Ac fundamentals

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall
Chapter 11Chapter 11
Chapter 11

Summary
The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage
waveform.
Sine waves
Electrical sine waves are
named from the
mathematical function
with the same shape.

A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical
waves cannot be seen directly but they have similar
characteristics. All periodic waves can be constructed
from sine waves, which is why sine waves are
fundamental.
Summary

Summary
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and period.
The amplitude is the maximum value of a voltage or
current; the period is the time interval for one complete
cycle.
Sine waves
0 V
1 0 V
- 1 0 V
1 5 V
- 1 5 V
- 2 0 V
t ( s )µ
0 2 5 3 7 . 5 5 0 . 0
2 0 V
The amplitude (A)
of this sine wave
is 20 V
The period is 50.0 µs
A
T

Summary
The period of a sine wave can be measured between
any two corresponding points on the waveform.
Sine waves
T T T T
T T
By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only
measured from the center to the maximum point.
A

3.0 Hz
SummarySummary
Frequency
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency
is 1.0 s

Summary
The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.
Summary
Period and frequency
T
f
1
= and f
T
1
=
Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the
other.
If the period is 50 µs, the frequency is 0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.
(The 1/x key on your calculator is handy for converting between f and T.)

Summary
Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators and
electronic oscillators.
Summary
Sinusoidal voltage sourcesGeneration of a sine wave
N S
M o tio n o f c o n d u c t o r C o n d u c to r
B
C
D
A
A
B
C
D
A
B
B
C
D
A
C
B
C
D
A
D
When a conductor rotates in a constant magnetic
field, a sinusoidal wave is generated.
When the conductor is moving parallel with
the lines of flux, no voltage is induced.
When the loop is moving perpendicular to the
lines of flux, the maximum voltage is induced.
B
C
D
A

Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. A
stationary field alternator with a rotating armature is shown.
The armature has an induced voltage, which is connected
through slip rings and brushes to a load. The armature loops
are wound on a magnetic core (not shown for simplicity).
AC generator (alternator)
N S
s lip rin g s
a rm a t u re
b ru s h e s
Small alternators may use a
permanent magnet as shown
here; other use field coils to
produce the magnetic flux.

AC generator (alternator)
By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycles
per revolution is increased. A four-pole generator will
produce two complete cycles in each revolution.

Function generators
Function selection
Frequency
Output level (amplitude)
DC offset
CMOS output
Range
Adjust
Duty cycle
Typical controls:
Outputs
Readout
S in e S q u a re Tria n g le

RMS Value
• root mean square or the effective value,
• measure of the heating effect of the sine wave.
• The rms value of a sinusoidal voltage is equal to the
dc voltage that produces the same amount of heat in
a resistance as does the sinusoidal voltage.

RMS Value

Chapter 11Chapter 11 RMS Value

Average Value
• The average value of a sine wave taken
over one complete cycle is always zero
because the positive values (above the
zero crossing) offset the negatIve
values (below the zero crossing).

Average Value
• the average value of a sine wave is defined over a
half-cycle rather than over a full cycle.
• The average value is the total area under the half-
cycle curve divided by the dis- tance in radians of
the curve along the horizontal axis.

Sine wave voltage and current values
There are several ways to specify the voltage of a
sinusoidal voltage waveform. The amplitude of a sine
wave is also called the peak value, abbreviated as VP for
a voltage waveform.
0 V
1 0 V
- 1 0 V
1 5 V
- 1 5 V
- 2 0 V
t ( s )µ
0 2 5 3 7 . 5 5 0 . 0
2 0 V
The peak voltage of
this waveform is 20 V.
VP

0 V
1 0 V
- 1 0 V
1 5 V
- 1 5 V
- 2 0 V
t ( s )µ
0 2 5 3 7 . 5 5 0 . 0
2 0 V
The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as
either the peak-to-peak or the rms value. The peak-to-
peak is twice the peak value. The rms value is 0.707
times the peak value.
The peak-to-peak
voltage is 40 V.
The rms voltage
is 14.1 V.
VPP
Vrms

0 V
1 0 V
- 1 0 V
1 5 V
- 1 5 V
- 2 0 V
t ( s )µ
0 2 5 3 7 . 5 5 0 . 0
2 0 V
For some purposes, the average value (actually the half-
wave average) is used to specify the voltage or current.
By definition, the average value is as 0.637 times the
peak value.
The average value for
the sinusoidal voltage
is 12.7 V.
Vavg

Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o
) or
radians. The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when
the arc is equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360o
or
2π radians in one complete revolution.
Angular measurement
R
R
1 .0
- 1 .0
0 .8
- 0 .8
0 .6
- 0 .6
0 .4
- 0 .4
0 .2
- 0 .2
0
0 2 πππ
2
π
4
π
4
3 π
2
3π
4
5 π
4
7

Because there are 2π radians in one complete revolution
and 360o
in a revolution, the conversion between radians
and degrees is easy to write. To find the number of
radians, given the number of degrees:
degrees
360
rad2
rad ×
°
=
π
rad
rad2
360
deg ×
°
=
π
To find the number of degrees, given the radians:
Angular measurement

Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as v or i. The
equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a sine
wave is
Sine wave equation
where
If the peak voltage is 25 V, the instantaneous
voltage at 50 degrees is
θsinpVv =
Vp =
θ =
Peak voltage
Angle in rad or degrees
19.2 V

Sine wave equation
v = = 1 9 .2 VV p s in
V p
9 0 °
5 0 °0 °
= 5 0 °
V p
V p
= 2 5 V
A plot of the example in the previous slide (peak at
25 V) is shown. The instantaneous voltage at 50o
is
19.2 V as previously calculated.

Phase shift
where
φ = Phase shift
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement
that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a
reference. To show that a sine wave is shifted to the
left or right of this reference, a term is added to the
equation given previously.
( )φθ ±= sinPVv

Phase shift
Voltage(V)
2 7 0 ° 3 6 0 °0 ° 9 0 ° 1 8 0 °
4 0
4 5 ° 1 3 5 ° 2 2 5 ° 3 1 5 °
0
A n g le (° )
3 0
2 0
1 0
- 2 0
- 3 0
- 4 0
4 0 5 °
P e a k v o lta g e
R e fe re n c e
Notice that a lagging sine
wave is below the axis at 0o
Example of a wave that lags the
reference
v = 30 V sin (θ − 45o
)
…and the equation
has a negative phase
shift

Phase shift
Voltage(V)
2 7 0 ° 3 6 0 °0 ° 9 0 ° 1 8 0 °
4 0
4 5 ° 1 3 5 ° 2 2 5 ° 3 1 5 °0
A n g le (° )
3 0
2 0
1 0
- 2 0
- 3 0
- 4 0
P e a k vo lt a g e
R e fe re n c e
- 4 5 °
- 1 0
Notice that a leading sine
wave is above the axis at 0o
Example of a wave that leads the
reference
v = 30 V sin (θ + 45o
)
…and the equation
has a positive phase
shift

00 9 0
9 0
1 8 01 8 0 3 6 0
The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a
vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is
called a phasor.
Phasors

Phasors allow ac calculations to use basic trigonometry.
The sine function in trigonometry is the ratio of the
opposite side of a right triangle to the adjacent side.
h y p o t e n u s e
θ
r i g h t
a n g l e
o p p o s i t e s i d e
a d j a c e n t s i d e h y p o t e n u s e
o p p o s i t e s i d e
s i n =θ
Phasors

The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed
as a positive angle, measured counterclockwise from 0°
or as a negative angle equal to θ − 360°.
Phasors
positive angle of θ
negative angle of θ − 360°
phasor

Angular velocity of a phasor
When a phasor rotates through 360° or 2π radians, one
complete cycle is traced out.
The velocity of rotation is called the angular velocity (ω).
ω = 2πf
The instantaneous voltage at any point in time is given
by
v = Vpsin 2πf
(Note that this angular velocity is expressed in radians per second.)

Frequently dc and ac voltages are together in a waveform.
They can be added algebraically, to produce a composite
waveform of an ac voltage “riding” on a dc level.
Superimposed dc and ac voltages

Pulse definitions
A m p litu d e
P u ls e
w id th
B a s e lin e
A m p litu d e
P u ls e
w id th
B a s e lin e
(a ) Po s itiv e - g o in g p u ls e (b ) N e g a tiv e - g o in g p u ls e
Le a d in g (ris in g ) e d g e
T ra ilin g (fa llin g ) e d g e
Le a d in g (f a llin g ) e d g e
T ra ilin g (ris in g ) e d g e
Ideal pulses

Pulse definitions
Non-ideal pulses
A
0 .9 A
0 .1 A
tr t
t
f
W
t t
0 .5 A
A
(a ) (b )R is e a n d fa ll tim e s P u ls e w id th
Notice that rise and fall times are measured between
the 10% and 90% levels whereas pulse width is
measured at the 50% level.

Triangular and sawtooth waves
Triangular and sawtooth waveforms are formed by
voltage or current ramps (linear increase/decrease)
Triangular waveforms have
positive-going and negative-
going ramps of equal slope.
The sawtooth waveform consists
of two ramps, one of much longer
duration than the other.

Harmonics
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed
of a fundamental frequency (repetition rate of the
waveform) and harmonic frequencies.
Odd harmonics are frequencies that are odd multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Even harmonics are frequencies that are even multiples
of the fundamental frequency.

Harmonics
A square wave is composed only of the fundamental
frequency and odd harmonics (of the proper amplitude).

C h 1
E x t e rn a l
trig g e r
C o n v e rsio n /s to ra g e
(D ig ita l s c o p e s o n ly )
Sig n a l c o u p lin g
A C
D C G N D
A m p
C h 2 C o n v e rsio n /s to ra g e
A C
D C G N D
A m p
V o lts /D i v
V e rtic a l
p o s itio n
A C
D C
E x t
T rig g e r
so u r c e
E x t e r n a l trig g e r
c o u p lin g
C h 1
C h 2
L in e
T rig g e r
c irc u it s
T rig g e r
le v e l a n d
slo p e
T im e b a s e
Se c /D iv
H o riz o n ta l
p o sitio n
C o n tro l a n d p ro c e ss
In te n s ity
A C
D C t o a ll se c tio n s
P o w e r su p p ly
V e r t i c a l s e c t io n
D i s p la y s e c t i o n
H o r i z o n ta l
s e c t i o nT r ig g e r s e c t io n
D ig ita l
o n ly
A n a lo g
o n ly
Summary
Oscilloscopes The oscilloscope is divided into
four main sections.C h 1 C o n v e rsio n /sto ra g e
(D ig ita l sc o p e s o n ly )
S ig n a l c o u p lin g
A C
D C G N D
A m p
C h 2 C o n v e rsio n /sto ra g e
(D ig ita l sc o p e s o n ly )
A C
D C G N D
A m p
V o lts/D i v
V e rtic a l
p o sitio n
V e r t i c a l s e c t i o n
E x te rn a l
trig g e r
A C
D C
E x t
T rig g e r
s o u r c e
E x te r n a l trig g e r
c o u p lin g
C h 1
C h 2
Lin e
T rig g e r
c irc u its
T rig g e r
le v e l a n d
slo p e
A C
T r i g g e r s e c t i o n
F ro m h o riz o n ta l s e c tio n
F ro m
v e rt ic a l
s e c t io n
In t e n s ity
A n a lo g
o n ly
D i s p l a y s e c t i o n
T im e b a s e
S e c / D iv
H o riz o n ta l
p o s it io n
C o n t ro l a n d p ro c e s s
D ig it a l
To d is p la y s e c tio no n ly
H o r i z o n t a l
s e c t i o n

C h 1
E x t e rn a l
trig g e r
C o n v e rs io n /s to ra g e
Sig n a l c o u p lin g
A C
D C G N D
A m p
C h 2 C o n v e rs io n /s to ra g e
A C
D C G N D
A m p
V o lts /D i v
V e rtic a l
p o sitio n
A C
D C
E x t
T rig g e r
so u r c e
E x t e rn a l trig g e r
c o u p lin g
C h 1
C h 2
L in e
T rig g e r
c irc u it s
T rig g e r
le v e l a n d
s lo p e
T im e b a se
Se c /D iv
H o riz o n ta l
p o s itio n
C o n tro l a n d p ro c e s s
In te n s ity
A C
D C t o a ll se c tio n s
P o w e r su p p ly
V e r ti c a l s e c t io n
D i s p l a y s e c t i o n
H o r iz o n ta l
s e c t io nT r ig g e r s e c t i o n
D ig ita l
o n ly
A n a lo g
o n ly

Summary
Oscilloscopes
H O R IZ O N TA LV E R TIC A L TR IG G E R
5 s 5 n s
P O S ITIO N
C H 1 C H 2 E X T TR IG
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O L TS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
C H 1 C H 2 B O TH
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
S E C / D IV
P O S ITIO N
S LO P E
Ð +
L E V E L
S O U R C E
C H 1
C H 2
E X T
L IN E
TR IG C O U P
D C A C
D IS P L A Y
IN TE N S ITY
P R O B E C O M P
5 V
5 s 5 n s
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
C H 1 C H 2 B O TH
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
S E C / D IV
P O S ITIO N
S L O P E
Ð +
L E V E L
S O U R C E
C H 1
C H 2
E X T
L IN E
TR IG C O U P
D C A C
D IS P L A Y
IN TE N S ITY
P R O B E C O M P
5 V
Vertical
5 s 5 n s
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
C H 1 C H 2 B O TH
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
S E C / D IV
P O S ITIO N
S L O P E
Ð +
L E V E L
S O U R C E
C H 1
C H 2
E X T
L IN E
TR IG C O U P
D C A C
D IS P L A Y
IN TE N S ITY
P R O B E C O M P
5 V
Horizontal
5 s 5 n s
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
C H 1 C H 2 B O TH
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
S E C / D IV
P O S ITIO N
S L O P E
Ð +
L E V E L
S O U R C E
C H 1
C H 2
E X T
L IN E
TR IG C O U P
D C A C
D IS P L A Y
IN TE N S ITY
P R O B E C O M P
5 V
Trigger
5 s 5 n s
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
C H 1 C H 2 B O TH
P O S ITIO N
A C - D C - G N D
5 V 2 m V
V O LTS / D IV
C O U P L IN G
S E C / D IV
P O S ITIO N
S LO P E
Ð +
L E V E L
S O U R C E
C H 1
C H 2
E X T
L IN E
TR IG C O U P
D C A C
D IS P L A Y
IN TE N S ITY
P R O B E C O M P
5 V
Display

Sine wave
Alternating
current
Period (T)
Frequency (f)
Hertz
Current that reverses direction in response to
a change in source voltage polarity.
The time interval for one complete cycle of a
periodic waveform.
A type of waveform that follows a cyclic
sinusoidal pattern defined by the formula
y = A sin θ.
Selected Key Terms
A measure of the rate of change of a periodic
function; the number of cycles completed in 1 s.
The unit of frequency. One hertz equals one
cycle per second.

Instantaneous
value
Peak value
Peak-to-peak
value
rms value
The voltage or current value of a waveform at
its maximum positive or negative points.
The voltage or current value of a waveform
measured from its minimum to its maximum
points.
The voltage or current value of a waveform at
a given instant in time.
Selected Key Terms
The value of a sinusoidal voltage that indicates
its heating effect, also known as effective
value. It is equal to 0.707 times the peak value.
rms stands for root mean square.

Radian
Phasor
Amplitude
Pulse
Harmonics
The maximum value of a voltage or current.
A type of waveform that consists of two equal
and opposite steps in voltage or current
separated by a time interval.
A unit of angular measurement. There are 2π
radians in one complete 360o
revolution.
Selected Key Terms
The frequencies contained in a composite
waveform, which are integer multiples of the
pulse repetition frequency.
A representation of a sine wave in terms of its
magnitude (amplitude) and direction (phase angle).

Quiz
1. In North America, the frequency of ac utility voltage is
60 Hz. The period is
a. 8.3 ms
b. 16.7 ms
c. 60 ms
d. 60 s

Quiz
2. The amplitude of a sine wave is measured
a. at the maximum point
b. between the minimum and maximum points
c. at the midpoint
d. anywhere on the wave

Quiz
3. An example of an equation for a waveform that lags the
reference is
a. v = −40 V sin (θ)
b. v = 100 V sin (θ + 35o
)
c. v = 5.0 V sin (θ − 27o
)
d. v = 27 V

4. In the equation v = Vp sin θ , the letter v stands for the
a. peak value
b. average value
c. rms value
d. instantaneous value
Quiz

5. The time base of an oscilloscope is determined by the
setting of the
a. vertical controls
b. horizontal controls
c. trigger controls
d. none of the above
Quiz

6. A sawtooth waveform has
a. equal positive and negative going ramps
b. two ramps - one much longer than the other
c. two equal pulses
d. two unequal pulses
Quiz

7. The number of radians in 90o
are
a. π/2
b. π
c. 2π/3
d. 2π
Quiz

8. For the waveform shown, the same power would be
delivered to a load with a dc voltage of
a. 21.2 V
b. 37.8 V
c. 42.4 V
d. 60.0 V
Quiz
0 V
3 0 V
- 3 0 V
4 5 V
- 4 5 V
- 6 0 V
t ( s )µ
0 2 5 3 7 . 5 5 0 . 0
6 0 V

9. A square wave consists of
a. the fundamental and odd harmonics
b. the fundamental and even harmonics
c. the fundamental and all harmonics
d. only the fundamental
Quiz

Quiz
10. A control on the oscilloscope that is used to set the
desired number of cycles of a wave on the display is
a. volts per division control
b. time per division control
c. trigger level control
d. horizontal position control

Quiz
Answers:
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. d
5. b
6. b
7. a
8. c
9. a
10. b

Ac fundamentals

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