5Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research Statistical.docx
- 1. 5 Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research Statistical Method What is measured by this method Circumstances for Use Examples of use in Research Studies Qualitative Content Analysis Analyzes narrative data, and in-depth interviews. Can evaluate large volumes of data with intent to identify recurring themes and patterns. Attempts to break down elements of data into clusters. May be concurrent or sequential (Polit &Beck, 2017). Good method for evaluating personal histories, perspectives, experiences. Best method for studying personal, sensitive situations (Sauro, 2015). Examples of this methodology include evaluation of the experience of a rape victim, what it feels like to have an abortion, how it feels to have lived through a disaster. Ethnographic analysis Evaluates cultural phenomena, patterns, perspectives. Requires “participant observer” technique. No preconceived hypothesis. May take months or years to complete. Maps and flowcharts are tools to help illustrate findings (Polit & Beck, 2017). Method to “acquire a deep understanding of the culture being studied” (Polit & Beck, 2017 p. 538). An example of ethnographic analysis could include a research study with ethnographers integrating with Native Americans
- 2. living on a reservation while observing everyday life seeking to extrapolate overlying cultural issues. Phenomenologic Analysis Attempts to understand the essence of experiencing a particular phenomenon by observation, interviews, and outside research. Descriptive analysis Method for understanding individual perspectives of experiencing a certain phenomenon. Seeks to extrapolate commonalities and themes among subjects (Sauro, 2015). Conducting interviews with persons who have experienced hallucinations, with the intent to understand their perspective and experience of the phenomenon, is an example of this method of research. Grounded Theory Analysis Aim is to provide theories and explanations for phenomena based on previously coded information Uses interviews and previous accepted research. Unlike Qualitative content analysis, which seeks to break down information, Grounded theory strives to put information back together (Polit & Beck, 2017). Method for development of theories, Could be used meta- analyses or systematic reviews. An example of a grounded theory analysis is” Beck’s (2002) model of mothering twins” as cited in Polit & Beck (2017). Focus Group Analysis Analyzes group data in relation to a specific topic. Group interviews, recordings, and field notes .are instruments for conducting this type of research. May be used for evaluation of a potential survey tool, consensus on a new product. Researchers seek to extrapolate recurring themes. An example of a focus group analysis might be to evaluate perceptions of a new product being marketed to test for general consensus of its desirability. Quasi-statistics: a tabulation of the frequency with which
- 3. certain themes or insights are supported by the data Qualitative content analysis: analysis of the content of narrative data to identify prominent themes and patterns among the themes Domain analysis: 1st of 4 levels of data analysis, domains are units of cultural knowledge, are broad categories that encompass smaller ones. Ethnographers identify rational patterns among terms in the domains are used by members of the culture. Ethnographer focuses on the cultural meaning of terms and symbols used in a culture Taxonomic analysis: second level of data analysis, ethnographers decides how many domains the analysis will encompass. Taxonomy is then developed to illustrate the internal organization of a domain and the relationship among the subcategories of the domain Taxonomy: a system of classifying and organizing terms Componential analysis: relationships among terms in the domains are examined; ethnographer analyzes data for similarities and differences among cultural terms in a domain. Theme analysis: cultural themes are uncovered; domains are connected in cultural themes, which help to provide a holistic view of the culture being studied. The discovery of cultural meaning is the outcome. Holistic approach: researchers view the text as a whole and try to capture is meanings Selective approach: researchers highlight or pull out statements or phrases that seem essential to the experience under study Detailed approach: researchers analyze every sentence Hermeneutic circle: signifies a methodological process in which to reach understanding, there is continual movement between the parts and the whole of the text being analyzed Exemplars: illuminate aspects of a paradigm case or theme Substantive codes: substance of the topic under study is conceptualized through substantive codes. Substantive codes are either open or selective
- 4. Open coding: used in the first stage of the constant comparative analysis, captures what is going on in the data. May be actual words stated by participant. In open coding, data are broken down into incidents and their similarities and differences are examined. Raw data interpreted Three Levels of Open Coding: Levels I, II, III Level I codes: in vivo codes, derived directly from the language of the substantive area and have vivid imagery Level II codes: Researchers constantly compare new level one codes to previously identified ones and then condense them into broader level II codes Level III codes: theoretical constructs, most abstract, add scope beyond local meanings Core category: pattern of behavior that is relevant and/or problematic for participants Selective coding: can have 3 levels of abstraction, researchers code only those data that are related to the core variable Basic social process (BSP): evolves over time in two or more phases, all BSP’s are core variables, but not all core variables have to be BSPs Emergentfit: prevents individual substantive theories from being “respected little islands of knowledge” Axialcoding: analyst codes for context Paradigm: used as an analytical strategy to help integrate structure and process Centralcategory: core category, which is the main theme of the research Initialcoding: pieces of data (words, lines, segments, incidents) are studied so the researcher begins to learn what the
- 5. participants view as problematic Focusedcoding: the analysis is directed toward using the most significant codes from the initial coding Congruentmethodologicalapproach: analyzes interaction data in the same manner as a group or individual data Sociograms: can be used to understand the flow of conversation as it goes around the members of the focus group Incubation: process of living the data, a process in which researchers must try to understand their meanings, find their essential patterns, and draw legitimate, insightful conclusions Conceptual files: physical files in which coded excerpts of data relevant to specific categories are placed Themes: involves the discovery nor only of commonalities across participants but also of natural variation and patterns in the data Metaphors: figurative comparisons used to evoke a visual or symbolic analogy Quasi-statistics: involves a tabulation of the frequency with which certain themes or relations are supported by the data Qualitative content analysis: can vary in terms of an emphasis on manifest content or latent content and in the role of induction Managing Qualitative Data Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS): a program that can take uploaded data files, code the narratives, retrieve information, and display text for analysis · Text retrievers-locate text and terms in a database. · Code-and-retrieve packages allow researchers to code text. · Theory building software functions to examine relationships between concepts, develop hierarchies of codes, diagram, and create hyperlinks to create nonhierarchical networks. · Concept mapping constructs sophisticated diagrams. · Data conversion/collection software converts audio into text.
- 6. Within a qualitative data analysis there is not statistical tests, because qualitative research is based on thoughts, open ended questions, interpretations and interviews not numerical values. Data within qualitative research is understood and analyzed during the entirety of the process. “Researchers interpret the data as they read and reread them, categorize and code them, inductively develop a thematic analysis, and integrate the themes into a unified whole,” (Polit & Beck, 2017, p.549). There is not a step by step understanding of how the process occurs of interpreting the data, researchers “live” within the data by understanding the meanings, looking for patterns, draw valid, discerning conclusions. An additional importance of understanding of the facts is having the inventiveness to find the “aha” meaning of the information and discovery of the meanings of the facts gained (Polit & Beck, 2017). The importance of the interpretation is just as important as the validity of the data. Thorough and sensible researchers have a high standard of their data interpretation by dissecting themselves, peers and outside reviewers. It is vital that the qualitative researchers consider possible different explanations or meanings other than their own (Polit & Beck, 2017). It is important nurses to understand statistical data because this is a large part of the work nurses base the practice on is evidence based, which means understanding the research behind the reason of the practice is important to understand. According to Hayat, it is important to understand the difference between statistical significance and clinical importance, researchers tend to use statistics to claim proof and scientific breakthrough. Significance testing can be used to decide which data may be considered evidence to support a practice change (2010). “Judgment and subjectivity are necessary and part of the decision-making process. Statistical significance is not a measure of importance; it is a subjective and qualitative construct. Researchers conducting quantitative analyses should quantify the magnitude of an effect. The value of the data
- 7. collected should be assessed by examining study design, bias, and confounding variables, as well as meaningfulness of the results to the topic under study,” (Hayat, 2010, p.222). Nurses must consider this and have an understanding when utilizing statistical methods to base their practice changes. References Hayat, M. J. (2010). Understanding Statistical Significance. Nursing Research, 59(3), 219–223 Polit, D.E. & Beck, C.T. (2017). Nursing Research: Generating and Assessing Evidence for Nursing Practice 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Sauro, J., (2015. October 13). Five types of qualitative methods, Retrieved from https://flic.kr/p/4PXXCYp. By: Casey Hoffman, Tami Frazier, Sarah Pudenz, and Elizabeth Wilson QualitativeAnalysis/Structure Integrating theory and description of data Theme Bringing meaning and identiy to data
- 8. Genogram Deriving themes from data Quasi-statistics Calculating frequence of themes Validation Questioning the themes accuracy Metaphors Symbolic comparison Contrast Principle Compares content, symbols, and meaning Similarity Principle Similar content, symbols, and meaning Structure Integrating theory and data
- 9. CAQDAS Code-and-retrieve packages Theory building software Concept mapping Data conversion/collection Text Retrievers
- 10. Read each discussion 1-4 and then write a 200 word response for each. With your response, you can either expand on the initial post with similar, formally cited, specific examples or additional information regarding the original example(s) (be sure the additional information isn’t simply a re-statement of what has already been posted) or you can respond with a well-supported (based on formally cited information) counter point. APA FORMAT Response should have 1 source for each discussion 1. The use of public funds to build structures such as professional sports facitlities can easily be validated. From an economical perspective, the amount of jobs that such stadiums provide is negligible at best also, “the rate of return a city or metropolitan area receives for its investment is generally below that of alternative projects” (Zaretsky, 2001). Most motivation to build facilities comes from the factor that a new stadium may stimulate the local economy. Community growth and pride also comes from the moving of a professional team into town. “What
- 11. good is it, my brothers, if someone says he has faith but does not have works? Can that faith save him? If a brother or sister is poorly clothed and lacking in daily food.” (James, 2:14, ESV). The performance of the team also effects how much funding is recieved, which is rightfully so due to the increase of revenue. “Ticket sales show performance today and performance in the future. If you make it to the World Series, every team but one in the last 14 years has experienced an increase in attendance of an average 10 percent”(Povich, N.D.). The increase in attendence can bring signifigant tourism oppurtunities to the area. However, in many cases the attendence of such games has decreased. “In the NBA, several lower-level teams, like the Sacramento Kings, Milwaukee Bucks and Detroit Pistons had major attendance drops. The Pistons averaged only 13,272 tickets sold per home game in the plush 21,000-seat Palace” (Worley, 2017). The potential decrease in attendence could end up costing investors more trouble then benefit. Many fans choose to watch games at home rather than spend big money to attend. Ability to attract tourist is an issue with many sports stadiums. Most of the attendees live within a specific radius of the stadiums. “ good example, once again, is Oriole Park at Camden Yards. This ballpark is probably the most successful at attracting outsiders since it is only 40 miles from the nation's capital, where there is no major league baseball team. About a third of the crowd at every game comes from outside the Baltimore area.” (Zaretsky, 2001). If the stadiums are is surrounded by a thriving city, investors should expect low attendacne and lack of profit. Decison to build stadiums and waste public funding is dependent on the area as a whole. RESPONSE: 2. the Las Vegas Raiders, the name in which the Oakland Raiders plan to adopt shortly, are a great example of public financing for a sporting facility. Clark County, in which Las Vegas
- 12. resides, approved tax-free bonds in excess of $750 million in order to finance the building of the Raiders’ new football stadium (Wornow, 2018). According to Wornow, there have been 45 stadiums for major sports teams that have been publicly financed with a total of over $3.2 billion spent. The Raiders’ stadium is reported to cost roughly $1.9 billion, in which that $750 million will become a very large chunk. This means that, as a positive, there will be a much smaller portion that is needed to be financed through private means. Financing of such a large facility can be no easy task and every bit of funding can help in this process. In addition, it can be argued that hosting a professional sports team in your city can mean more jobs and more revenue generated by local businesses, thus creating a healthier and more prosperous city than if a sports team were not present. Opponents of this public financing of a stadium could claim, though, that this money could be better served elsewhere. Wornow claims that police forces in Oakland were decreased in order to fund the Coliseum in this the Raiders currently play. Detroit has also seen similar moves in the form of cut pensions because of the construction costs to the Red Wings stadium. According to the Sports Fans Coalition, there are no benefits to taxpayers because in doing so they do not receive discounts at the stadium, they do not see available usage for youth teams, and taxpayers do not see advantageous ticket prices compared to out-of-area users. Their remedy to this is to incorporate low- income fan seating options, free usage for local sports teams (youth and public schools), and a commitment by the team to stay in that city for at least twenty years (Sportsfans.org, n.d.). The main item that taxpayers are concerned about, though, is that there does not seem to be choice involved when cities decide to finance a new stadium. Taxpayers are forced into paying for the stadium without any incentive or drive to actually want the stadium there in the first place. Issues will arise when people are forced into this agreement. As 2
- 13. Corinthians 9:7 has stated, “Each one must give as he has decided in his heart, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver” (ESV). RESPONSE: 3. There are many issues within sports finances, but one that sticks out more than any other is public funding of professional sports teams. This subject really hits home for me since I am from Cincinnati, OH and they are known for one of the worst public finance deals in history of sports. Now there can also be some positives to public financing as well and we are going to talk about both. Public financing is a way for a professional sports team to be able to get a new stadium or upgrades and have the local community help pay for it. The community typically wants the team to stick around because they usually bring a larger economy to the area through the games and revenue of the team. Bu there are still some teams out there that are so bad and have been so bad for so long that there is no benefit for them to stay. The Bengals closed a deal with Hamilton County in 2011 and was instantly known as the worse deal in all of sports for public financing. (Bennett, 2011) The exact quote in the article that stuck out to me was: "the monster that ate the public sector." (Bennett, 2011) The city anted the Bengals to stay and the Bengals knew that, so that took every advantage that they could. The Bengals wanted help with all upgrades and funding for the stadium and they received it, but the problem is that the Bengals have not been doing their part by winning. Winning would cause more people to come to the games and boost the economy. The deal that they struck cause the “County to face a $14 million deficit in the Sales Tax Fund, is hoping to reduce projected capital maintenance with both stadiums by at least $16 million over the next five years.” (Hamilton County issues
- 14. letters to the Cincinnati Bengals and the Reds, 2011) This means that the count was not getting their money back and now in a deficit all because they wanted to overpay the team to stay here. There are instances where public financing for a team can be beneficial. Look at teams that win and sell out. It creates more revenue and taxes for the surrounding areas, which in return makes it worth closing the deal. Makes me think of Bible Verse: “If your brother becomes poor and cannot maintain himself with you, you shall support him as though he were a stranger and a sojourner, and he shall live with you. Take no interest from him or profit, but fear your God, that your brother may live beside you. You shall not lend him your money at interest, nor give him your food for profit. I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt to give you the land of Canaan, and to be your God.” (Bible) In a public finance, you are a family and have to work together to make it work for both sides. RESPONSE: 4. Community recreation areas, golf courses, tennis courts, swimming pools and public school sport facilities are all, by nature, financed primarily by taxpayers. However in the United States, major sports facilities constructed exclusively for private, professional sports teams have been built with billions of dollars of taxpayer support over the years. This is an issue that is much discussed and much studied. One of the ideas that economists most agree on- according to former Bush administration economic advisor and Harvard economist N. Gregory Mankiw’s popular economics texts- is that the government should not subsidize professional sports. Legislation proposed by President Obama in 2015 would have ended the practice. President Trump used Twitter to bring attention to the NFL’s “massive tax breaks” and tweeted
- 15. “change tax law”. In 2017 a bill sponsored by New Jersey Senator Corey Booker (D) and Oklahoma Senator James Lankford (R) introduced a bipartisan bill that would ban the use of tax-exempt bonds to finance professional sport stadiums and arenas. This is definitely something that has the attention of the public. It is a fascinating issue in that each specific facility is a unique situation with unique backstories, political drama, personalities and financing structure and solutions. In this forum, you are asked to focus on a specific case, particularly how public money was used and what was pledged to pay back any debt issued. By researching a case on your own and reading and responding to those put forth by your colleagues, you will have a better understanding of the issues that arise and how situations played out. RESPONSE: