A pattern for global policy excursion into the causes and implications of migration

International Affairs and Global Strategy
ISSN 2224-574X (Paper) ISSN 2224-8951 (Online)
Vol.16, 2013

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A pattern for global policy: Excursion into the causes and
implications of migration (African/European perspectives).
Moses Kumi Asamoah (Rev.)
Department of Church Administration, Christian Education and Family Counselling, Central University College
E-mail: moseskumi@yahoo.com
Abstract
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, in 2010 there were 200 million international
migrant workers and their families. This figure excludes over 15 million refugees, those whose movement across
a border has been forced by fear of persecution or violence. Labour migration is not simply from developing to
developed countries. It is on record that some 60% of migrants live in developing countries. The number of
African migrants attempting to enter Europe has increased remarkably during the past few years. For instance, in
2005, 22,939 illegal migrants were registered on the Italian Island of Lampedusa and between January and
August, 2006, 14,567 newcomers arrived. Again in 2005, 11,781 African illegal migrants arrived at Spanish
Canary Islands. Europe has therefore been perceived as immigrant continent.
The causes are conflicts, the slowdown in economic growth and significant unemployment in Africa. This
immigration from African countries have come to be perceived as a burden and even a threat to economic
growth, social coercion, cultural coherence and security of the West.
The purpose of this paper is to provoke discussions by exploring the causes and implications of migration in
order to design more suitable migration policies in the 21st century. It was found out that violence and poverty
were usually considered the push factors of Africans migration to Europe. Also, restrictive policies, antiimmigrant public discourse and dehumanizing treatments that accompanied them contributed to the
marginalization and emotional isolation of African immigrants in Europe.
African governments are to explore avenues that could speed up their socio-economic, political and
technological developments and must control illegal emigration from their continent. European protectionist and
restricted trade policies must be regulated and international relations agreements, mutual calibrations and
negotiations must be established between Europe and Africa
1.1 Introduction
Migration involves people who move for various reasons across different geographical spaces. It is distinguished
from mere mobility from one locality to nearby town. Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
stipulates that everyone has the right to leave any country, including his/her own. This guarantee must be
understood in the light of socio-economic realities and other factors that cause people to leave their place of
origin to look for better opportunities and security elsewhere. This means migration is legally endorsed. It raises
concerns only if it is abused or it is illegally made. Migration may be categorized into permanent or temporary,
legal or illegal, regular or irregular. It could be internal or international, done out of choice or due to
circumstances (forced) and may involve men, women and children. We could distinguish between push and pull
factors that cause migration. Push factors include: inadequate employment opportunities combined with poor
living conditions, including a lack of basic education and health provision.
Migration includes human trafficking which involves some form of movement of persons by another for the sole
purpose of exploiting them in terms of their labour and services. Trafficking may encourage a number of illegal
actions including abuses of the individual human right and violation of labour standards (UN special report,
2009).
Accurate data on migration is difficult to obtain because many migrant workers lack official status. However,
according to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, in 2010 there were 200 million international
migrant workers and their families. This figure excludes over 15 million refugees, those whose movement across
a border has been forced by fear of persecution or violence. It must be noted however that, labour migration is
not simply from developing to developed countries. Statistics shows that 60% of migrants live in developing
countries (ILO, 2005).
Europe has been perceived as immigrant continent. The number of African migrants attempting to enter Europe
has increased remarkably during the past few years. For instance, in 2005, 22,939 illegal migrants were
registered on the Italian Island of Lampedusa and between January and August, 2006, 14,567 newcomers arrived
((Human Right Watch,2005). Again in 2005, 11,781 African illegal migrants arrived at Spanish Canary
Islands(Human Right Watch,2005). Besides, European countries sometimes recruit migrants to fill the labour
and skill shortages that were predicted to rise in the coming years.

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It is believed that Al Queda activities underpin North Africa immigrants in Europe. It is against this backdrop
that in the West, immigration of people from developing country has been perceived as a problem in need of
control. Since the mid 1970’s, opposition to immigration has been on the rise. With the slowdown in economic
growth and significant unemployment, immigration from developing countries has come to be perceived as a
burden and even a threat to economic growth and welfare of developed countries. In the post 9/11 era, latent
feelings that non-Western immigrants also form an internal threat to social coercion, cultural coherence and
security of the West, seemed to have increased.
Todaro (1969), who propounded the Neo-Classical Economic Theory maintains that migration is related to
global supply and demand for labour. Nations with scarce labour supply and high demand will have high wages
that pull immigrants in from nations with a surplus labour.
The implication on the receiving country will be a arise in its population, increased market power, enjoyment of
economics of scale due to low production cost, growth in immigrant tax revenue and development of the
economy in general. In addition, the country will be able to sustain its social security policy and development of
its technological infrastructure as migrants come with new technological capabilities.
Piore(1979) theorized the Segmented Labour Market Theory. He argued that first world economies are
structured so as to require a certain level of immigration. They have a primary market of secure, well
remunerated work and a secondary market of low wage work. The demand for immigrant labour at a time when
Spain was experiencing high unemployment supports the principles of dual labor market theory (Piore 1979;
King et al. 1997; Mendoza 1997; Viega 1999). According to the theory, the labor market is segmented into
primary and secondary sectors (Piore 1979).
The relevance of this theory is that the host country may take advantage of the spill over effect of technological
knowhow of immigrant. This will mean, after some time, they will not need many of such immigrants. The other
side is that the presence of the immgrant may cause unemployment in the receiving country.
Sassen (1998) also argues from his World System Theory that international migration is a by-product of
capitalism.
Capitalist economy means free market economy where demand and supply interact to determine market price.
There is no government control of the labour market or wages. The caution is that if care is not taken, there will
be over reliance of immigrants (foreigners) who as the result of their position will then dictate what must be
done in the country where they are immigrants. If they are not listened to, they may withdraw their services
which will put that economy in a jeopardized situations.
The Africa migration picture
Africa is noted for its long history of migration within and beyond the vast continent. It is estimated that the
number of people with African decent that live outside of the continent is close to 140 million, most in the
Western Hemisphere (Shinn, 2008).
Migration within Africa has been engineered by commerce, pastoralism, natural disaster, wars and the search for
employment. Pre-colonial movement of Africans explorers and labourers were unsystematised, and entire
village, tribes and clans were known to have moved to escape ravages of internecine warfare or to avoid
unfavorable agriculture and climatic conditions resulting in famine and drought (ECA, 1981).
Migration
during this time was meant for trade and evangelization. In Africa, countries with emigration rate that far
exceeds the global average are Cape Verde, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe, Lesotho and Mali. These
are relatively small countries in terms of population compared to the average African country. They normally
have narrow or limited livelihood opportunities and dependency on specific commodity for trade. Again, a
country like Eritrea where there was extended war for 30 years, we had a massive wave of refugee that migrated
to different parts of the world (Docquier and Schiff, 2009). Halton and Williamson (2003) affirm that countries
that experience large scale conflict and war contribute to periodic instability in net movement of people in
Africa.
Mention must be made of the fact that intra-African migration is also driven by the complexities of the history of
state formation where colonial boarders overlooked often linguistic and ethnic commonalities as well as waves
of internal and cross boarder conflicts. That reflects migration in search of job opportunities across neighbouring
countries.
The existence of a community in the country of destination to whom the migrant can identify and fit easily also
facilitate migration. For instance where there are linguistic, historical and religious ties. Migrant from Burundi,
Rwanda fit in Uganda and Tanzania. Migrant from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia fit among themselves
(AbebeShimeless, 2010). Emigrant from Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau and Mali normally migrate to Code
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D’ivoire. Normally, Ghana is the destination for immigrant from Niger, Nigeria and Chad. Migrant from
Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho normally have South Africa as their destination.
We can as well look at what factors cause migration from Africa to Europe. Massey et al. (1993) maintain that
social networks sustain migration by mutually connecting migrants and non-migrants in relationships through
which information and assistance are transmitted. Again, post independent Africa countries maintain close
economic, political, cultural and linguistic relations with colonial powers that continued to this day. For instance
France, Belgium and U.K maintain special relation with their former colonies in Africa. This includes privilege
to travel, study and business opportunities. Anglophone countries normally travel to U.K and Francophone
countries to France (e.g privileges of membership of commonwealth of nations )
The cumulative effect of past migration could also facilitate further outflows from Africa. This is because
immigrants in the European countries help remove the constraints to emigration to aspiring emigrants in the
country of origin in many ways such as, financing trips, facilitating information and reducing the burden of
settlement.
Migration from Africa to Europe is also propelled by demographic and labour market pressure. The general
notion is that, the prospect for the young and unemployed could be found in developed countries. Massey et al,
(1994) points out that most empirical evidence suggest that a crucial impetus for international migration is the
combination of systemic unemployment in the sender population and good employment prospects in the
receiving population.
Increased possibility for migrants and their families to live transnationally and adopt transnational identities
through revolutions in communications and transport infrastructure has influenced migration to the West
(Vectovec,1999).This has enabled migrants to foster double loyalties, travel back and forth, to relate with people,
to work and do many business simultaneously in distant places.
Besides, significant differences in living standards between underdeveloped, developing, (such as countries in
Africa) and developed countries such as those in Europe move others from Africa to Europe. However the ability
to make the decision and pay for travelling expenses and stay there will determine the migration rate (HDR,
2009). In fact this is why those in poor regions remain in neighbouring countries where they can afford the
travelling expenses. Wages gap between African and European countries serve as incentive to migrate (Halton
and Williamson, 2003).
Another cause of migration has to do with the failure of existing economic, political and social structures to
provide equal right and just opportunities for women. This has contributed to the feminization of poverty leading
to feminization of migration as women leave their homes in search of viable economic options and to enjoy
human dignity and respect. Women are normally not involved in major decisions and leadership positions.
1.2 Methodology, sample and data analysis strategy
Primarily this research centres on the qualitative paradigm. Face to face indeph-interview strategy was deployed
in the collection of data. In qualitative research, we are concerned with meanings attributed to events and
experiences by participants in their naturally occurring environments (Willig, 2001). It is normally based on
specific context and usually describes the real world settings of people to better understand social realities,
processes, meanings, patterns and structural features (Golafshani, 2003). Each interview lasted about 2 hours
and were either face-to-face or telephone based depending on the availability of the informants.
Twelve (12) experts from various backgrounds: Geographers, political scientists, Economists and Psychologists
some of whom have been immigrants in Europe and Africa were purposefully sampled and interviewed on their
experiences when they were immigrants. Out of the 12 participants, 5 of them were immigrants in their
respective country of destination including Germany, Norway, Barbados, America and U.K. The range of their
duration of stay is between 3 to 7 years. The age structure among them is between 40 to 55 years. One of the
participants although had not been an immigrant in a particular country per se yet has a lot of travelling
experience in various countries in Africa including Chad, Cameroune, Liberia, Nigeria,
Sierraleon.
Interviewees included Dr Joseph Osafo a Clinical Psychologist and Suicidologist, a Ghanaian lecturer with the
University of Ghana. He stayed in Norway for three years with his wife and 3 children during his doctor of
philosophy programme. Dr Osafo is eight years in the field of teaching. Also Aku Hafron, a Psychology lecturer
with Central University College was interviewed. She was in Barbados for three years during her Master of
Philosophy work and has been in the teaching field for eight years. In addition, Dr. Futagbi, a Ghanaian,
Biblical Counsellor, a Psychologist and a lecturer with Central University College who stayed in U.S for seven
years and has been in the teaching practice for six years was interviewed. In addition, two Reverend ministers
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Freeman Tete, a lecturer with Central University College and W.W.W. Marfo of Assemblies of God Church in
Ghana were also interviewed. Rev. Tete has been in church work for over fifteen years and been teaching in the
University for 11 years. Rev. Marfo a district pastor,has been in pastoral work for twenty five years with his
church.
Again, I conducted interviews with Dr. Edward Amponsah, Rev. Isaac Adjapong and Mrs Edna Adjapong. Dr.
Amponsah is a Ghanaian, health Economist and a lecturer with the University of Ghana. He has been in the field
of teaching for nine years. He stayed in Germany for three years during his PHD work. Rev. Adjapong, a
Ghanaian, is the general overseer of Gospel Results Chapel and has been in pastoral work for ten years. He is a
lecturer with Christian University College -Ghana. Rev. Adjapong has travelled to several countries in Africa
including Cameroun, Chad, Nigeria, Liberia and Sierra Leone. Mrs Edna Adjapong is an historian and a teacher
in a secondary school. The participant age range is between 39-45 years and is all Ghanaians.
Besides, I had an interview with Dr. K. Owusu, concerning the political perspective of migration. Dr Owusu is a
Ghanaian, Political Scientist and a lecturer with the department of Political Science in the University of Ghana.
He has been in the teaching field for three years.
Courtesy and respect were accorded the interviewees during the interview encounter. Some questions asked were
what are the causes of migration? What are the psychological and cultural implications of migration? What are
the perceived political and economic causes and implications of migration?
Desktop research: secondary data were also gathered from relevant books and articles. Sources of information
have been intentionally acknowledged.
1.3 Justification and objectives of the research
Migration is a constant global activity and a critical social issue that needs attention and effective management.
The intensity of it and related implications provoke intelligent research and discussions on the subject. The
purpose of this paper is to discuss the causes and the implications of migration from African and European
perspectives to inform suitable global migration policies for the 21st century.
2. Analysis of findings
As confirmed by literature, participants interviewed showed clearly that there are causes and socio-cultural and
psychological implications for migration as depicted by the participants below:
When people in socio-centric (communal/interdependent societies) cultures migrate to egocentric
(individualized/self-dependent) societies they feel more alienated. They lack the sense of
belongingness. They have the feeling of cultural homelessness. Uncomfortable feelings and experiences
are reported by migrants (Participant 1).
An African migrant from a socializing culture like Ghana where life and challenges are shared who as a
result of migration is jettisoned into an opposite culture, is more likely to feel a sense of alienation and
develop stress. Migration often necessitates fundamental changes in what food people eat and how it is
prepared thus forcing old nutritional habits and customs to be sacrificed in order to adapt to new
lifestyle. For example, breast feeding is often taken for granted in industrialized societies where more
pressure and influence of formula foods have helped erode breast feeding (Participant 2)
Another participant provided the narrative below:
If the movement involves the whole family, it might result in high financial expenditures that may be
too high for migrants, with eventual consequence for developing psychological distress. The problem of
racism is a very serious psychological issue. This causes frustration, a feeling of rejection from the new
culture resulting in lack of confidence in migrants which subsequently translates into mental health
difficulties such as inferiority complex and feelings of marginalization (Participant 3)
Also, trying to compete with the host people for a decent life is threatened. Stress is again developed
which when not managed immediately may lead to mental disorders (Participant 4)
The below statement is a view point of one of the participants:
Acculturation starts in the host country. This is also associated with stress. The difficulty in learning the
language of the receiving country creates linguistic uncertainty. Also, it takes a lot of energy and tact to
relate well to people one is meeting for the first time in the host country. The fact that immigrants
clearly see they are not welcome or accepted in the new culture alone creates mental torment daily
(Interview 5).

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Additionally, accommodation and unemployment challenges create psychological trauma. For example,
residence and work permit documentation process may cause immigrants to be frustrated or stranded. In
pursuing these processes, immigrants may exhaust all their money and yet may be denied. This may
lead to mental disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders and personality disorders when not
properly managed (Participant 6)
Where migrants leave their family behind, separation anxiety may result. The bonding of children to
parents reduces and may disappear entirely after some time due to the separation. Foster and surrogate
mothers may not be able to show proper care, and might also abuse these children. The situation is
worsened when there is poor or no remittances. The tendency of these children suffering from child
labour or and forced labour will be high (Participant 5).
Also, in the case where the wife is the migrant, remittances from her may be mismanaged or
misallocated, as normally the husband or guardian may channel it into acquisition of assets and other
projects that might not be a priority compared to for instance the education of the children left behind.
The children then suffer and their future becomes blurred. When these children are able to find a way to
communicate their plight to the migrant mother, marital tension may result between the couple and if
not managed well, divorce may result (Participant 7)
There are times that marriage by contract may be entered into by the immigrant normally with the aim
of acquiring a residence permit quickly. However, after the contract period, love and intimacy may have
ultimately developed and each party or one party may want the relationship to continue. However,
where the migrant has a wife/husband already, then polygamous marriage occurs with all its associated
pressure or divorce. There is also the possibility of transferring bad behaviors from the migrant into the
host culture. The reverse could also be true. Again, many immigrants lose their ties all together with the
country of origin (Participant 8)
Migration also has some positive psychological implications as well. The immigrant learns or acquires
knowledge, innovative and creative skills from the host culture which boost his/her ego or sense of
worth. There is also the possibility of social learning. Some values such as hard work, discipline,
openness may positively impact on the immigrants. When the immigrant is able to socialize properly
and gain good job with decent remuneration, the sense of worth and esteem are empowered. Sociocentrism may be carried into the host culture. Thus the host culture may also learn some good things
from the lived experience of the immigrants. Formal marriage could be arranged by the immigrant and
the indigene. This becomes fruitful when stereotypes and prejudices are ironed out. Better health care
facility in the host country may build the personality of the immigrant(Participant 9).
A participants made the narrative below when explaining the causes and implications of migration:
Availability of natural resources such as fertile land for agriculture, water, green vegetation with food,
building sand and timber for wood works, and areas that can facilitate the rearing of livestock tend to
attract people to migrate. Examples are river basins (e.g. The River Niger Basin in West Africa); and
forested zones (e.g. Cameroon has tended to attract a lot of migrants from her neighbours, such as
Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Chad) (Participant 9)
Conflicts scare people away from their home regions. In Ghana, for instance, there are migrants from
Cote d’evoire, Mali, and Liberia, due to conflicts in their native countries. These conflicts have sprung
up from ethnic tensions, conflicting claims over mostly land resources, and chieftaincy claims.
Common to life pursuit is the desire to improve one’s living condition. Where one’s native area gives a
relatively limited chance of pursuing desired goals, he or she may look elsewhere for better
opportunities. Historically, the Fulanis of the Sahel Region (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Mauretania and
Chad have tended to move southward to Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, and other Southern based
nations. The reason is to improve socio-economic conditions and alleviate impoverishment. Migrants
have also moved from landlocked countries to coastal based countries for economic opportunities
(Participant 8).
When large numbers of people move from one country to the other, it means there is a reduction in
population at say location ‘A’ and an increase in population in location ‘B’(the destination place). This
may put pressure on public facilities such as housing, hospitals, schools, electricity, water etc. in the
receiving country or country of destination- location B. For the population in location ‘B’, if the
majority of the emigrants are within the workforce, the manpower expertise will reduce drastically. This
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will affect the country’s production capacity or increased cost of production when additional hands
from other countries are recruited for such purpose. Where the immigrants carry their families along,
there is a transfer of burden from one location to the other which can negatively affect the host country
if it has not adequately prepared for that. Cross boarder crimes also increase during the migration. There
is the tendency of environmental stress resulting from high consumption and waste generation in the
receiving country(Participant 6).
On the issue of attainment of citizenship and implications, participants have this to say:
Citizenship is attained by the following ways: when one originates from a given a country (is an
indigene), born in a given country, married to an indigene and finally by opting to become a citizen
through the process of naturalization. A migrant who has gone through the legal processes of
citizenship of the state and has attained it, automatically assumes a new status thereby receiving some
privileges such as voting right, ability to hold public office, claim unemployment insurance payment,
right to protection under the law and the court system, right to own property, carry out business and
practice certain professions among others (interviewer 11).
Another participant puts the following voice:
Privileges go with some responsibilities like payment of taxes, obedience
to the law and adherence to societal standards in terms of social and moral behaviours, care for the
feelings and rights of others and use of one’s skill to help improve the community. However, the
problem is that today, acquiring citizenship by nationalization or by birth in a foreign country has been
marked with severe struggle and tension. The process is an herculean task (Interviewer 10).
On the issue of belongingness, it was revealed that Africans are normally well received by the African
communities in the receiving country (Europe) but very difficult to be accepted within the European
communities. The narrative below expresses it:
The Africans’ sense of belongingness in the European community is minimal. Racial discrimination and
inequitable treatment against Africans in Europe continuous and abounds. Africans on the contrary,
mostly accept European immigrants. In Ghana for example, they have a very warm reception and are
helped to settle. This is however, more often than not determined by individual characteristics and the
locality in Africa where the European is settling (Interviewer 11)
It is also evidenced that Europeans adapt and adopt quickly in Africa than African immigrants in Europe. See
the narrative below:
The European immigrants in Ghana feel more secured and comfortable than that of the African
immigrants in Europe (interviewer 12).
3. Discussions
Shore (2002), defines culture as shared meanings, understanding or referent held by a group of people. When
people migrate from one nation to the other, they carry their knowledge, distress and hope with them. On settling
down in the new culture, their cultural identity is likely to change. African immigrants in an European culture,
whether they have attained citizenship or not, normally get settled down by assimilation; bi-culturation;
separation; or by marginalization.
By assimilation, they adopt the receiving country’s culture and discard the heritage culture. As immigrants
acquire the values, practices and benefits of their new homeland, they are normally expected to discard those
from their cultural heritage. However, others have argued that receiving culture acquisition and heritage
retention are cast as independent dimensions (Berry, 1980).
Kivisto (2001) sees transnationalism as a form of assimilation on the basis that immigrants maintain social ties in
their countries of origin while engaging in processes of acculturation in the host society. Moreover, he argues
that contrary to the transnational view of immigrants simultaneously living in two countries, at any given
moment immigrants are located in one, and the immediate concerns of the receiving country take precedence
over the more distant concerns of the sending community. However, defining transnationalism as a form of
assimilation or adaptation does not take into account the variation of transnational behaviours among immigrants
with comparable familiar and social ties in their countries of origin.
Bi-culturation is where immigrants integrate or adopt the receiving culture and concurrently retain the heritage
culture (Martinez& Haritatos,2005). Separation is where migrants reject the receiving country’s culture and
retain the heritage culture. Marginalization. is the case that a migrant rejects both the heritage culture and the
receiving country’s culture (Berry, 2006). Migrants who are discriminated against in the host culture may have
more trouble adapting (Portes, 2006) and resist practices, values and identification with the host culture
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(Rumbant, 2008). There are also cross cultural tensions within ethnically mixed family and between family and
its culturally different environment due to the geographic moves. Culturally, homeless individual may enjoy a
broader stronger cognitive and social repertoire because of their multicultural frame of reference
(Narrarette,1999).
Language is part of national identity. Migrants who speak other languages or cannot speak the language of the
country they are settling are considered a threat to national unity. Permutation among language-ethnicity and
cultural similarity and other factors affect the ease or difficulty associated with the cultural process. Inability to
speak the receiving country’s accent gives the immigrant out and may cause discrimination and scorn from the
native people (Yoo, Gee & Takeuchi, 2009). Others may perceive the inability to learn the receiving countries
language as a sign of disrespect which carries bad implications. Incidence of trafficking, exploitation and abuse
of migrants abound in other parts of Africa as both legal and illegal migration have become commercialized
(Show, 2007). A study confirms that maternal migrants might dictate that remittances are spent on children’s
education leading to possible domestic tensions (Rossi, 2008).
Black (2001), maintains that environment crisis is typically linked to mass population movement which
sometimes is seen as antithesis to development. It also involves more administrative expenses, difficulty in
getting job, accessing state services and learning a new language (Weeks, 1999).
Geographical mobility is widely recognized as one of the main facilitating conditions of HIV transmission in
Sub-Saharan Africa (Winter,1999).
Labour markets job openings, unemployment, incomes, trade, competition as well as import and export patterns
are all impacted by migration. Highly skilled immigrants have been noted for helping eliminate labour shortages
in certain industries in Europe. Economic growth that is GDP was almost 6% higher in Germany than without
migrants. 9000 jobs were created and that migration created a surplus of DM14 billion in the public sectors
compared to the baseline in Germany.
Also, nations in Africa receive significant share of their foreign exchange from remittances which is stable and
predictable (Ratha, 2003). Migrants from Africa send higher remittances to their relatives and that serve as a
counter cyclical instruments during negative shock. For instance in the last decade remittances have emerged as
the second largest source of funding for developing countries and their volumes continue to grow. According to
the World Bank, in 2005, migrants worldwide sent a total of $232 billion in remittances. Of these, an estimated
$167 billion dollars was sent to countries in the developing world- more than twice that of official development
aid and ten times the net private capital transfers (World Bank 2006; Kapur& McHale 2003; Rossi, 2008)
Possibility of transfer of skills acquired over the years by return migrants creates a significant impact on the
economies of most African countries. Migrants from Africa are a reservoir of great potential that can be
harnessed and unleashed to transform the development prospects of many countries and assist in the fight against
poverty, hunger, disease and human suffering (Ratha et al, 2008). Immigrants who work as doctors, engineers or
other professionals are received with open arms in Europe whereas refugees and asylum seekers as well as
immigrants from low socio-economic brackets and those who migrate illegally may be viewed as a drain on the
receiving country’s resources (Stoner,2009) and may more likely face discrimination (Louis, Duck, Terry,
Schuller and Lolande, 2007). Countries like Poland and Romania flock to central Europe to offer labour.
As the least accepted immigrant group, the integration of African immigrants into for instance Spanish society
conforms to the differential exclusion model. In this model, immigrants are incorporated as ethnic minorities
marginalized by both their ethnicity and immigrant status (Castles 1995; King and Rodríguez-Melguizo 1999).
African immigrants are incorporated into specific sectors, such as the labor market, but are denied access to
social services. This means that African immigrants in Europe who have much talent, skills and education like
doctors, engineers, architects have relatively better treatment
African crises have direct and decision making impact on the European migration and foreign policy. European
national governments seek to protect their own indigenous labour forces from rapidly rising unemployment by
restricting migration and sometimes returning migrants to their country of origin. It also pays special attention to
the current poverty and conflict driven African migration toward Europe by putting long term measures to secure
itself outside of its territory that prevent the flow of immigration from African crisis region. For instance,
Europe sent its intervention troops to Democratic Republic of Congo in 2006 as part of its migration policy to
protect itself from spillover effects of the African crises.
On a more serious note, the 9/11 terrorists attack in New York and bombing of Madrid in March 2004 and
London in July, 2005 have prompted Europe to tighten its security not only internally but also externally. It has
also informed the West to take a second look at its international relations policy. The growing number of
migrants from Africa and other parts of the world to Europe is considered as one of the key threats to European
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political and social security. Implicitly and explicitly, African migrants are being considered in Europe as
Islamic fundamentalists, potential terrorists, drug dealers and criminals, thus the increased resentments against
legal and illegal migrants and securitization of migration . Great Britain, France, Italy and Germany formed
alliance to collectively fight illegal migration and terrorism from Africa and also planned to create reception for
African refugees in Northern African states .
As part of the securitization measures, raider systems, day and night vision cameras, tear gas diffusion and
detection wires are used. Spain has also doubled the height of the fences that separate the enclave from Morocco.
This means, ‘fortress building of Europe’. This is aimed at reducing immigration.
Portes and Zhou (1993) have identified three features of the receiving environment that contribute to downward
mobility as: discrimination, residence in impoverished areas, and restricted economic opportunities.
These efforts by Europe is however frowned upon by some quarters as it is interpreted as undermining human
right, values, equality and justice and the rule of law. For example, economists believe that totally free
movement of labour will be most effective means of reducing global inequality and stimulating the moribund
world economy. It is against this background that the 2009 UN Human Development Report called on rich
governments to reduce the barriers of entry to low-skilled migrant labour.
4. Summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations for policy
From the literature review, and the analysis of the interviews, the following observations were made about the
causes and implications of migration (African –European perspectives).
Violence and Poverty were usually considered as the main pattern of African crises or the push factors of
Africans migration to Europe. Restrictive policies, anti-immigrant public discourse and dehumanizing treatments
that accompanied Africa migrants contributed to the marginalization and emotional isolation of African
immigrants in Europe.
It was revealed that as Western economies kept growing, it was more likely labour migration to Europe would
continue to persist or increase if effective policies and structures were not put in place. Conversely, very
significant developments in Africa will reduce migration to Europe and rather would attract foreign immigrants
into Africa whose skills and knowledge will help contribute to the socio-economic developments of Africa. On
the more serious note since Africans’ migration to Europe and other parts of the world is for security and conflict
free environment, it is suggested that African leaders must not be mere power seeking and amassing of wealth
but rather show love for the people they seek their endorsement into power by creating conflict and violence free
environment for them. This will cause the majority to stay at the home country. African governments are to
ensure that their available resources are prudently used and should explore avenues that could speed up their
socio-economic, political and technological developments. Job creation, investment in education, agriculture,
and the manufacturing sectors through foreign partnership will definitely open up the economy of Africa.
Foreign investors that will be attracted will contribute significantly to Africa’s development. General
development in Africa will more likely curb migration from Africa.
Besides, African governments have to seriously control illegal emigration from their continent and ensure that
legal and crises forced immigrants from Africa in Europe have their fundamental human rights and dignity
protected. For example, African asylum seekers, refugees and other labour migrants from Africa to Europe must
have their human rights protected. There should also be a support system for them mooted by both the host and
the home nations. This is possible through international relations agreements, mutual calibrations and
negotiations.
Furthermore, the European protectionist and restricted trade policies must be regulated and the process by which
immigrants send remittances home should be made simple and secured. Besides, the fortress building of Europe
has led to greater reliance on increasingly risky and costly undocumented migration which have paradoxically
encouraged permanent settlement, professionalization of people smuggling, partial criminalization of migration,
increasing financial and human cost and risk of border crossing and interrupting patterns of circular migration
(de Haas, 2005, Massey, 2005; Harvis, 2002). Hein de Haas ( research officer at IMI, university of Oxford)
It is important to intensify dialogue in terms of building relationships, caring and treating everyone with
sensitivity irrespective of colour or race or tribe. Human right values, equality, justice, rule of law must be
valued and respected.
Future research may cover other areas such Africa migration to North America, Caribean, Australian and Asia.

40

Vol.16, 2013

www.iiste.org

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