, the glucose levels become low enough to
stimulate the hunger drive once again, and the entire cycle is repeated.

Three Types of Needs
• Need for achievement (nAch) - a need
that involves a strong desire to succeed in
attaining goals, not only realistic ones but
also challenging ones.
• Need for affiliation (nAff) - the need for
friendly social interactions and
relationships with others.
• Need for power (nPow) - the need to have
control or influence over others.
LO 9.2 Three types of needs

Arousal Approach to Motivation
• Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to
be unlearned but causes an increase in
stimulation, such as curiosity.
• Arousal theory - theory of motivation in
which people are said to have an optimal
(best or ideal) level of tension that they
seek to maintain by increasing or
decreasing stimulation.
LO 9.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation

• Yerkes-Dodson law - law stating
performance is related to arousal;
moderate levels of arousal lead to better
performance than do levels of arousal that
are too low or too high.
– This effect varies with the difficulty of the task:
easy tasks require a high-moderate level
while more difficult tasks require a low-
moderate level.

• Sensation seeker - someone who needs
more arousal than the average person.

Figure 9.2 Arousal and Performance
The optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on the difficulty of the task. We generally perform easy
tasks well if we are at a high–moderate level of arousal (green) and accomplish difficult tasks well if we are at a low–
moderate level (red).

Incentive Approaches to Motivation
• Incentives - things that attract or lure
people into action.
• Incentive approaches - theories of
motivation in which behavior is explained
as a response to the external stimulus and
its rewarding properties.

Incentive Approaches to Motivation
• Expectancy-value theories - incentive
theories that assume the actions of
humans cannot be predicted or fully
understood without understanding the
beliefs, values, and the importance that a
person attaches to those beliefs and
values at any given moment in time.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Self-actualization - according to Maslow,
the point that is seldom reached at which
people have sufficiently satisfied the lower
needs and achieved their full human
potential.
• Peak experiences- according to Maslow,
times in a person’s life during which
selfactualization is temporarily achieved.
LO 9.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Figure 9.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic needs, such as physical and security needs, before
being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence.

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation
• Self-determination theory (SDT) - theory of
human motivation in which the social
context of an action has an effect on the
type of motivation existing for the action.
• Intrinsic motivation - type of motivation in
which a person performs an action
because the act itself is rewarding or
satisfying in some internal manner.
LO 9.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Hunger: Bodily Causes
• Insulin - a hormone secreted by the
pancreas to control the levels of fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by
reducing the level of glucose in the
bloodstream.
LO 9.5 Bodily causes of hunger and social factors

• Glucagons- hormones that are secreted
by the pancreas to control the levels of
fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the
body by increasing the level of glucose in
the bloodstream.
• Weight set point – the particular level of
weight that the body tries to maintain.

• Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - the rate at
which the body burns energy when the
organism is resting.

Hunger: Social Causes
• Social cues for when meals are to be
eaten.
• Cultural customs.
• Food preferences.
• Use of food as a comfort device or escape
from unpleasantness.

Hunger: Social Causes
• Some people may respond to the
anticipation of eating by producing an
insulin response, increasing the risk of
obesity.

Eating Problems
• Obesity
– A condition in which the body weight of a
person is 20 percent or more over the ideal
body weight for that person’s height (actual
percents vary across definitions).
• Anorexia nervosa
– A condition in which a person reduces eating
to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent
below the ideal body weight or more occurs.
LO 9.6 Some problems in eating behavior

Figure 9.4 Obese Laboratory Rat
This rat has reached a high level of obesity because its ventromedial hypothalamus has been deliberately damaged in
the laboratory. The result is a rat that no longer receives signals of being satiated, and so the rat continues to eat and
eat and eat.

Eating Problems
• Bulimia
– A condition in which a person develops a
cycle of "binging" or overeating enormous
amounts of food at one sitting, and "purging"
or deliberately vomiting after eating.

Biological Factors of Eating Problems
• Leptin - a hormone that, when released
into the bloodstream, signals the
hypothalamus that the body has had
enough food and reduces the appetite
while increasing the feeling of being full.
– Role of leptin in obesity.
– Genetics and obesity.
• Genetics may play a part in anorexia and
bulimia, as well as insensitivity to leptin.

Elements of Emotion
• Emotion - the "feeling" aspect of
consciousness, characterized by a certain
physical arousal, a certain behavior that
reveals the emotion to the outside world,
and an inner awareness of feelings.
• Display rules - learned ways of controlling
displays of emotion in social settings.
LO 9.7 Three elements of emotion

Figure 9.5 Facial Expressions of Emotion
Facial expressions appear to be universal. For example, these faces are consistently interpreted as showing (a) anger,
(b) fear, (c) disgust, (d) happiness, (e) surprise, and (f) sadness by people of various cultures from all over the world.
Although the situations that cause these emotions may differ from culture to culture, the expression of particular
emotions remains strikingly the same.

Common Sense Theory of Emotion
• Common Sense Theory of Emotion - a
stimulus leads to an emotion, which then
leads to bodily arousal.
LO 9.7 Three elements of emotion

Figure 9.6 Common Sense Theory of Emotion
In the common sense theory of emotion, a stimulus (snarling dog) leads to an emotion of fear, which then leads to
bodily arousal (in this case, indicated by shaking) through the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

James-Lange Theory of Emotion
• James-Lange theory of emotion - theory in
which a physiological reaction leads to the
labeling of an emotion.
LO 9.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion

Figure 9.7 James-Lange Theory of Emotion
In the James-Lange theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
• Cannon-Bard theory of emotion - theory in
which the physiological reaction and the
emotion are assumed to occur at the
same time.
LO 9.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion

Figure 9.8 Cannon-Bard Theory of Stimulus First response Second response Emotion
In the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which then sends signals to arouse the
body and interpret the emotion at the same time.

Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
• Cognitive arousal theory – theory of
emotion in which both the physical arousal
and the labeling of that arousal based on
cues from the environment must occur
before the emotion is experienced.
• Schacter and Singer’s Study of Emotion
LO 9.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory

Figure 9.9 Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
Schachter and Singer’s cognitive arousal theory is similar to the James-Lange theory but adds the element of cognitive
labeling of the arousal. In this theory, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labeling of that arousal (based on
the surrounding context), which leads to the experience and labeling of the emotional reaction.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis
• Facial feedback hypothesis - theory of
emotion that assumes that facial
expressions provide feedback to the brain
concerning the emotion being expressed,
which in turn causes and intensifies the
emotion.

Figure 9.10 Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion
In the facial feedback theory of emotion, a stimulus such as this snarling dog causes arousal and a facial expression.
The facial expression then provides feedback to the brain about the emotion. The brain then interprets the emotion
and may also intensify it.

Cognitive Mediational Theory
• Cognitive-mediational theory - theory of
emotion in which a stimulus must be
interpreted (appraised) by a person in
order to result in a physical response and
an emotional reaction.

Figure 9.11 Lazarus’s Cognitive- Mediational Theory
In Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate appraisal (e.g., “The dog is
snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous”). The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response,
which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response.

Figure 9.12 Comparison of Theories of Emotion
These figures represent the six different theoriesof emotion as discussed in the text.

Figure 9.12 (continued) Comparison of Theories of Emotion
These figures represent the six different theoriesof emotion as discussed in the text.

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