Advancements in energy storage technologies for smart grid development

International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE)
Vol. 12, No. 4, August 2022, pp. 3421~3429
ISSN: 2088-8708, DOI: 10.11591/ijece.v12i4.pp3421-3429  3421
Journal homepage: http://ijece.iaescore.com
Advancements in energy storage technologies for smart grid
development
Pankaj Sharma, Surender Reddy Salkuti, Seong-Cheol Kim
Department of Railroad and Electrical Engineering, Woosong University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Oct 16, 2020
Revised Dec 29, 2021
Accepted Feb 2, 2022
In the modern world, the consumption of oil, coal natural gas, and nuclear
energy has been causing by a serious environmental problem and an ongoing
energy crisis. The generation and consumption of renewable energy sources
(RESs) such as solar and wind tidal, can resolve the problem but the nature
of the RESs is fluctuating and intermitted. This evolution brings a lot of
challenges in the management of electrical grids. The paper reviewed the
advancements in energy storage technologies for the development of a smart
grid (SG). More attention was paid to the classification of energy storage
technologies based on the form of energy storage and based on the form of
discharge duration. The evaluation criteria for the energy storage
technologies have been carried out based on technological dimensions such
as storage capacity, efficiency, response time, energy density, and power
density, the economic dimension such as input cost and economic benefit;
and the environmental dimension such as emission and stress on ecosystem,
social demission such as job creation and social acceptance were also
presented in this paper.
Keywords:
Cost-benefit analysis
Electric vehicles
Energy storage
Environmental impacts
Renewable energy
Smart grid
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Surender Reddy Salkuti
Department of Railroad and Electrical Engineering, Woosong University
17-2, Jayang-Dong, Dong-Gu, Daejeon-34606, Republic of Korea
Email: surender@wsu.ac.kr
1. INTRODUCTION
Day-by-day the share of energy storage technologies with renewable energy sources (RESs) is
gradually increasing. The economic growth of any developing and developed country depends upon electrical
energy generation and consumption. Electrical energy consumption and production is an important factor for
the growth of any nation. The future vision of the electrical energy system is the smart grid (SG). It is the
great ambition and endeavor of our time. The integration of the RESs with the grid is an important
component of the SG. Due to the increase in population and industrial area, the dependency on electrical
energy is increasing day by day. The major challenge facing the modern world is low energy efficiency,
environmental impact, low power quality, and varying load. The traditional grid contains centralized power
generation and unidirectional power flow at the distribution side and weak integration, but an SG consists of
centralized power generation and bi-directional flow of energy. The official definition of SG provided by the
energy independence and security act 2007, which was approved by US Congress states that “an array of new
functionalities and application is due to the implementation of two-way communication and bi-directional
flow of energy [1]–[3]. National smart grid mission (NSGM), Ministry of Power, Government of India
defines that the SG as an electrical grid with a combination of communication, IT system, and automation
that can monitor the flow from the generation side to the consumption side and controls the power flow
[4], [5].

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An SG can be achieved by integrating the hybrid RESs with the grid, a more efficient transmission
& distribution (T&D) system, and consumer integration. The main motivation is that the use of an SG
reduces the need for expensive investments in the physical integration of the power generation, transmission,
and distribution sides. The integrated renewable energy-based SG reduces the global climate change,
ecofriendly power with low carbon foot emission [6]. The SG has two main principal visions; one is to
enhance the integration of hybrid RESs with grid and end-user customers. The second one is by inserting the
energy storage technologies and providing control automation to the grid which can improve the system
reliability [7], [8].
The integration of RESs with energy storage is one of the important features of SG. Ma and Li [9]
proposes a hybrid intelligent home renewable energy management system, which reduces the energy
consumption by 48% and the RE consumption by 60% of the total energy generated. To control the consumer
electricity resources properly, demand management is a very effective way. The proposed approach not only
saves energy or reduces the electrical energy bills but also increases the efficiency of the power grid.
Integration of smart buildings with SG will decrease the consumption of fossil fuel and increases the
consumption of RES. Buildings are the biggest consumer of the electric grid and could be among the biggest
producer of RE. There will be no smarter building without a smart user [10]. Butt et al. [11] presents the
comparison between the SG and conventional grid. Various research activates associated with SGs are
energy management, the internet of things (IoT), SG with electrical vehicles (EVs), microgrids, and
integration of RESs, big data, and energy storage. Ourahou et al. [12] presents that electrical energy
management is required to reduce CO2 emission, pollution, and increase energy security. Maintaining the
continuous electrical supply, increase power quality, and reduce electrical energy costs are the main
challenge in the 21st
century. The electrical network is more frangible. Due to the growth of the market, the
frangibility will be increased. Therefore, to reduce the risk of incident, preparation, and monitoring are
required. Zame et al. [13] proposes that SG provides various opportunities to improve the operations of the
grid by increasing the use of two-way communication and bi-directional flow of energy. Energy storage
technologies also enhance the efficiency of the operation of the grid. Two power plants working together
(wind and pumped hydropower plant) which reduces the operating cost of the energy system have been
presented in [14]. In the future, a significant saving can be done by using existing technology by integrating
the transport sector, heat, and electricity. Abdelshafy et al. [15] presents that a double storage system means
coupling of PHES and batteries storage systems which can reduce the cost of electricity by 22.2%. The main
objective of this work is to select the energy storage technologies for SG development. A comprehensive
review of the energy storage technologies, i.e., mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, and electrochemical
energy storage were also presented in this paper.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
Nowadays the energy storage technologies play an important role in the future of power generation.
Storing the electricity directly is not cheaper, it can be simply stored in another form, and when we needed it
can be converted into electricity. When the power is surplus or off-load period, the electrical energy can be
stored in another form and the electricity cost is low at this time. During the peak demand time, the stored
energy is converted into electricity to meet the load demands [16]. Various technologies are used for storing
the energy and they are presented in this work. The future flow of the electrical system is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Future flow of the electrical system

Int J Elec & Comp Eng ISSN: 2088-8708 
Advancements in energy storage technologies for smart grid development (Pankaj Sharma)
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The energy storage techniques are classified based on discharge duration and the form of energy
stored [17]. Energy storage technologies are dependent upon the drain period or discharge period. Based on
the discharge duration, they are classified into 3 categories, i.e., short-term, medium-term, and long-term.
Long-term energy storage is classified as pumped hydro energy storage (PHES), hydrogen energy storage,
and compressed air energy storage (CAES). Molten-salt energy storage, lead-acid, lithium-ion, sodium
sulphur, redox flow energy storage falls under medium-term energy storage. Short-term energy storage is
classified as flywheel energy storage, supercapacitor energy storage, and superconducting magnetic energy
storage. Energy can first convert in a different form for storing and then converted back in a useful form.
Based on the form of energy stored, the energy storage is classified into five categories [18], i.e., electrical
energy storage, mechanical energy storage, thermal energy storage, electrochemical energy storage, and
chemical energy storage [19]. This classification has been depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Classification of energy storage techniques based on the form of the energy stored
3. ENERGY STORAGE BASED ON THE FORM OF ENERGY STORED
3.1. Mechanical energy storage
3.1.1. Pumped hydro energy storage
Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) system stores the energy in the form of potential energy (PE)
by pumping the water from a lower to a higher reservoir. Whenever the energy is required, then the water is
released from the higher reservoir to the lower reservoir, and the stored potential energy is converted into
electrical energy by the water turbine during peak load time. While the off-load time, the potential energy is
stored in a higher reservoir by pumping water from a lower reservoir [20]. The efficiency of the PHES lies
between 75-85%. Some specific conditions are required for PHES such as availability of water, the
difference in water level or water elevation, and land. If the conditions are not met, then PHES is impossible
to install. Around the world, the size of the PHES is in the range of 100-5,000 MW. PHES system has a very
long lifetime around 40-60 years and 104
-6×104
cycles. The capital cost of the PHES system is around

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600-2,000 $/kW and the cost per unit of energy stored is around 5-100 $/kWh. Energy density of PHES
system is 0.2-2 W/L [21], 0.5-1.5 Wh/kg, 0.5-1.5 kW/km3
and power density is 0.5-1.5 kW/m3
. PHES system
is the best option for the renewable energy system as well as the power grid. Some of the main drawbacks of
the PHES system are high capital cost, the size of the unit is very large, and topographic limitation [22].
3.1.2. Compressed air energy storage
In the Compressed air energy storage (CAES) system, the air is compressed and stored. During the
energy demand or peak hours, the compressed air can be released to a turbine and generate electricity [23],
[24]. The efficiency of the CAES lies in the range of 70-89 % and it is a mature technology. The lifetime of
the CAES is 20-40 years and 104
-3×104
cycles. The capital cost of the CAES system is around 400-800 $/kW
and the cost per unit of energy stored is 2-50 $/kWh. The energy density 30-60 Wh/kg (mass), 2-6 kW/m3
(volumetric), 2-6 W/l and power density is 0.2-0.6 kW/m3
(volumetric) [25]. It requires less maintenance and
operation costs. The main disadvantage of the CAES system is low volumetric energy storage capacity which
requires high storage volume [26].
3.1.3. Flywheel energy storage
It is a type of kinetic energy (KE) storage system. In a flywheel, the energy is stored in the form of
mechanical energy. During the charging time, the KE can be absorbed with the electric machine acting as the
motor. While discharging time, the KE can be released with the electrical machine acting as a generator.
While selecting a flywheel energy storage for an application some of the important points that should be
considered are bearing, rotor material, container, generators characteristics, connection with the load, and
cooling system. A flywheel is considered a short-term energy storage system as the flywheel can release a
huge amount of energy within a second or less than a second [27]. The cycle efficiency of the flywheel lies in
the range of 93-95% [28]. The lifetime of the flywheel energy storage system is 20-30 years and
104
-105
cycles. Energy density is 20-80 WH/l, 10-30 Wh/kg, 20-80 Wh/m3, and the power density is
1,000-2,000 kW/m3
. The capital cost of the CAES system is around 250-350 $/kW and the cost per unit of
energy stored is 1,000-5,000 $/kWh. The applications of flywheel energy storage are grid storage with
stabilization and vehicle propulsion. Advantages of a flywheel energy storage system are no pollution; high
energy storage capacity and it requires small area. The main drawback of flywheel energy storage is that
flywheel cannot store energy for the long term [29].
3.2. Electrical energy storage
3.2.1. Supercapacitor energy storage
A supercapacitor is also known as an ultracapacitor. It is a high-power electrical energy storage
technology. It consists of two electrochemical layers of charge to store energy. When the voltage is applied,
ions are attached to the electrode while charging time, and ions are returned to the solution while discharging
time. Supercapacitors are highly efficient in the range of 80-90% and the lifetime is more than 20 years and
100,000 cycles. The supercapacitor is considered a short-term energy storage technology with an energy
density of 0.5-5 Wh/kg, 2-10 kW/m3,
and power density is more than 105
. The capital cost of the CAES
system is around 100-300 $/kW and the cost per unit of energy stored is 300-2,000 $/kWh [30]. The
supercapacitor can operate at a temperature range from -40 to 70 C. Various applications of supercapacitors
are personal electronics, power buffer, and vehicle application. Some of the main advantages of
supercapacitor energy storage are high response time, long life, high efficiency, and multisector integration.
However, the main drawbacks are low energy storage capacity, low power output, and cannot be used in long
term [31].
3.2.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage
In superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system, the energy is stored in the form of a
magnetic field. It consists of a superconducting material that has no resistance. While the direct current (DC)
flowing in a superconducting coil creates a magnetic field in which the energy is stored. To maintain the
superconducting properties, a cooling system (liquid nitrogen) is required. SMES system is a short-term
energy storage technology [32]. It requires less maintenance and achieves high efficiency, only 2-3% losses
occur due to the conversion of alternating current to direct current. The cycle efficiency of the SMES system
is 85-95%. The lifetime is more than 20 years and 104
-105
cycles. Energy density is 0.2-14 kW/m3
and the
power density is 300-4,000 kW/m3
. The capital cost of the SMES system is around 200-300 $/kW and the
cost per unit of energy stored is 1,000-10,000 $/kWh. Various applications of SMES are grid backup, pulsed
power, and grid stabilization. Some of the main advantages are high efficiency, quick response, high power
density, less charging time, and requires less maintenance. Some drawbacks of this technology are the high
cost of energy, system complexity, and short-term energy-storing technology [33].

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3.3. Electro-chemical energy storage
3.3.1. Lithium-ion batteries
The operation of lithium-ion batteries is different from normal batteries. In 1991, sonny has
commercialized lithium-ion batteries. The electrolyte used in lithium-ion batteries consists of lithium salts
i.e., LiPF6. During the charging time, lithium-ion in the cathode becomes ions, which are moved from
cathode to anode through an electrolyte. This process is vice versa while lithium-ion batteries start
discharging [34]. The efficiency of lithium-ions lies between 90-97%. The lifetime is 5-15 years and
103
-104
cycles. Energy density is 200-500 kW/m3
, 75-200 Wh/kg and power density is 1,500-10,000 kW/m3
[35]. The capital cost of the lithium-ion energy storage system is around 1,200-4,000 $/kW and the cost per
unit of energy stored is 100-2,500 $/kWh [36]. The main application of these batteries is in electric vehicles
(EVs) [32]. The usage of lithium-ion batteries has been increased due to their advantages over the other
technologies such as long-life span, high efficiency, energy density, power density, and low self-discharge
performance. Some of the drawbacks of these technologies are highly reactive, flammable, and natural
degradation [37].
3.3.2. Sodium sulphur (Na-S) batteries
Na-S batteries are also named as molten-salt batteries. In Na-S batteries electrodes consist of liquid
sulphur and liquid sodium. Liquid sodium acts as an anode and liquid sulphur acts as a cathode. The anode
and cathode are separated by a solid ceramic, sodium beta alumina which acts as an electrolyte. Na-S
batteries are based on the electrochemical charge-discharge reaction [38]. Na-S required a temperature range
of 300-360 C to keep the sulphur and sodium in a molten state. The efficiency of Na-S is around 85% and
the response time is in milliseconds. Energy density is 150-250 kWh/m3
, 10-250 Wh/kg, and power density is
140-180 kW/m3
, 150-240 W/kg. The life span of Na-S is 15 years and 4,500 cycles [39]. The discharge time
of Na-S is about 6.0-7.2 hours [28]. The capital cost of a Na-S energy storage system is around
1,000–3,000 $/kW and the cost per unit of energy stored is 300-500 $/kWh. The main application of Na-S
batteries is renewable energy stabilization and peak shaving [40]. The advantages of Na-S are high energy
density and long cycle life. Major drawbacks of Ns-S are the need for thermal management and safety
concerns due to the reaction of sodium with sulphur.
3.3.3. Lead acid batteries
These batteries consist of two electrodes, i.e., cathode (positive) and anode (negative). The cathode
consists of lead dioxide (PbO2) and the anode consists of lead. During the discharging, the anode and cathode
electrode uses sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is converted it into lead sulfate (PbSO4). During charging the lead sulfate
(PbSO4) is converted back into sulfuric acid [41]. The efficiency of these batteries is around 75-90%, energy
density is 50-80 kW/m3
, 30-50 Wh/kg, and power density is 10-400 W/m3
, 75-300 W/kg. Due to the short
life cycle of the 100-2,000 cycle, lifetime is 5-15 years and low energy density. These batteries are not used
for grid storage applications. The capital cost of lead-acid batteries is around 300-600 $/kW and the cost per
unit of energy stored is 200-400 $/kWh [42]. Lead-acid batteries were commonly used for EVs, but
nowadays, they are replaced by lithium-ion batteries.
3.3.4. Redox flow batteries
In these batteries, electrolyte contains ions that move from the negative electrode to a positive
electrode while charging and discharging through a membrane. A cooling system is required because while
charging and discharging a huge amount of heat is produced. The chemical composition of electrolytes is
vanadium and zinc-bromine. The operating temperature of redox flow batteries is usually 20-40 C [43]. The
efficiency range lies between 65-80%. The lifetime is 15 years and 10,000-20,000 cycles. Energy density is
16-33 kW/m3
, 15-50 Wh/kg, and power density is 0.5-2 kW/m3
. The capital cost of the redox flow batteries
energy storage system is around 600-1,500 $/kW and the cost per unit of energy stored is 150-1000 $/kWh
[44]. Various applications of redox flow batteries are the vehicle, off-grid, emerging power systems, grid
energy storage. Some of the drawbacks are high cost, more complex than other batteries, and early stage of
development. Various characteristics of electrochemical batteries have been presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Various characteristics of electrochemical batteries
Battery Type Cycle at 80%
DOD
Operating
Temperature (C)
Electrolyte Life
(years)
Life
(cycles)
Lead-acid 600-1,250 -5 to 40 Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 5-15 500-1,000
Lithium Ion 4,000 -30 to 60 lithium salts (LiPF6) 5-15 103-104
Sodium sulphur 4,000 300-360 Ceramic (sodium beta alumina Al2O3) 15 4,500
Redox flow 10,000 20-40 V/V, Fe/Cr, Zn/Br2, S/Br2, V/Br2,
Ce/Zn, and Pb/Pb
15 104-2×104

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3.4. Molten salt energy storage
Thermal energy storage means the storage of energy by heating or cooling a medium like phase
change materials (PCMs), molten salts, and water. Molten salt is a mixture of 60% sodium and 40%
potassium nitrate which is nontoxic and nonflammable. The molten salt is stored in liquid form in the cold
storage tank. Molten salt is pumped to a receiver tower, where it gets heated by a concentrated solar power
plant (CSP) through sunlight. The hot molten salt is then stored in an insulated hot storage tank. The hot
molten salt is pumped to the superheater then goes to the steam generator which generates the steam and runs
the mechanical steam turbine coupled with generators, and it generates the electricity. The cold molten salt
again is stored in an insulated cold molten salt storage tank. Storing of energy is up to 20 hours. Molten salt
can be used at a higher temperature range of 550-570 C [45]. Molten salt is a mixture of KNO3 and NaNO3.
Efficiency is in the range of 80-90%. Energy density is 80-500 kW/m3
, 80-250 Wh/kg. The capital cost of the
molten salt energy storage system is around 400-700 $/kW and the cost per unit of energy stored is
3,500-7.000 $/kWh. The application of a molten salt energy storage system is hot water production, space
heating, and electricity generation [46]. Some of the major drawbacks are molten salt is corrosive and limited
to CSP technology.
3.5. Hydrogen energy storage
This storage system can convert the electricity into hydrogen by chemical conversion. The
electrolyte can split water into oxygen and hydrogen. The process can be reversed, and hydrogen and oxygen
generate electricity, which feeds to the grid. Hydrogen can be stored in different forms such as liquified gas,
metal hydrides, and compressed gas. Efficiency is in the range of 35-55%, the lifetime is 5-15 years, and life
cycles 1000+[46]. Energy density is 500-3,000 Wh/m3
, 500+ W/kg and power density is 500+ W/m3
. The
capital cost of the molten salt energy storage system is around 500-10,000 $/kW and the cost per unit of
energy stored is 6,000-20,000 $/kWh. This technology has low environmental impacts. Some of the major
drawbacks of this technology are low round trip efficiency, the low energy density at ambient temperature,
high capital cost, and safety concerns.
4. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
Various technical characteristics of energy storage technologies such as efficiency, lifetime,
maximum cycle charging time, discharging time, self-discharge, energy density, power density, and capital
cost, are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Technically PHES is matured, Hydrogen energy storage is under the
developing stage, whereas all other storage systems are developed. Flywheel, supercapacitor, and SMES are
the short-term energy storage technologies, sodium sulphur, lithium-ion redox flow, lead-acid batteries are
the medium-term energy storage technologies, whereas PHES, CAES, and hydrogen energy storage are long
term energy storage technologies.
Table 2. Various technical characteristics of energy storage technologies
Storage Type Power
Rating
Cycle
Efficiency
Response
Time
Maximum
Cycle
Life Time Charge
Time
Discharge
Time
Self-
Discharge
PHES (100-5000)
MW
(75-85)% sec-min 10000-
6×100000
40-60 years hour-
month
1-24 hour + very small
CAES (5-300)
MW
(70-89)% min 10000-
3×10000
20-40 years hour-
month
1-24 hour + small
Flywheels (0-250) kW (93-95)% ms-sec 10000-
100000
15 years+ sec-min ms - 15min 100%
Super
capacitor
(0-300) kW (90-95)% ms 100000+ 20 years+ sec-hour ms - 60min (20-40)%
SMES 100 KW-
10 MW
(95-98)% < 100 ms 100000+ 20 years+ min-hour ms - 8 sec (10-15)%
Sodium
Sulphur
50 kW-
8 MW
85% ms 4500 15 years sec-hour sec - hour 20%
Lithium-Ion (0-100) kW (85-95)% ms 1000-10000 5-15 years min-day min - hour (0.1-0.3)%
Redox Flow 30 kW-
3 MW
(65-85)% sec 10000-
20000
15 years hour-
month
(1-24)
hour+
small
Lead Acid (0.05-40)
MW
(75-90)% sec 500-1000 5-15 years hour-
month
(1-24)
hour+
small
Molten salt (0-60) MW (80-90)% min - 30 years+ hour-
month
(1-24)
hour+
1%
Hydrogen (0-50) MW (35-55)% sec 1000+ 5-15 years hour-
month
(1-24)
hour+
almost
zero

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Table 3. Technical characteristics of various energy storage technologies such as power density,
energy density, environmental impact, and capital cost
Storage
Type
Power Density
(KW/m3
)
Power
Density
(W/kg)
Energy
Density
(Wh/L)
Energy
Density
(Wh/Kg)
Energy
Density
(KW/m3
)
Friction
Losses
Capital Cost
($/kW)
Capital Cost
($/kWh)
Environmental
Impact
PHES 0.5-1.5 0 0.2-2 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.5 Yes 600-2,000 5-100 Negative
CAES 0.5-2 0 2-6 30-60 3-6 Yes 400-800 2-50 Negative
Flywheels 1,000-2,000 400-1,500 20-80 10-30 20-80 Yes 250-300 500-1,000 Almost Zero
Super
capacitor
100,000+ 500-5,000 2-10 0.05-5 2-10 No 100-300 300-2,000 Small
SMES 100,000+ 500-2,000 0.2-2.5 2.5-15 10-20 No 200-300 1000-10,000 Negative
Sodium
Sulphur
140-180 150-230 200-400 100-250 150-250 No 1,000-3,000 300-500 Negative
Lithium-Ion 1,500-1,000 150-315 20-70 75-200 200-500 No 1,200-4,000 100-2,500 Negative
Redox Flow 0.5-2 0 16-33 15-50 16-33 No 600-1,500 150-1,000 Negative
Lead Acid 10-400 75-300 50-80 30-50 50-80 No 300-600 200-400 Negative
Molten salt - 0 43.5 80-250 80-500 No 400-700 3,500-7,000 Small
Hydrogen 500+ 500+ 600
(at 200 bar)
800-10,000 500-3000 No 500-10,000 3,500-7,000 Small Positive
The charging time and discharging time are less. The only main drawback of these technologies
cannot be used for long-term energy storage technologies. The response time of the flywheel, supercapacitor,
SMES, sodium sulphur batteries, lithium-ion batteries are approximately or about in milliseconds. PHES,
CAES, and flywheels energy storage technologies have friction losses while other technologies do not have
any type of friction losses. The self-discharging of hydrogen energy storage technologies is almost zero. The
environmental impact of flywheel energy storage technologies is almost zero, whereas all other energy
storage technologies have a little environmental impact. PHES technologies are the largest grid-connected
energy storage technologies in the world.
5. CONCLUSION
A comparative overview of available energy storage technologies such as electrical, mechanical,
electrochemical, thermal, and hydrogen energy storage has been presented in this work. These technologies
include PHES, CAES, flywheel, hydrogen, molten salt, supercapacitor, SMES, lead-acid batteries, Na-S
Batteries, Li-ion batteries, and redox flow batteries. Various evaluation criteria such as the economic
dimension, technological dimension, environmental dimension, and social dimension are discussed in this
paper. To enhance the efficiency and operation of the grid, energy storage technologies provide a significant
role. After doing a comparative analysis among various types of energy storage technologies, the best way to
use these energy storage technologies are integration. Among the various storage technologies hydrogen have
low cyclic efficiency but the self-discharging time is almost equal to zero. Flywheel, SMES, and
supercapacitor energy storage technologies are short-term energy storage technologies, but the response time
of these technologies is very low. The environmental impact of the flywheel is almost equal to zero.
Flywheel, CAES, and PHES have friction losses whereas all other technologies do not have any friction
losses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research work was funded by “Woosong University’s Academic Research Funding-2022”.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Pankaj Sharma received the B.Tech. degree in electrical engineering from
Himachal Pradesh Technical University, India, in 2015 and the M.Tech. degrees in Renewable
Energy from Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, India, in 2018. He is an online
research intern at the Department of Railroad and Electrical Engineering, Woosong University,
Daejeon, South Korea. His research interests include renewable energy, power generation,
power grids, power supply quality, power system stability, battery chargers, hydroelectric
power stations, load flow control, particle swarm optimization, and artificial intelligence
applied power system. He can be contacted at email: pankajsharma_@hotmail.com.
Surender Reddy Salkuti received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
the Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India, in 2013. He was a Postdoctoral
Researcher with Howard University, Washington, DC, USA, from 2013 to 2014. He is
currently an Assistant Professor with the Department of Railroad and Electrical Engineering,
Woosong University, Daejeon, South Korea. His current research interests include power
system restructuring issues, ancillary service pricing, real and reactive power pricing,
congestion management, and market clearing, including renewable energy sources, demand
response, smart grid development with integration of wind and solar photovoltaic energy
sources, artificial intelligence applications in power systems, and power system analysis and
optimization. He can be contacted at email: surender@wsu.ac.kr.
Seong-Cheol Kim received B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees, in Electronic
Engineering from Korea University in 1987, 1989, and 1997, respectively. He is currently
serving as Head of Railroad and Electrical Engineering Department, Woosong University,
Korea. His research interests are mobile communication system and pulsed power system. He
can be contacted at email: kmin@wsu.ac.kr.

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