9410-1.doc

Course: Introduction to Sociology: Culture and Society (9410)
Semester: Spring, 2021
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q. 1 Write down about important thinkers in early development of Sociology.
Theories are an essential part of the framework used to organize specific social phenomena within the social
sciences. This lesson introduces the four major theoretical perspectives in sociology, including structural-
functional, social conflict, feminism, and symbolic interactionism.
The Importance of Theory
When you were in junior high or high school and you ate lunch, did certain types of people sit at certain tables
every day? Why do you think people tend to sort themselves into groups and stay with people they see as
similar to themselves? If you have a guess as to why this happens, you could say that you have a theory
regarding how social groups function. This lesson focuses on the importance of theory in the social sciences and
the four main theoretical perspectives within sociology.
Let's start with a definition. A theory is a statement of how and why processes work or the world operates.
Within sociology, theories attempt to explain why groups of people choose to perform certain actions and how
societies function or change in a certain way.
It's important for social sciences, like psychology, economics, and sociology, to follow theoretical perspectives
as a framework for understanding phenomena, such as the ways people form groups. Without theories, we'd just
have a huge list of individual tendencies, or decisions people make, or types of people, but we wouldn't have
any way of organizing the field. Theories help us see overall themes across many specific types of behaviors or
decisions in the social world.
Structural-Functional Theory
Our first theory is called structural-functional theory. This approach views society as a complex, but
interconnected system, where each part works together as a functional whole. A metaphor for the structural-
functional approach is the human body. You have arms, legs, a heart, a brain, and so on. Each individual body
part has its own neurons and system for working, but each part has to work together for a fully-functioning
structure, or system. What are the different structures, or systems, in society? You can probably think of the
government, businesses, schools, and families. We need all of these systems to work together for a fully-
functioning society.
To make each of our four theories more memorable, let's think about each theory from the perspective of an
example. We'll use sports. How would you apply the structural-functional approach or theory to sports? Well,
for any given team to be successful, it needs to have a bunch of working parts, each functioning independently
and cooperatively. I played soccer in high school, so think about soccer for a second. Of course, you'll have
different positions on the team, such as the forwards, the fullbacks for defense, and the goalkeeper. But, you
also need the coach, the referees, and someone to pay for the equipment; and it wouldn't be very fun to play
without an audience. Each part has its own rules and systems. For example, the audience has to know when to

cheer, how to purchase concessions, and where to sit. For the entire system to work, all of the individual parts
need to work together. Structural-functional theory studies how each part of the larger social world works
together.
Social Conflict Theory
The second major theoretical perspective in sociology is called social conflict theory. This theory views society
as a system of groups that are not equal, and therefore consistently generate conflict and change. Think back to
that example from the beginning of the lesson with the different groups of students in school.
In my high school, the athletes might have conflicts with the people in band or the people who were in the math
club. There was a popular group of kids who were sometimes mean to the less popular kids. When you think
about this type of social conflict on a large scale, it explains unfortunate social trends such as racism, sexism,
homophobia, ageism, and so on, but the theory also predicts change. For example, in the 1960s, the United
States saw a huge change in civil rights awarded to African Americans due to the political protests that
highlighted the conflict between racial groups. While racism is still a problem in the United States, this social
change helped the country make a lot of progress toward equality.
Hopefully, it's easy to see how social conflict theory might be seen in our example of sports. Different teams
will certainly conflict with each other as they compete for points, runs, or touchdowns. Actually, sports
wouldn't make any sense without some form of conflict or competition. Fans of the different teams will display
their loyalty using things like hats or jerseys, and they might conflict with each other.
Going back to my favorite sport of soccer, the fans are famous for causing trouble when they're upset. We even
have the phrase 'soccer hooligan' or 'football hooligan' because of this tendency! Social conflict theory
emphasizes how social conflict motivates people and societies to evolve over time.
Feminism
Theory three out of four is feminism. Feminism is often misunderstood as coming from a group of angry
women who are trying to dominate men. That is not what feminism is! Understood correctly, feminism is a
perspective that views society as traditionally unequal between men and women and strives for equality
between the sexes.
For example, you might have heard the fact that men and women, on average, are not paid equally in the United
States. Studies show that even with the same education and job demands, women are only paid $0.77 for the
same job where a man would be paid $1.00. Women are less represented in the government, women are less
likely to be business owners, and women are less likely to be college professors.
This page provides the following information:
 An overview of the three exam papers for AQA A-level sociology (paper 1: education with theory, paper 2:
topics, and paper 3: crime with theory)

 Links to posts offering specific advice on how to answer each of these papers, including the 2017 and 2018
sociology exams.
 Links to dozens of exemplar answers for the five different types of question you’ll find across the three
sociology papers.
Q. 2 Define culture. Discuss in detail the elements/components of culture with examples from Pakistan
society?
Pakistan is a multi-ethnic country located on the western border of India and the eastern borders of Iran and
Afghanistan. The land the country occupies has a rich history of conquest and migration, which has contributed
to Pakistan’s diversity. As such, norms and values vary significantly across the country, and the regions and
provinces are quite distinguished from one another. The vast spectrum of ethnic and religious diversity presents
certain difficulties when trying to identify consistent practices, beliefs and values. Currently, the country can
best be described as a cultural mosaic, where conservatism and traditionalism reside side by side with
secularism and liberalism.
National Identity and Changes
Though the country is commonly characterised on the global stage as part of ‘the Middle East’, Pakistanis tend
to consider themselves more South Asian. The national identity of Pakistan is heavily influenced by its recent
modern history. It only became a nation when it separated from India in 1947 (known as Partition). The
formation of the country bore with it an idea of what Pakistani society should look like and embody, enticing
millions of people to immigrate from India. Since then, there have been constant negotiations of space and
identity, leading to changes such as the secession of East Pakistan as Bangladesh.
Even with its sovereign borders now relatively concrete, significant upheavals have continued to occur in
Pakistan. Its geographical position has subjected the country to the consequences of surrounding conflicts, and
the political climate has been known to shift depending on changes in direct power. For example,
the secular leanings or authoritarian nature of national leaders have significantly affected the social atmosphere.
Contemporary world events have also exacerbated differences between some of the diverse lifestyles and
cultures that have previously co-existed harmoniously. In turn, Pakistan has become troubled by inter-religious
tensions, ethnic conflicts and terrorism.
As a result, Pakistan has an ever-evolving culture and its people have had to be flexible; the past century has
been unstable and involved constant compromise on their behalf. Today, the country also has an exceedingly
young age structure that may present difficulties in the future. According to the CIA World Factbook, as of
2016, it is estimated 53.3% of the population is under 25. Drastic demographic shifts and turbulent politics have
meant that the social security afforded to the average Pakistani citizen is minimal. Instead, adaptability,
resilience and self-reliance have become important qualities.
Interdependence and Wasta

Pakistan has a collectivist culture in the sense that people are deeply interdependent and loyal to those who are
in their inner circle. Social connections are essential to daily life, as citizens have often had to rely on
themselves instead of their government for support and opportunities. Relationships play an important role in
completing professional, personal and social tasks. This is understood through the concept of ‘wasta’ –
relationship forming. Wasta can be observed when, for example, people turn to a close friend or relative for
help, instead of a government institution. This kind of social support network is crucial and gives many
Pakistanis a very strong sense of community.
One sees the strength of this support network most visibly within families. The loyalty shown to these
relationships is often extremely strong. For instance, individuals may place their family’s interests over their
own, even if they conflict. Furthermore, relatives often expect to receive preferential treatment. In return for this
loyalty, an individual gains a sense of belonging, protection and unity.
People tend to identify with their family before any other social indicator. Following that, those who are very
urbanised generally tend to consider themselves predominantly ‘Pakistani’. However, many other people
(particularly those in rural areas) also feel a heightened affiliation to their ethnicity. This pride and identification
to their heritage can surpass that of their national loyalty.
Ethnicities
The land that Pakistan occupies has hosted many vast civilisations dating back to the Neolithic and Bronze Age
of the Indus Valley Civilisation. A variety of ethnic cultures have arisen from this rich history, with identities
and values specific to them.
Punjabis
The Punjabis are the largest ethnicity in Pakistan and are generally the most dominant and influential people in
the bureaucracy and armed forces. The province of Punjab is Pakistan’s most prosperous and populated. It has
been the recipient of extensive government funding and is equipped with many high-quality public services that
attract thousands of Pakistanis from all over the country. As past and current governments have shown a
preference towards economic, educational and agricultural development in the province of Punjab, Punjabis are
often considered to be the privileged ethnicity in Pakistan. Pakistanis of other ethnicities can also hold
resentment regarding the prevalence of Punjabis in government and positions of power.
Punjab has been subject to numerous invasions and migrations of people from many different cultures,
including the Greeks, Arabs, Persians, Mongols and the British. This has influenced the general Punjabi culture
to be open and adaptable to external influence. Punjabis themselves are generally recognised as being flexible
people, quite vibrant and unreserved. Punjabi culture has also been greatly influenced by Sufism. This is most
apparent through the many shrines, literature and festivals in their honour throughout the province.

The north and South of Punjab are quite distinct from each other. While North Punjab is highly urbanised,
South Punjab is mostly rural and organised in a feudal way, with Seraiki as a widely spoken language. Social
distinctions throughout Punjab are mostly based around people’s occupations.
Pakhtuns (or Pathans)
Originating from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the northwest of Pakistan, Pakhtuns have gained a reputation as ‘hard
worn’ people who have survived in rough topography and severe climates. Today, many are highly urbanised
and have become known for their trading and business skills in all manner of professions. Those who remain in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have generally retained a strong tribalism and collectivistic social organisation. They
share many characteristics with neighbouring Afghans1 and often have distinctly Central Asian origins and
features (resembling the Uzbeks, Tajiks and Turks). Pashto is the most widely spoken language.
Pakhtuns are distinctly recognised for their generosity and work ethic. As hospitality is a core Pakhtun value,
they have been known to go to great lengths to please guests of any ethnic or cultural background, and without
any expectation of remuneration or favour. They are generally extremely hard working and often exhibit a
courageous attitude and honest nature. This often comes through in their business negotiations and deals.
Sindhis
Sindhis originate from the southern province of Sindh. Sindh has an ancient culture dating back to the 7,000-
year-old Indus Valley Civilisation. It is highly influenced by Sufi doctrine and principles taught by cultural
icons and saints of the region. Interior Sindh is distinct from urban areas like Karachi and Hyderabad as it is still
largely under the control of a feudal system of land ownership and organisation.
Sindhis are generally soft-spoken people. The Sindhi language and culture is characterised by folkloric
traditions predominant in rural towns. In Sindh, folk singers and women play a vital role in spreading folklore
through musical instruments even older than the South Asian sitaar. The preservation of these tales and
instruments is of vital importance to Sindhis, and many have been featured in modern musical renditions. Many
Sindhis tend to move to urban areas such as Karachi as businessmen and for public service jobs. Here, they face
tough competition from better-educated and urbanised Pakistanis. Nevertheless, they often excel as salesmen,
and their traditional arts and crafts are valued throughout Pakistan.
Muhajir
Following Partition, around 8 million people arrived in Pakistan. The number was equivalent to roughly a
quarter of the country’s (then) population immigrating in a short span of time. These people were generally
Muslims leaving India to join the newly formed country. While they came from many different ethnicities, the
diverse group of people and their descendants are referred to under the centralised term ‘Muhajir’ – an Arabic
word that translates to “immigrant”. Those who settled in the Pakistani province of Punjab generally originate
from the Indian regions of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi. Those who settled in the Pakistani

Province of Sindh generally originate from Bombay (Mumbai), Berar, the United Provinces, Hyderabad,
Baroda, Kutch and Rajputana Agency.
Muhajirs mainly speak Urdu and live in the cities or urban areas. They do not appear to have maintained much
affiliation with their original ancestry, and they tend to be more concerned with their local community than
their ethnic roots. However, Muhajirs do reflect the influence of their Indian background. For example, they
may communicate more directly and are generally quite business-minded.
Balochis (or Baluchis)
The Balochi people are the indigenous people of Balochistan, which is split over both Pakistan and Iran. Both
these nations have a province named ‘Balochistan’ that most Balochis live in, although many others are
dispersed throughout Sindh, Afghanistan and other regions. Balochistan is the biggest province of Pakistan but
also the most remote and least densely populated. It is characterised by vast areas of desert-like mountainous
terrain. This geographical isolation has generally led to the Balochis being secluded from outside influence,
meaning they have retained quite a distinct cultural identity.
Minority Rights Group International has reported that the socioeconomic conditions of the Balochistan province
are “abysmal” in comparison to the rest of Pakistan, with over 50% of Balochis living below the poverty line.
Due to the difficulties in finding a consistent source of water and food, many Balochis survive as nomads
travelling throughout the province. It is believed roughly 3% of Pakistanis are Balochi, although some Balochi
nationalists contend that government policies have deliberately underestimated their numbers.
Balochis are predominantly Sunni Muslims; however, there is a substantial regional contingency of Shi'a
Balochis. The ethnic group is not culturally homogenous. There are many different clans and tribes that are
traditionally organized, led by chiefs. Customs and traditions align with tribal law.
Honour (Izzat)
Among the rich ethno-linguistic diversity of the country, there are overarching values common to all Pakistanis.
For example, much behaviour is noticeably influenced by people’s perceptions of pride, honour and shame. The
concept of honour (known as ‘izzat’ in Hindi-Urdu) is deeply embedded in Pakistani culture. A person’s
honour, or izzat, is affected by their personal actions as well as the behaviour of those they are associated with
(i.e. their family, community or any group they belong to). Therefore, if an individual does something
dishonourable, their origins (i.e. family, region or ethnicity) may be implicated as the cause. In this way, there is
a cultural pressure for individuals to protect their personal reputation and the image of those around them. This
may require people to give a public impression of dignity and integrity by stressing their positive qualities,
emphasising their family member’s achievements and adhering to social expectations.
Doing something embarrassing, socially inappropriate or indecent can bring serious shame (‘sharam’) upon a
person. Perceptions of dishonour, and the social ostracising that can follow, is known to have very real effects
on people’s future opportunities and circumstances. To prevent such indignity in Pakistan, criticism is rarely

given directly and praise is often generously offered. If faced with criticism, Pakistanis are likely to deny any
fault in order to avoid dishonour. It is common for people to deflect blame to someone/thing else entirely in
order to protect their honour. Generally, people will only openly concede to error and take accountability when
the other person is older than them, doing so out of respect.
It is worth noting that the expectations regarding what is ‘honourable’ and ‘shameful’ can vary significantly
between different ethnicities, family backgrounds and social attitudes. For example, the younger Pakistani
generation generally do not feel the need to stringently apply the honour code and will often hide certain
‘shameful’ actions they consider reasonable from the older generations who might be deeply offended by such
behaviours. In this way, it can be seen that some people may not be personally ashamed of what they are doing,
but more concerned that shame from society will affect their personal self-worth.
Q. 3 what are the alternative sources of knowledge? Explain with examples.
Human body needs nutritious food for its healthy existence. Human mind also need nutritious food for their
healthy and brilliant functioning. Hence Knowledge is considered as the food of mind. The definition of
knowledge is ongoing debate among the philosophers in the field of epistemology. According to Plato
Knowledge is justified true belief. Knowledge can be defined as a familiarity awareness or understanding of
someone or something such as facts, information, descriptions or skills, which is acquired through experiences or
education by perceiving, discovering or learning. Any new information acquired by an organism through formal,
informal or non formal way of inquiry can be termed as knowledge. Knowledge make individuals more strength
and confident in their activity. The activity of research builds new knowledge, theory or formulates
generalization.
Ways/Source of Acquiring Knowledge
Curious to know about new things is the main motivating factor for searching new knowledge. When a person
feel disequilibrium regarding any matter of content, s/he start search for reaching valid conclusion regarding the
matter of doubt. The process of clarification leads them to equilibration in their cognition. For the purpose of
getting new information the human beings are using following ways to accumulate new knowledge.
Sensory Perception
Senses are the gate ways of knowledge. Five senses help an individual to get primary information regarding any
object, individual or events and so forth. For example, students can see an experiment conducted by the teacher,
hear the explanation, touch the object or product, smell the output, taste the product etc. Through this five
activity (five sense organs) or any one activity (single sense organ) students are able to construct and verify
information regarding the experiment conducted. Hence sensory perceptions are the one important source or
means of acquiring knowledge. In the case of a researcher, the sensory perceptions are important to them to
collect information and verify the authenticity and originality of acquired knowledge.
Logical Reasoning

Logical reasoning is another way of acquiring Knowledge. It is related to brainy functioning. Ignorance and blind
believes made man as a sleeping brains, later, curiosity and search for cause and effect relationship paved the
way of unfolding natural truths and facts. People become modern and developed by the way they approached the
matters through logical reasoning. Deductive as well as inductive reasoning are emerged by the time as methods
of logical reasoning. Individuals may infer things through deductive reasoning, abstract thinking, finding
relationship between events and variables and so forth. For example a competent person can make valid
conclusion regarding the nature and consequences of certain events by observing behavior of individuals or
analyzing chain of events, statement and attitude of national leaders and so forth. Through the logical reasoning a
researcher can deduct and infer information regarding the research problem.
Deductive Reasoning
It is the earlier philosophical method of Logical Reasoning. Categorical syllogism is considered as the old
systematic method of logical reasoning. The famous philosopher Aristotle developed it as Deductive method of
problem solving. Moving from General assumptions to specific application, that means the general to particular
principle (DGP). It can be understood by the explanation of categorical syllogism given below.
Categorical Syllogism
Syllogistic reasoning is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning for drawing a valid
conclusion based on two or more propositions. Categorical syllogism consists of three components; such as
Major premise, Minor Premise, Conclusion. It establishes a logical relationship between them.
Major Premise: it is a self evident assumption, previously established by metaphysical truth or dogmas. For
example all men are mortal
Minor Premise: it is a particular case related to the major premise. For example, Socrates is a man
Conclusion: based on both premises conclusion and inference could be surly possible. For example Socrates is
mortal
Form the above example we can observe the general assumption in major premise; that is all men are mortal.
Then leads to particular observation in minor premise that Socrates is a man and concludes that that’s why he is a
mortal.
Inductive Reasoning
Later much creative criticism had been raised regarding the process drawing conclusion from general
phenomenon. Because of the reason that there might be some dogmas and myths, baseless beliefs which had not
been empirically proved but believed that, they are true and as well as had impacted the conclusion. So it leads to
creating unreliable and error information to the people. Hence many centuries later Francis bacon advocated the
inductive method of reasoning or problem solving which had kicked back the limitation of the deductive method.
It is the process of specific observations of phenomenon which leads to generalization. Here individuals arrive to
conclusions after the empirical verification of many individual observations of a common phenomenon. Hence

there is no possibility to adopt any dogmas or myth as a foundation of knowledge. Here the problem solver
ensures the mortality of the human beings or any organism in particular case. For example a person analyzing the
life history of great personalities, such as Mahathma Gandhi, Nehru, Maulana Abul kalam azad, Abrahaam
Lincon and so forth. S/he could be reach a conclusion that even though these personalities had a strong back up
of the political power they could not overcome the death. And there is no organism can be found on earth alive
after a reasonable length of period. Hence it is concluded that every organism with soul or life should breathe its
last after a while.
Authority
There are several occasions where a researcher needs authoritative knowledge. All official information can be
termed as authoritative knowledge. One can get information from concern authority regarding their concerned.
Right to information act is a good example for the same. If any individual need authentic information regarding
any authority s/he can file a query regarding his information concerned through RTI to concerned authority. This
process ensures an information seeker to get authentic knowledge from authority. For example if a researcher
needs information regarding the enrollment, dropout rate, literacy rate, budget allocation to different educational
sector, s/he can be collect information from the concern authority regarding the above. The information provided
by the concerned authority would be the knowledge from authority or authoritative knowledge.
Traditions
Traditions are another important source of knowledge. Much social related knowledge are preserved and
transmitted through traditions. For example social skills, values, social functions are entirely routed in traditions
of the society. Traditions have local as well as national impact. A researcher can get information regarding the
indigenous treatment system, folklore arts, skilled based traditional social class are available from social
traditions. There much information which is largely depends on traditions.
Experience
Personal as well as professional experience of an individual contributes much in his knowledge. Personal
experience in family, society, and neighborhood taught humans many lessons regarding the behavior,
adjustment, social dealings, patience and so forth. Professional experiences make an individual perfectly
professional. Knowledge of matters regarding to be performed or not to be do in personal as well as professional
situation create through experiences. Learning by doing is also come under this category.
Naturalistic Inquiry
Thirst for knowledge is the uniqueness of human being. When s/he wants to solve a certain problem or confront a
curious situation. S/he starts searching for the solution of the problem in naturalistic way. The final solution will
be found out by getting new information regarding the problem through the inquiry. For example a researcher
felt a problem of why the students of backward areas are less enrolled in higher education. The researcher may
formulate possible reasons and possibilities of the problem. Empirically collect information from the original

sources, s/he may go to the community location and approach the concerned subject of the study and their social
situation. Through this inquiry process the researcher get much valuable information and thereby infer the
solution of the problem. The knowledge construction through this process can be termed as naturalistic Inquiry.
Trial and Error
Trial and error is one of the ways of acquiring new knowledge. The term trial and error is contributed by famous
psychologist E.L. Thorndike. Individuals learn more things through trial and error process. Knowledge related to
practical, professional, skilled and semi skilled professions are largely depends on this source of knowledge. For
example knowledge of use of computer, smart phone, driving, playing cricket, football, teaching etc can be
acquired through trial and error.
Scientific approach
Knowledge can be created or accumulated through various means. Scientific approach is very important means
of knowledge acquisition. Scientific approach ensures the reliability and rationality of the information or
knowledge acquired. The knowledge constructed through scientific approach has following features.
1. Body of Knowledge
2. Universal application
3. Empirically proved
4. Experimental
5. Measurable
6. Observable
7. Trustworthiness
8. Objectivity
9. Validity
10. Reliability
11. Predictability
Scientific Method in Developing Knowledge
Scientific method ensures the reliability and validity of the knowledge constructed through its process. The
adoption of the scientific method eliminates the biasness as well as the fake information regarding the matter of
concern. John Dewey (1938) identified the following steps for scientific method which constitute the elements of
deductive and inductive reasoning.
1. Identification and definition of problems
2. Formulation of hypotheses
3. Collection, organization and Analysis of data
4. Formulation of conclusion
5. Verification, Rejection, or Modification of hypotheses

Intuition
Knowledge revealed from insight is another means of knowledge acquisition. Archimedes’s Principles, Lord
Buddha are the living examples of acquired knowledge through intuitions. Many of the life situations we also
had experienced intuitive knowledge to solve our life problems. Intuitive knowledge can be acquired through
following process.
1. Preparation
In this step all available information regarding the problem to be solved must be assembled and analyzed in
depth. Continuous attempts are made to found out solutions and the process is set aside.
2. Incubation
No intentional attempt mad e to solve the problem. It come to mind while playing, cooking or at bathroom and so
forth.
3. Illumination
Illumination is the process of intuiting many ideas in the mind of the problem solver unexpectedly. It may be the
result of preparation as well as the relaxed mood of incubation period. The script writers, poets, writers, scientist
are getting ideas or knowledge in this manner.
4. Verification
After receiving the idea the problem solver should verify or test the validity and reliability of the information
empirically. The level of attaining knowledge through intuition must be depends on the motivation as well as the
intelligence level of problem solver.
Q. 4 what is social Interaction? What are the basic elements/components of social interaction?
Social Status
The prestige or the honor that is attached to someone’s position in the society is referred to as social status.
Which also may refer to a position or a rank that someone has in a group, such as a daughter or a son. Different
ways may contribute to the determination of someone’s social status. Achieved status refers to a social status
that can be earned by someone’s own achievements. In addition to that, there is ascribed status, which refers to
the positions that someone inherits, for example, race, or sex.
Both types, achieved status and ascribed status, meld to define social status. For example, a baby who is born to
a family with high socioeconomic status has that as an ascribed status; however, these factors that he will be
raised around will help him get a better education and a better future, which eventually contributes to
his achieved status.
Role Theory
The role theory studies human behavior and its expectations and argues that the behavior of humans is guided
by expectations, which are held both by the individual himself and other community members.

Role Conflict
A conflict among or between the roles corresponding to more than one status fulfilled by an individual is
referred to as role conflict. Usually, we experience this kind of role conflict when we find ourselves dragged
into various and different directions, while we try to respond to the variety of statuses that we withhold.
The family/work conflict, or the conflict that someone feels when dragged between professional and familial
responsibilities and obligations, is the most obvious example of role conflict. For example, a mother who works
as a doctor will face this role conflict as she has to organize between her stressful job with long-working hours
as well as night shifts and taking care of her children.
Culture
Culture is defined as the set of values, beliefs, symbols, religion, means of communication, logic, fashion, food,
etiquette, art, and rituals that unite a particular society. Learned behaviors are considered the elements of
culture; older people pass these behaviors and elements to their children as they grow up. The process of
learning and passing culture from a generation to another is referred to as ‘acculturation’.
Social Class
Societies are arranged in a way called social hierarchy, which means some people have more power while
others have less. The main factor that corresponds to these social hierarchies, also called social stratification, is
the socioeconomic status, or in other words the social capital or amount of material possessed by an individual.
In societies, people are differentiated based upon their power or wealth, which is described by social class.
Groups
A collection of people who identify as well as interact with each other is referred to as a social group. A social
group is united, which means they share values, interests, backgrounds, language, family ties, or social roles.
One of the ways that people or individuals use to make assumptions about each other’s identities is called group
identification. The way groups operate is referred to as cognitive heuristics, which could be legitimate or
illegitimate assumptions about an individual.
Social Institutions
Any mechanism or structure of cooperation and social order governing the behavior of a community and the
individuals in that community is called an institution. An institution is identified with permanence and a social
purpose, which transcends an individual’s intention and lives by governing cooperative behavior via enforced
rules. Institutions teach individuals in a community how to conform to their norms, or in other words, they act
as socialization forces.
These institutions could be formal or informal. Institutions that have the intention of governing the behavior of
humans are considered formal institutions, for example, the United States Congress. On the other hand, an
institution that is not designed in order to regulate conduct is considered an informal institution. Institutions
may also be abstract, for example, the institution of marriage.

Social Networks
The social structure that exists between organizations or individuals is referred to as a social network, which
indicates the way that organizations and people are connected via different social familiarities. These social
networks are composed of ties and nodes. An organization or a person who participates in a social network is
called a node. The different and various types of connections between these nodes are called ties, which are
assessed in terms of strength; as there are weak and strong ties. A strong tie is like family bonds; however, mere
acquaintances are considered as weak ties.
The utility of social networks for their nodal participants is influenced by the size and shape of these social
networks. Tighter, smaller networks that are composed of strong ties will have different behaviors when
compared to looser, larger networks with weak ties. For example participants in a small network will be more
likely to share information and values, which increases efficiency but decreases creativity; however, in a large
loose network, nodes are more likely to introduce new opportunities and ideas to the members and participants
of the social network.
Virtual Worlds
A simulated computer-based environment or an online community is referred to as a virtual world. In these
virtual worlds, individuals create avatars, which are online representations, and these avatars can interact on the
internet under the direction of the owner/creator of the avatar. Both reality and fantasy worlds may affect these
virtual worlds and their rules, for example, topography, real-time actions, gravity, locomotion, and
communication.
Q. 5 discuss in detail the scope of studies of the sociology.
According to Auguste Comte and Durkheim, “Sociology is a science because it adopts and applies the scientific
method. Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the study of its subject matter. Hence Sociology is a
science. It is a science because of the following reasons:
(1) Sociology adopts scientific method:
Sociology studies social events by adopting scientific method. Though it cannot do experiment with men in a
laboratory still man’s social behaviour is subject to scientific investigation like natural phenomenon. It employs
scientific methods as scales of Sociometry schedule, case study, interview and questionnaire which is used to
quantitatively measure social phenomenon.
(2) Sociology makes accurate observation:
Observation is possible in the field of sociology even if it does not possess a laboratory. Accurate observation is
also possible outside the laboratory. The whole social world is the laboratory of sociology. ‘Newton did not
invent their laws inside a laboratory. Sociology makes observation of tribal marriage at the time of occurrence.
Even if Sociology does not possess a laboratory still it makes accurate observation. Hence Sociology is a
science. Besides laboratory experiment is not the only criteria of science.

(3) Objectivity is possible in Sociology:
Like natural sciences Sociology also makes objective study. The statement that dowry is a social evil is an
objective statement which is based on facts collected by sociologists. Further Survey and revivification proves
this. Sociology can also make objective study of social phenomena. New techniques and methods are also
introduced to make social phenomena more objective. Hence Sociology is a science.
(4) Sociology describes cause-effect relationship:
Like natural sciences Sociology also traces the cause and find the answers. While studying family or population
growth Sociology has traced the relationship between family disorganisation and divorce and population growth
and poverty. Family disorganisation is the cause of divorce and population growth is the cause of poverty. Thus
sociology describes cause-effect relationship in social disorganisation and population explosion. Hence
sociology is a science.
(5) Sociology makes accurate measurement:
Sociology, like natural sciences also accurately measures social phenomena or relationships. By using statistical
method, socio-metric scale, scales of measurement sociology effectively and accurately measures social
relationships. Hence Sociology is a science.
(6) Sociology makes accurate Prediction:
Like natural sciences sociology does frame laws and attempts to predict more accurately. On the basis of cause-
effect relationship sociology can accurately predict about future.
If there will be dowry in society then it will lead to suicide, poverty. Cuvier opines this predictive value of
Sociology is improved day by day. As Sociology matures day by day it predicts more accurately.
(7) Sociology makes generalization:
The notion that generalization drawn by social sciences are not universal proved wrong. Like natural sciences
Sociology became able to draw generalization which is universally applicable. The concept of incest taboo-
prohibited sex relationship among blood relatives is a universal truth.
Sociology is Not A Science:
There are some others like Max-weber who deny the status of science to Sociology. He said Sociology can’t be
an objective Science. However, those who deny the status of science to Sociology they put forth following
arguments:
(1) Lack of objectivity:
Sociology cannot be called a science because it cannot maintain complete objectivity with social phenomena.
Sociologist has his own prejudice and bias hence he cannot observe his subject with complete detachment.
Complete objectivity in the study of human behaviour is impossible Sociology deals with social relationships
which cannot studied like physical objects. Hence objectivity is not possible in Sociology.

(2) Lack of Experimentation:
Sociology is not a science because it can’t make experimentation. Sociology deals with human relationships
which cannot be put to laboratory test. We can’t see or weigh human relationship because it is abstract in
nature. We can’t do experiment with abstract things.
(3) Lack of Prediction:
Like natural sciences Sociology can’t accurately make prediction. Natural Sciences make prediction on the
basis of certain data. But Sociology deals with social relationships and human behaviour which are so uncertain
and peculiar that we can’t make any accurate prediction about it. We can’t predict what will be one’s behaviour
at a certain point of time nor we can predict about the trends or speed of social change. Hence sociology is not a
science.
(4) Lack of accurate measurement:
Sociology can’t make accurate measurement like natural sciences. There are definite standards of measurement
like k.g. Meter by which it is possible to measure things. But in Sociology we have no such measuring
instruments. Besides sociology deals with social relationships which is qualitative in nature which can’t be
measured. Hence Sociology is not a science.
(5) Lack of Generalisation:
Sociology can’t make generalisations like natural sciences which is universally applicable. Sociology deals with
human behaviour and no two individual are alike. Hence the conclusions drawn by Sociology can’t be uniform
or universally applicable. Social Phenomena is so complex and complicated and is governed by so many factors
that it is really difficult to draw a conclusion which will be universally applicable.
(6) Terminological Inefficiency:
Sociology suffers from terminological inefficiency. Sociology has not yet became able to develop adequate set
of scientific terms. Many terms used in Sociology is vague and carry different meaning to different persons. For
example the term caste and class has not yet acquired clear meaning. Hence Sociology is not a science.
The above argument shows that Sociology is not a science. But famous Sociologist Robert Bierstedt in his book
“The social order” clearly explain the nature of Sociology in the following way:
(1) Sociology is a social and not a natural science.
(2) Sociology is a positive and not a normative science.
(3) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science.
(4) Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete science.
(5) Sociology is a generalising science and not a particularising science.
(6) Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science.

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