A) Learning Styles and Cognitive Styles +B) Language Learning Strategies and Student Self-Regulation

B) Language Learning Strategies and Student
Self-Regulation

 WHAT ARE LEARNING STYLES?
 Basic Conceptual Issues
 COGNITIVE STYLES
 Problems with the Notion of Cognitive Style
 Riding’s System
 KOLB’S MODEL OF LEARNING STYLES
 ASSESSING COGNITIVE AND LEARNING STYLES
 Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI)
 Riding’s Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA)

 COGNITIVE AND LEARNING STYLES IN L2 STUDIES
 Field Dependence–Independence in L2 Studies
 Sensory Preferences
 Assessing Language Learning Styles
 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire and
Learning Style Indicator
 Style Analysis Survey and Learning Style Survey
 The Ehrman & Leaver Construct
 Skehan’s Conceptualization of a Learning Style
Construct
 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
 CONCLUSION

Since the primary goal of instruction is to attain
the desired learning outcomes, should learning
styles be considered a variable when designing
instruction?

 There is a confusing plethora of labels and style dimensions
 There is a shortage of valid and reliable measurement
instruments
 The literature are scarce and rather mixed, and rarely helpful.
 But there is something genuinely appealing about the notion .
 Scholars are hoping is that the current confusion is merely due
to our insufficient knowledge rather than the scientific
inadequacy of the concept.

Visual
Auditory
Kinesthetic/Tactile

 Learn through seeing and reading
 Prefer written directions
 Often good readers

 Learn through listening and talking
 Remember what they hear better than what they see

 Learn through doing
 Remember hands on activities
 Use their hands to build, create, plant, draw or decorate

According to the standard definition, they refer to
“an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred
way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new
information and skills” (Reid, 1995, p. viii)
 thus, they are “broad preferences for going about
the business of learning” (Ehrman, 1996, p. 49).
a profile of the individual’s approach to learning, a
blueprint of the habitual or preferred way the
individual perceives, interacts with, and responds to
the learning environment.

What is the relationship between learning styles
and learning strategies?
The two concepts are thematically related.
Since they both denote specific ways learners go
about carrying out learning tasks.
According to Snow et al. (1996), The main
difference between the two concepts lies in their
breadth and stability,

 Distinction between learning styles and cognitive
styles.
 Although these terms have too often been used in
the literature in an interchangeable manner, they
are not the same.
 As Rayner (2000a) summarized,
 learning style is represented as a profile of the
individual’s approach to learning.
cognitive, referring to a stable and internalized
dimension related to the way a person thinks or
processes information.

 Cognitive styles are usually defined as an individual’s
preferred and habitual modes of perceiving, remembering,
organizing, processing, and representing information.
 Thus, cognitive styles are typically identified as being in a
“conceptual gray area” (Hampson & Colman, 1994, p. x)
between personality and intelligence

 Richard Riding has been one of the main international
proponents of cognitive style research.
 Wholist–Analytic Style dimension, determining whether
individuals tend to organize information as an integrated
whole or in discrete parts of that whole
 Verbal–Imagery Style dimension,
 verbalizers are superior at working with verbal
information,
 imagers are better at working with visual information.

 Kolb's (1984) learning theory
sets out four distinct learning
styles (or preferences), which
are based on a four-stage
learning cycle.
 Kolb's model offers both a way
to understand individual
learning styles, and also an
explanation of a cycle of
experiential learning that
applies to all learners.

Learn primarily by “hands-
on”
Act on “gut” rather than
logical analysis (intuitive)
Rely more heavily on
people for information
than technical analysis
Like getting involved in
new experiences
Task oriented

View concrete solutions
from many different points
of view
Like brainstorming, idea
generation
Observe rather than take
action
Imaginative, creative

Focus more on abstract
ideas and concepts than
people
More important that theory
is sound rather than have
practical value
Can take a wide range of
information and put it into
concise, logical form

 Practical application of ideas
 Solution focused – decision
maker
 Prefer dealing with technical
problems rather than social
or interpersonal issues
 Does best when there is a
single right answer

 The original LSI instrument was a nine-item self-description
questionnaire.
 Each item asked the respondent to rank-order four words in
a way that best described their learning style. One word in
each item corresponded to one of the four learning modes
Table 5.2.

Styles research in the L2 field offers a mixture of
good and bad news.
On the positive side is the fact that there has been
a longstanding research interest in language
learning styles and several instruments have been
developed and used to understand the role of
learning styles in SLA. Reid’s (1995, 1998)
Two anthologies of relevant articles and
instruments offer a good overview ofthe early
research, and Bailey et al. (2000), Ehrman and
Leaver (2003)

FIELD-INDEPENDENT, FACTUAL
 analytical
 planners
 sequential
 systematic
 convergent
 left-brained
FIELD-DEPENDENT,
INTERACTIONAL
 global
 Synthetic
 Correctors
 Random
 Intuitive
 Divergent
 Right-brained

There are different models (theories) of cognitive/learning
style
 Accordingly, there are many different measures:
• Tests and questionnaires
• Riding’s model of cognitive style and the CSA-test
• Ehrman & Leaver’s model of learning style and the E&L
Questionnaire

Andrew D. Cohen
 Andrew D. Cohen is a professor in the Second Language
Studies Program, which is affiliated with the Department of
Writing Studies at the University of Minnesota.
 The Learning Style Survey1 is designed to assess your
general approach to learning. It does not predict your
behavior in every instance, but it is a clear indication of your
overall style preferences.

E & L Learning Style Questionnaire v. 2.0
copyright 2002, Ehrman and Leaver
Name: _________________
INSTRUCTIONS: Date: __________________
Mark in the space for each pair of items what you think you are like. For example, if you like bicycling
much more than swimming, you might mark in space 2 (or even 1), like this:
I like riding a bicycle. I like swimming.
0. Most like this ___ _x_ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Most like this
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
If you sort of like swimming better, you might mark in space 6.
0. Most like this ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ _x_ ___ ___ ___ Most like this
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
If you think you are in the middle or really do both equally, use space 5. Try to avoid using space 5 if
you can.
0. Most like this ___ ___ ___ ___ _x_ ___ ___ ___ ___ Most like this
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
There are no right or wrong answers on this questionnaire.
***********************************************************************
Here are the questions:
1. When I work with new language in I don’t usually get much from the context
context, in stories or articles or at unless I pay close attention to what
sentences; I often pick up new words, ideas, I’m doing. (1a)
etc., that way, without planning in advance.
1. Most like this ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Most like this
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2. When working with new material with When there is a lot of information that comes
additional subject matter around it, I with what I need to learn, it’s hard to tell what’s
comfortably find and use what is most most important. It all seems to fall together
most important. sometimes, and it’s hard work to sort things out. (2a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3. I like to reduce differences and look for I like to explore differences and
similarities. disparities among things. (3a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4. I tend to be most aware of the ‘big picture;’ I notice specifics and details quickly. (4a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

One superordinate style dimension: Synopsis vs. ectasis
(Ehrman & Leaver, 2003)
 Synoptic individuals ‘trust their guts’, while ectenic individuals tend
not to
 Ectenic individuals want and need more conscious control over the
learning situation than synoptic individuals
• 10 subordinate style dimensions, e.g.:
 Field dependent/field independent
 Random/sequential
 Inductive/deductive
 Concrete/abstract

 In my opinion is that the concept of learning styles in
predicting learning outcomes is a commonly
misunderstood and misapplied instructional strategy
when designing content.
 The fact is that research has revealed that learning
styles have little, if any, affect on predicting learning
outcomes.
 The result: While the perception is people learn
better when information is presented in their
preferred learning style, current evidence has not
confirmed this.

 DO LEARNING STRATEGIES EXIST?
 LEARNING STRATEGIES IN L2 STUDIES
 Taxonomies of Language Learning Strategies
 Recent Research on Language Learning Strategies
 Learner Variation in Strategy Use
 Strategy Training
 The Assessment of Learning Strategies
 Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire
(MSLQ)
 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)
 Language Strategy Use Inventory and Index
 Self-Regulating Capacity in Vocabulary Learning scale
(SRCvoc)

 Learning Strategies And Student Self-Regulation In
Educational Psychology
 Self-Regulation and Self-Regulatory Capacity
 Self-Regulation and Learning Strategies
 Self-Regulatory Capacity as an Individual Difference Factor
 CONCLUSION

What is a strategy?
Specific actions taken by the learner to make learning
easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed,
more effective, and more transferable to new
situations.
(Oxford 1990: 8)

 1. Identification of language
learning strategies.
o Identified through self-
report.
o How?
 Retrospective interviews
 Stimulated recall interviews
 Questionnaires
 Diaries and Journals
 Think - aloud and individual
interview

Taxonomies of Language Learning Strategies

 Creating mental linkages
 Applying images and sounds
 Reviewing well
 Employing action

 Guessing intelligently
 Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing

 Practicing
 Receiving and sending messages
 Analyzing and reasoning
 Creating structure for input and output

 Centering your learning
 Arranging and planning your learning
 Evaluating your learning

 Asking questions
 Cooperating with others
 Empathizing with others

 Lowering your anxiety
 Encouraging yourself
 Taking your emotional temperature

•Cognitive learning strategies are methods used to help learners link new information
to prior knowledge in facilitating the transfer of learning through the systematic
design of instruction.
• Focuses on how the learner processes the knowledge
• Supports the learner as they develop internal procedures that enable them to
perform tasks that are complex, and can increase the efficiency with which the
learner approaches a learning task.
•The utility of cognitive learning strategies can be employed by faculty to facilitate the
activation and retention of prior knowledge by focusing on knowledge
construction.

•Organization of information by “chunking” information into smaller and
meaningful units.
 Makes it easier to use, store, and recall information.
 Helps in overcoming working memory limitations.
•Facilitate the transfer of learning by integrating:
•Concept maps, frames
•Advance Organizers
•Mnemonics, analogies, metaphors, similes
•Provide for "scaffolding when learning a task cannot be completed
through a series of steps.

Ehrman and Oxford (1990) study, using SILL and
MBTI, determined which styles apply which
strategies.
o extroverts -> social strategies
o concrete - sequential -> memory strategies
o abstract - intuitive -> comprehension strategies
o thinkers -> metacognitive strategies
o feelers -> social strategies
o open learners -> affective strategies
 Study by Rossi-Le (1995)
o Tactile and kinesthetic learning styles preferred
socializing and interacting in conversation with
native speakers

Task - meaningful activity designed to elicit specific
grammatical forms which has a goal to work
toward.
o Primarily based in real-world, evaluated by
success of the outcome
 Learners will deal with tasks consistent with their
individual styles and strategies
o Many factors (age, proficiency, aptitude, motivation
etc.) can influence which strategies a learner
applies to the task
o No single strategy can work for everyone

 Other variables must be considered:
o 1.Gender
o 2.L2 proficiency
 3. Influence of cultural context:
o Individualist cultures vs collectivist culture
 4. Explicit and integrated strategy instruction:
o Researchers agree strategies should be explicitly
taught.
 Central argument: should strategies be taught
separately or integrated into the curriculum?
 Pro to integrated: Allows learners to work with authentic
tasks.
 Con: What do you think?

 5. Language of instruction
o L1 vs L2
o Most research shows that L1 support is needed especially at
the beginners level
 6. Transfer of strategies to new tasks
o Transfer of strategies to new tasks proved to be hard in L1.
o Harris (2004): study on strategy transfer taught in L1 to L2
learning. The higher achieving students showed a higher rate
of transference.

 Barry Zimmerman (2002) defines self-regulation as the
process we use to activate and sustain our thoughts,
behaviors, and emotions in order to reach our goals.

 have a combination of academic learning skills and self-
control that makes learning easier, so they are more
motivated; in other words,
• they have the skill and
• the will to learn

Knowledge. To be self-regulated learners, students
need knowledge about themselves, the subject, the task,
strategies for learning, and the contexts in which they will
apply their learning.
 Motivation. Self-regulated learners are motivated to learn .
 Volition is an old-fashioned word for will-power. Self-
regulated learners know how to protect themselves from
distractions—where to study .
 Family Influences.


 Diverse theoretical perspectives have been proposed as
useful for examining SRL:
 Piaget’s constructivist theory,
 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory,
 social learning theories
 information -processing theories.

 1) the metaphor of acquisition,
of learning new strategies and skills and then applying them
in school.
 This is the classic view of academic strategies as
specialized tools that need to be taught, practiced, and
applied in school.

 emphasizes “becoming” more regulated as students
develop new competencies.
 In this view, self-regulation is a description of coherent
behaviors exhibited by a person in a situation rather than a
set of skills to be taught.

 Self-regulated students display
• motivated actions,
• goal-directed
• controlled behaviors
 SRL is the fusion of skill and will

 every student constructs his or her own theory of SRL.
 This theory can be naïve and ill-informed or elaborate and
appropriate.
 children’s understanding of SRL is enhanced in three ways:
• indirectly through experience
• directly through instruction
• through practice.

 Research shows that children in primary grades exhibit less
SRL than children in later grades, however, this is a
consequence of many factors, including age, cognitive
development, explicit instruction, and changing demands in
the classroom.

The teacher is more analytic, reflective, and auditory, while
the learner is more global, impulsive, and visual,
 The teacher is more open-oriented, while the learner is more
closure-oriented,
 The teacher is more concrete-sequential, while the learner is
more random-intuitive,

 The teacher is more concrete-sequential, visual, and
reflective, while the learner is more random-intuitive, auditory,
and impulsive,
 The teacher is more extroverted and hands-on, while the
learner is more introverted and visual.

1. Teachers must know their students and what
strategies the
students are already using.
 2. Students have the potential to become better language
learners if they are aware of the different types of learning
strategies.

Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles
and pedagogy in post-16 learning. Learning Skills and Research Centre,
London. Retrieved from http://www.leerbeleving.nl/wp-
content/uploads/2011/09/learning-styles.pdf
Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Should we be
using learning styles? What research has to say to practice. Learning
Skills and Research Centre, London. Retrieved from
http://www.itslifejimbutnotasweknowit.org.uk/files/LSRC_LearningStyles.pd
f
Clemons, Stephanie (2005). Brain-Based Learning: Possible Implications
for Online Instruction. International Journal of Instructional Technology and
Distance Learning, September 2005, Vol. 2. No. 9. Retrieved from
http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Sep_05/article03.htm
Cognitive/Learning Styles (n.d.). Theory Into Practice, Retrieved from
http://tip.psychology.org/styles.html
Curry, L. (1990). A critique of research on learning styles. Educational
Leadership, 56(2), 50-56. Retrieved from
http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_199010_curry.pdf
DeTure, M. (2004). Cognitive Style and Self-Efficacy: Predicting Success
in Online Education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 18(1),
21-38. Retrieved from
http://test.scripts.psu.edu/users/k/h/khk122/woty/AJDE/DeTure%202004.p
df

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