Advanced Microprocessors Class Notes.pdf
- 4. • Intel 8086 marked the beginning of x86 architecture which remains dominant in modern computers it was followed by several iteration that improved the performance. • Reduced instructions set computing (RISC) • The development of risc architecture marked the shift to the simplified instructions set for higher speed and performance. • IBM, Sun Microsystems and mips pioneered RISC design. HISTORY
- 5. MOVE FROM 32-BIT AND 64-BIT COMPUTING : • Intel Pentium pro - as the computing demand grew the Pentium pro processor introduced advanced features like out of order execution and speculative execution • 64 bit processor -the 1990 saw the rise of 64 bit computing AMD introduced the AMD64 architecture with its athlon 64 processor in 2004 allowing for much larger memory addressing and improved performance in modern application
- 6. MULTI CORE PROCESSOR (2000s) • Intel core architecture (2006)-as single core processor reached the limits of the clock speed due to power and heat constraints shifted towards multi core Design.introducing the dual core processor that improved the performance • The most recent microprocessors are 64-bit and are used in high-end personal computers and servers. These microprocessors have a clock speed of around 4 GHz and can handle up to 16 terabytes of memory.
- 8. First Generation (1970s) Intel 4004 (1971): - World's first microprocessor, developed by Intel for calculators. - 4-bit data bus, capable of processing 4 bits at a time. - Clock speed: 740 kHz, 2,300 transistors. - Pioneered the concept of a "programmable" processor, making hardware reusable for different applications. Intel 8080 (1974): - 8-bit processor, first general-purpose microprocessor. - Used in the Altair 8800, one of the first personal computers.
- 9. Second Generation (Late 1970s - Early 1980s) Intel 8086/8088 (1978): - 16-bit architecture, could address up to 1 MB of memory. - 8088 was chosen for the IBM PC, laying the foundation for the x86 architecture, still dominant today. - Significantly improved performance over 8-bit processors, enabled more complex software. Motorola 68000 (1979): - 32-bit internal architecture, though only a 16-bit external bus. - Used in early Apple Macintoshes, Atari ST, and Amiga computers.
- 10. Third Generation (Mid-1980s - Early 1990s) Intel 80386 (1985): - Full 32-bit processor, supported multitasking and virtual memory. - Key development for high-end business PCs and workstations. - First to enable "protected mode," allowing sophisticated operating systems like Windows and UNIX. RISC Architecture: - Introduced by IBM (POWER architecture) and ARM. - Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) simplified processor design by focusing on a smaller set of instructions executed more
- 11. Fourth Generation (1990s) Pentium Processors (1993): - Introduced by Intel, marked a shift toward multimedia processing with integrated floating-point units (FPUs). 32-bit architecture, clock speeds starting at 60 MHz. - Innovations: Superscalar architecture (allowing multiple instructions per clock cycle), pipelining, and predictive branching. - Popular in personal computers, significantly improved gaming, video, and internet capabilities. 64-bit Processors: - Developed in the late 1990s by Intel (Itanium) and AMD (Athlon
- 12. Fifth Generation (2000s) Multi-Core Processors: - First dual-core processors launched by Intel (Pentium D) and AMD (Athlon 64 X2) in the mid-2000s. - Allowed multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously, increasing computational power without relying solely on increasing clock speeds. - Quad-core and higher processors followed quickly, used in gaming, scientific simulations, and content creation. Mobile Processor Advancements: - ARM processors became dominant in mobile devices (e.g.,
- 13. Modern Era (2010s - Present) Multi-Core & Hybrid Architectures: Intel Core i9, AMD Ryzen with multiple cores. Specialized AI chips (e.g., Apple Neural Engine). Quantum & Neuromorphic Computing: Early stages of quantum processors and brain-like computing chips
- 14. Pentium Pro • Launched in 1995 by Intel, aimed at high-end workstations and servers. • Featured an on-package L2 cache for faster performance. • Introduced advanced features like out-of-order execution and speculative execution to improve speed and efficiency. • Optimized for 32-bit applications • Laid the foundation for future Intel processors like the Pentium II and Xeon.
- 15. • The Pentium Pro was a milestone in microprocessor history, introducing features like out-of-order execution and instruction-level parallelism, significantly improving processing efficiency. • Its advanced manufacturing techniques and innovations made it ideal for servers, workstations, and industries requiring heavy multi-threaded processing. • Though priced higher than competitors like AMD's K5, it set new standards in performance. • The Pentium Pro's P6 architecture influenced future Intel processors, shaping the development of modern multi-core CPUs and leaving a lasting legacy in the computing industry.
- 16. • The Pentium Pro excelled in high-end server and workstation environments due to its advanced features, offering superior performance in multitasking and demanding applications. However, it came with a higher price. • AMD K5 and Cyrix 6x86 provided more affordable options for budget-conscious users, offering decent performance for mainstream tasks, but they couldn’t match the processing power and capabilities of the Pentium Pro. Pentium Pro's Architecture: P6 Architecture: Foundation for Intel’s future CPUs, including Pentium II, Pentium III, and the Core series. Introduced out-of-order execution and branch prediction, features still present In modern processors. P6 architecture was refined and expanded upon for multi-core CPUs used in modern computing.
- 17. ARCHITECTURE 1. Out-of-order execution • Out-of-Order Execution • Improved efficiency by executing instructions non-sequentially • Maximized resource utilization 2. Register renaming & Branch prediction • Register Renaming: Avoid data hazards • Branch Prediction: Anticipate branches for faster execution • Reduced idle time in complex code paths 3. Scalar pipeline • Multiple instructions processed simultaneously • Three instruction decoders • Issued up to three instructions per clock cycle
- 18. APPLICATIONS • High-End Computing: Designed for servers and workstations in high-performance computing. Tailored for data analytics, AI simulations, and large-scale computations. • Aimed at Enterprises: Targeted businesses need powerful processors for enterprise-level applications. Used in finance, engineering, and scientific research industries. • Performance in Multi-Threaded Environments: Optimized for multitasking and parallel computing. Ideal for virtualization, server workloads, and real- time analytics. • Database-Heavy Workloads: Efficient for large-scale databases and transactional processing. Used by financial institutions and online services for fast querying. • Use in High-End Applications: Financial services: High-frequency trading, financial modeling. Scientific simulations: Physics, engineering, climate science. • Other industries: 3D rendering, media editing, CAD/CAM. Pentium Pro Systems: Featured multi-socket configurations and high-capacity RAM. Used in high- performance servers, engineering workstations, and data centers.
- 20. • The Pentium II, launched by Intel in May 1997, marked a significant advancement in personal computing technology. • Building on the foundation laid by its predecessor, the Pentium, the Pentium II introduced improvements in performance, architecture, and multimedia capabilities, making it a crucial player in the evolution of x86 processors. This introduction of new technologies also set the stage for future computer advancements. • The Pentium II was developed during rapid innovation in the computing industry. • It featured a cartridge design that allowed for easier upgrades and was based on the P6 microarchitecture, which improved efficiency and processing power. • The processor supported MMX technology, enhancing its ability to handle multimedia tasks. • The Pentium II came in various clock speeds, ranging from 233 MHz to 450 MHz, appealing to consumers and businesses alike.
- 21. Advantages : 1. Enhanced Performance 2. MMX Technology 3. Cartridge Design 4. Broad Compatibility Disadvantages : 1. Heat Generation 2. Cost 3. Limited 64-bit Support 4. Short Lifespan
- 22. Pentium II vs. AMD K6 1)Architecture: Pentium II (P6) vs. K6 (cost-effective design). 2)Clock Speeds: Pentium II (233-450 MHz) vs. K6 (up to 550 MHz). 3)Integer Performance: K6 often outperforms Pentium II. 4) Floating-Point Performance: Pentium II is superior, especially in scientific tasks. 5)Gaming Performance: K6 excels in specific gaming scenarios due to higher clock speeds. Pentium II vs. Cyrix 6x86 1) Architecture: Pentium II (P6) vs. Cyrix (low-cost design). 2) Clock Speeds: Pentium II (233-450 MHz) vs. Cyrix (up to 500 MHz). 3) Integer Performance: Competitive with variable performance; Pentium II generally leads. 4) Floating-Point Performance: Pentium II is significantly better. 5) Market Position: Cyrix targeted budget users but faced compatibility issues.
- 23. Real World Applications 1. Office Productivity: Strong performance in word processing and spreadsheet applications. 2. Web Browsing: Efficient handling of early internet tasks; smooth operation for basic web applications. 3. Multimedia: Good performance for video playback and early gaming; benefited from MMX support. 4. Scientific Computing: Excellent in applications requiring heavy calculations, thanks to strong floating- point performance. 5. Gaming: Competitive in popular titles of the era, but specific games could perform better on K6. 6. Availability of Support and Ecosystem 7. Extended Use in Industrial Systems 8. Networking equipment: Routers and switches. 9. Telecommunications: Base stations and communication controllers. 10. Industrial automation: Control systems, machinery, and robotics. 11. Medical devices: Imaging and monitoring systems. 12. Military systems: Radar and control systems, where rugged, reliable hardware was necessary.
- 24. The Pentium III, introduced by Intel in 1999, was a significant microprocessor built upon its predecessor, the Pentium II. Designed primarily for personal computers The rise of the internet and multimedia applications created a demand for more powerful processors capable of handling complex tasks. Intel aimed to address these demands with the Pentium III, which offered speed, performance, and enhancements to multimedia capabilities. Its significance were : 1. Performance Improvements: Features like SSE and SIMD were added 2. Clock Speed: Increased clock speeds were critical for competitive performance. 3. Market Positioning: The Pentium III was positioned as a high-performance processor for both consumers and business users, fitting into desktop, workstation, and server markets.
- 25. COMPARISON OF PENTIUM II vs PENTIUM III: While Pentium II and III were based on the same P6 microarchitecture, the Pentium III added SSE, improved manufacturing technology, integrated a faster L2 cache, and achieved higher clock speeds, resulting in better performance and efficiency. PERFORMANCE AND FEATURES 1. Clock Speed: ● Ranged from 450 MHz to 1.4 GHz. ● Early models: 450 MHz to 600 MHz. ● Later models (Coppermine, Tualatin): up to 1.4 GHz. 2. Cache Memory: ● L1 Cache: 16 KB (8 KB for data, 8 KB for instructions). ● L2 Cache: Initially 512 KB external; integrated 256 KB in later models. ● Faster L2 cache in Coppermine version (full-speed integration).
- 26. 3. SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions): • Introduced 70 new instructions. • Boosted multimedia, 3D graphics, and gaming performance. • Enhanced floating-point calculations, video encoding, and audio processing. 4. Power Consumption: • Improved efficiency with Coppermine and Tualatin cores. • Tualatin model: lower thermal output, better power management. • Power usage varied from 25W to 30W, with better thermal performance in later models.
- 27. The Intel Pentium 4 was a successor to the Pentium III family and used a new NetBurst microarchitecture rather than the P6 architecture of previous Pentium processors. The NetBurst architecture prioritized higher clock frequencies over efficiency by using a very long 20-stage pipeline. While less efficient, the long pipeline allowed higher frequencies to increase performance. Subsequent Pentium 4 cores made improvements to regain efficiency losses. The NetBurst microarchitecture used a different approach - attempted to improve performance primarily by increasing CPU frequency, often at the expense of efficiency. One of the key elements in this approach was "Hyper-Pipelined Technology" - a 20-stage pipeline (not counting decoder stages) that was significantly longer than in the previous generations of Pentium processors. While longer pipelines are less efficient than shorter ones, they allow the CPU core to reach higher frequencies and thus increase CPU performance. To improve the efficiency of the very deep pipeline, the Pentium 4 processors included new features: Trace ExecutionCache, Enhanced Branch prediction, and Quad Data Rate bus. Intel Pentium 4 CPUs also included 144 new SIMD instructions called SSE2.
- 28. Overview of the NETBURST Microarchitecture A fast processor requires balancing and tuning many micro-architectural features competing for processor die cost and design and validation efforts. There are four main sections: (I) The in-order front end (II) The out-of-order execution engine (III) The integer and floating-point execution units, and (IV) The memory subsystem
- 29. Different parts of the Pentium 4 processor run at different clock frequencies. As an example of the pipelining differences, The figure below shows a key pipeline in both the P6 and the Pentium 4 processors, the mis-predicted branch pipeline. This pipeline covers the cycles it takes a processor to recover from a branch that went a different direction than the early fetch hardware predicted at the beginning of the machine pipeline. As shown, the Pentium 4 processor has a 20-stage misprediction pipeline, while the P6 microarchitecture has a 10-stage misprediction pipeline. By dividing the pipeline into smaller pieces, doing less work during each pipeline stage (fewer gates of logic), and the clock rate can be a lot higher. Misprediction pipeline in Pentium IV
- 30. Memory Subsystem Includes the L2 cache and the system bus. The L2cache stores instructions and data that cannot fit in the Execution Trace Cache and the L1 data cache. The external system bus is connected to the backside of the second-level cache and is used to access the main memory when the L2 cache has a cache miss and to access the system I/O resources. Clock Rates Processor microarchitectures can be pipelined to different degrees. The degree of pipelining is a microarchitectural decision. The final frequency of a specific processor pipeline on a given silicon process technology depends heavily on how deeply the processor is pipelined. When designing anew pro cessor, a key design decision is the target design frequency of operation. The frequency target determines the number of logic gates per pipeline stage in the design. This then helps determine how many pipeline stages there are in the machine
- 31. The Intel Core series includes several types of processors, primarily differentiated by their generation and naming conventions. Here are the main categories: 1. Core i3 2. Core i5 3. Core i7 4. Core i9 These tiers differ in performance, number of cores, power consumption, and target users. Intel Core i3 Processor A family of dual cores that refers to the presence of two processing cores within a single CPU chip supports 64-bit computing and x86 CPUs from Intel intended for entry-level desktops and laptops. Introduced in 2010, the Core i3 is the third line in Intel's Core "i“ branding. CPUs are ideal for basic computing tasks like web browsing, document editing, and light multitasking. Architecture Core i3 processors utilize Intel's Hyper-Threading technology, allowing each core to handle two threads simultaneously. This results in improved performance for multitasking and applications that can leverage multiple threads. They are built on various architectures, with more recent generations (like Tiger Lake and Alder Lake) incorporating improvements in energy efficiency and integrated graphics.
- 32. Intel Core i5 Processor The Intel Core i5 series is a mid-range option that balances performance and price. Typically featuring four to six cores, with higher-end models boasting Turbo Boost technology, these processors are designed for a more demanding computing experience. Architecture Like the Core i3, Core i5 processors benefit from Intel's Hyper-Threading in many models, which enhances multitasking capabilities. The architecture varies across generations (e.g., Comet Lake, Rocket Lake), each bringing enhancements in performance, thermal management, and integrated graphics. Intel core i7 and i9 processors The Intel Core i7 and i9 is a family of high-performance processors designed by Intel, aimed at providing strong computing power for demanding tasks such as gaming, video editing, and software development. What is Intel Core i7? Core i7 processors are typically found in high-end laptops and desktops and are designed for intensive computing tasks such as: Multitasking: Running multiple applications simultaneously without performance lag. Gaming: Providing high FPS (frames per second) in modern games, especially when paired with a dedicated graphics card. Content Creation: Editing videos, 3D rendering, and photo editing.
- 33. Features of ARM Processor • Multiprocessing System • Tightly Coupled Memory • Memory Management • Thumb-2 Technology • One-Cycle Execution Time • Pipelining A large number of Registers
- 34. 1. Multiprocessing Systems: ARM processors are designed to be used in cases of multiprocessing systems where more than one processor is used to process information. The First AMP processor introduced by the name of ARMv6K could support 4 CPUs along with its hardware. 2. Tightly Coupled Memory: The memory of ARM processors is tightly coupled. This has a very fast response time. It has low latency (quick response) that can also be used in cases of cache memory being unpredictable. 3. Memory Management: ARM processor has a management section. This includes Memory Management Unit and Memory Protection Unit. These management systems become very important in managing memory efficiently.
- 35. 4. Thumb-2 Technology: Thumb-2 Technology was introduced in 2003 and was used to create variable-length instruction sets. It extends the 16-bit instructions of initial Thumb technology to 32-bit instructions. It has better performance than previously used Thumb technology. 5. One-Cycle Execution Time: ARM processor is optimized for each instruction on the CPU. Each instruction is of a fixed length that allows time for fetching future instructions before executing the present instructions. ARM has CPI (Clock Per Instruction) of one cycle. 6. Pipelining: Processing of instructions is done in parallel using pipelines. Instructions are broken down and decoded in one pipeline stage. The channel advances one step at a time to increase throughput (rate of processing). 7. A large number of Registers: A large number of registers are used in ARM processors to prevent large amounts of memory interactions. Records contain data and addresses. These act as a local memory store for all operations.
- 36. ARM x86 ARM uses Reduced Instruction Set Computing Architecture (RISC). x86 uses Complex Instruction Set Architecture (CISC). ARM works by executing single instruction per cycle. x86 works by executing complex instructions at once and it requires more than one cycle. Performance can be optimized by a Software-based approach. Performance can be optimized by Hardware based approach. ARM processors require fewer registers, but they require more memory. x86 processors require less memory, but more registers. Execution is faster in ARM Processes. Execution is slower in an x86 Processor. Difference between ARM and x86 The differences between ARM and x86 are described below.
- 37. ARM Processor work by generating multiple instructions from a complex instruction and they are executed separately. x86 Processors work by executing complex statements at a single time. ARM processors use the memory which is already available to them. x86 processors require some extra memory for calculations. ARM processors are deployed in mobiles which deal with the consumption of power, speed, and size. x86 processors are deployed in Servers, Laptops where performance and stability matter.