Basics instrument andcontrol SYSTEMS

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Basics of Instrumentation and Control
Course Topics
Introduction to measurements and control concepts
Pressure measurement
Flow measurement
Level measurement
Temperature measurement
Control Valves
Process Control Loops
Control Systems (PLC, DCS, SCADA)
Course Contents

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Introduction to measurements and
control concepts

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Instrumentation refers to a group of devices that
work together to control one or
more variables. Although instruments serve different
functions, and are installed in different locations,
several process instruments will be connected to
control one or more process variables.
Over the years, instruments and controls in gas
plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants,
and chemical plants have greatly improved. Today’s
instrumentation and controls are capable
of extremely precise measurement and control.
In addition, the systems can prevent equipment
overloads and detect equipment problems. They can
also perform complex mathematical calculations to
ensure the units are operating efficiently.
Overview

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Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the
methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end products.
This is the physical system we wish to monitor and control.
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables
when manufacturing a product.
Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:
Reduce Variability.
Increase Efficiency.
Ensure Safety.
Process Control

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A control loop is a group of instruments that work
together to keep a process variable at its desired
value, referred to as set point. There are four
components in a control loop:
Process variable
Sensing/measuring device.
Controller.
Final control device.
Regardless of the process, measuring and control jobs
are very similar. But, the instruments used to perform
measuring and control will vary from one process to
another.
The Control Loop

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A control system is a mechanical or electronic system that is used to obtain and
maintain the specific result.
Process control can simply be defined as the automated control of a process or the
manipulation of a set of conditions to bring about a desired change in the output of
the process.
A process can further be defined as a series of operations in the making, handling or
treatment of a product. From these definitions it can be said that process control is
the manipulation of conditions to produce a specific result.
Control Loops and Controller Action

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Control Loop Definition
Controlled
variable
A controlled variable is sometimes referred to as the process variable. It is
the element that is to be controlled, for example, pressure, temperature,
level, flow, chemical composition, etc.
Measured
variable
A measured variable is a measurement signal of the controlled variable.
Setpoint
The setpoint is the desired value of a process. It is the value of the controlled
variable that the process is required to operate at.
Error
An Error is the difference between the measured variable and the set point
and can be either positive or negative.
Offset The Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the set point.
Manipulated
variable
A manipulated variable is the actual variable changed by the final control
element to obtain the desired effect on the controlled variable.
Disturbances
Disturbances (upsets) are any changes that can occur to the process to cause
the controlled variable to change from the setpoint.

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Control loop Components
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can change
the manufacturing process in some way. Common process variables include:
Basic Process Measurement
 Pressure
 Flow
 Level
 Temperature
Advanced Process Measurement
 Density
 Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
 Mass
 Conductivity
Process variable

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Sensing/measuring device.
Primary elements are devices that cause some change in their property with changes
in process fluid conditions that can then be measured.
Pressure Sensing
Diaphragms,
Strain Gauges,
CapacitanceCells
Orifice Plates
Pitot Tubes
Venturi Tubes
Magnetic FlowTubes
Coriolis Flow Tubes
Ultrasonic
Annubar
Vortex Sheddar
Resistance
Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
Thermocouples
Thermometers
Radar
Nuclear
Ultrasonic
Capacitive
Displacer

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Controllers also commonly reside in a digital control system such as.
Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
DCSs are controllers that, in addition to performing control functions, provide
readings of the status of the process, maintain databases and advanced man-
machine-interface.
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
PLCs are usually computers connected to a set of input/output (I/O) devices. The
computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending outputs to maintain all
processes at set point.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition(SCADA)
SCADA systems are generally used to control dispersed assets using centralized data
acquisition and supervisory control.
Controller

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Final control device
Final control element is the part of the control system
that acts to physically change the manipulated
variable.
The final control element may be
Control valve
Electrical motors
Pumps
Dampers

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Control Loop Classifications
Closed and Open control loops
Closed Loop
A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, compared to a set
point, and action is taken to correct any deviation from set point.

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Open Loop
An open control loop exists where the process variable is not compared, and action is
taken not in response to feedback on the condition of the process variable, but is
instead taken without regard to process variable conditions.
Closed and Open control loops

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Automatic Control
This term came into wide use when people learned to adapt automatic regulatory
procedures to manufacture products or process material more efficiently. Such
procedures are called automatic because no human (manual) intervention is required
to regulate them.
Automatic and Manual control

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Manual Control Loop
Without automatic controllers, all regulation tasks will have to be done manually. For
example: Tokeep constant the temperature of water discharged from an industrial
gas-fired heater, an operator has to watch a temperature gauge and adjust a gas
control valve accordingly. If the water temperature becomes too high, the operator
has to close the gas control valve a bit - just enough to bring the temperature back to
the desired value. If the water becomes too cold, he has to open the valve again.
Automatic and Manual control

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Flow measurement
Level measurement
Control Valves
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams
P&IDs provide information about all
equipment, all the instruments used to
monitor or control the process, and all
their associated lines or pipelines.
There are standard symbols and
designations for P&IDs. They may use
the International Society of Automation
(ISA) standards, or your facility may use
their own standards. All drawings must
be done the same way, using the same
symbols and designations for:
Equipment.
Instruments designations and symbols.
Pipeline designations.
Valve and miscellaneous symbols.
P&ID Symbols

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Identification letters

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Instrument Designations
There are several different instrument designations for process variable control or
monitoring. This table shows some of the most common ones.

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Instrument Symbols

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Process Variable Symbols

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Instrument Line Symbols

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Valve Symbols
There are several types of valves used in a process and several ways they may be
actuated. Examples of valve types include:

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Example

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Process Measurement Basics

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Measurement Terminology
Range is the upper and lower limits of a measurement or signal and is expressed in
the units of the measurement or signal. For example a pressure transmitter is
calibrated to measure from 100 bar to 1,000 bar, therefore its range is 100 to 1,000
bar.
Lower Range Limit is the lower limit of a measurement or signal and is expressed in
calibrated to measure from 100 bar to 1,000 bar, therefore its lower range limit is 100
bar.
Upper Range Limit is the upper limit of a measurement or signal and is expressed in
calibrated to measure from 100 bar to 1,000 bar, therefore its upper range limit is
1,000 bar.
Span is the mathematical difference between the upper and lower range limits of an
instrument. In our example, for a range of 100 to 1,000 bar the span is 1,000 minus
100 or 900 bar.
Range and Span

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Accuracy and Repeatability
Accuracy is the degree of closeness of the measured value to the actual value. It is
usually expressed as a plus or minus percent of span. A typical example would be 500
bar plus or minus 0.5%.
Repeatability is the degree to which repeated measurements under the exact same
conditions produce the same results. It is expressed as a plus or minus percent of
span.

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Accuracy and Repeatability
Poor repeatability
means poor accuracy
Low precision, low accuracy
Good repeatability does
not necessary means good accuracy
High precision, low accuracy
Good accuracy requires
good repeatability
High precision, highaccuracy

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Linearity is the degree to which a measurement
follows a straight line relationship between input and
output and is expressed as a plus or minus percent of
span.
Linear and square root calibration table:
Linearity

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Hysteresis is an error due to the elastic property of a material. If a material is either
stretched or compressed by a force and does not return to its original position when
the force is removed, the difference is the amount of hysteresis. It is expressed as a
plus or minus percent of span.
Hysteresis

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Resolution is the smallest change of the measured value that will result in a change in
output of a device.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the true or actual value. The
cause of an error in measurement could be due to accuracy, repeatability, linearity,
hysteresis or a combination thereof.
Measured or Process Value is the physical property that is being measured such as
pressure, temperature, level or flow.
Actual Value is the true actual value of the physical property regardless of the value
being generated by the instrumentation.
Other Terminology

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Measurement Instruments
Gauge or indicator is a device which directly measures and displays or indicates the
value of the process variable. Pressure gauges and thermometers are examples.
Regulator is a device which maintains the process variable at a set value. Regulators
can have an adjustable range.
Transducer is a device which converts one signal to another signal. Examples of a
transducer are:
Current to pneumatic (I/P).
Volume booster.
Switch is a device which operates in an on/off manner to the process variable. When
the process variable reaches the switch point, an electrical or pneumatic switch is
activated. The switch or set point is adjustable.
Transmitter is a device that measures the process variable and converts that
measurement into a signal that can be easily and safely transmitted to a control room
and/or other devices.
Common Measuring Instruments

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Calibration Terminology
An Instrument Signal is the signal in an instrument loop that is proportional to the
range of the process variable. Common instrument signals include:
Pneumatic: 3-15 psi.
Electronic: 4 to 20 mA and 1 to 5 Volt .
The formula for calculating the instrument signal of a transmitter is:
Calibration

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Example 1
For a measurement range of 0 to
600 bar, calculate the pneumatic
output signal for a measurement
value of 260 bar.
Example 2
For a measurement range of 100º C
to 400º C milliamp output signal
and a measurement value of 220º
C.
Examples

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Most instruments can either be tested and/or calibrated in the field or in the
shop. The equipment required for testing or calibrating is:
Multimeter: Tests the power supply and the output signal, it can be a function of a
multivariable process calibrator.
Process calibrator or calibration source: Provides the process variable to the
instrument and/or the test meter for the output signal.
HART communicator: For smart instruments of the HART type for testing the function
and configuration of the device.
Power supply: For shop testing and calibrating.
Transmitter Calibration Equipment

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HART communicator

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Intrinsic Safety
Intrinsic Safety prevents instruments
and other low voltage devices and
circuits in hazardous locations from
releasing enough energy to ignite
volatile gases. This is accomplished by
using intrinsic safety barriers in the
circuits of field devices.
Using intrinsically safe barriers allows
field equipment to be safely tested
using live voltages since the barrier will
prevent voltage from igniting gases
present in a hazardous area.
Be careful when using testing
equipment or circuits that have barriers,
in so as not to create a short or ground,
which could damage the barrier itself.
Intrinsic Safety

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Electrical Control loops
How information is sent in control loops

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4-wire (“self-powered”) transmitter current loops

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Extended 4 wire cable

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2-wire (“loop-powered”) transmitter current loops

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Pressure Measurement

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Pressure
Pressure is force acting upon a surface
area. Mathematically, pressure is force divided by
area:
Static pressure refers to pressure caused by a fluid
that is not moving and is contained within a vessel,
piping, or channel that is either open or closed.
Head or hydrostatic pressures are collectively known
as gauge pressure (Pg). Gauge pressure is the type of
pressure most commonly referred to in industry.
Atmospheric pressure (Patm) is the pressure exerted
by the atmosphere on the earth at sea level.
Absolute pressure (Pa) is the sum of gauge pressure
and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure Definitions

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Pressure Measurement Devices
Primary Element
The device or component that actually measures pressure is referred to as
the primary element, primary because it is that part which is actually in contact with
the fluid.
All of the different types of primary elements have one common property, their
elasticity. Elasticity can be defined as the property of returning to an initial form or
state following deformation, that is after a force distorts an object and is then
removed, the object will return to its original position or shape.
Numerous types of primary elements have been devised, each with its own
properties and applications. The types that we will discuss are:
Bourdon tube.
Diaphragm.
Bellows.
Capsule.
Strain Gauge.
Piezoelectric sensor.

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The bourdon tube is a tube that is constructed such that one end is open with the
other end closed. The cross-sectional area is elliptical so that when pressure is
applied to the open end, a displacement of the closed end or tip is caused. Bourdon
tubes are typically constructed of bronze, Monel, stainless steel or other alloys
depending on the fluid application. Bourdon tubes can measure pressures up to 29
bar (2,900 kPa), however they are not accurate for pressures of less than 0.3 bar (30
kPa).
C-type Spiral Helical
BourdanTube

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The bellows is basically a convoluted can with
an opening on one side and that side being
fixed. Pressure is applied internally causing
the bellows to expand and this motion is
utilized in the pressure instrument. When the
pressure is relieved, the bellows returns to its
original position.
Some applications can have a sealed bellows
mounted inside a can and the pressure
applied externally.
Bellows are usually made of brass, bronze or
stainless steel, however for certain
applications, various alloys can be
used. Bellows are typically low pressure
elements of up to 7 bar (700 kPa).
Bellows

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The diaphragm is a flexible disk that has
the pressure applied to one side, causing a
deflection of the diaphragm. When
pressure is relieved, the diaphragm returns
to its original position. The displacement
or movement of the diaphragm is detected
by the instrument for which it is the
primary element.
The diaphragm can either be flat or
corrugated and are made of rubber,
bronze, Monel, stainless steel or other
alloys depending on the fluid
application. The corrugated diaphragms
can withstand much higher pressures than
the flat type. Diaphragms are typically
used in low pressure applications.
Diaphragm

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Capsule
The capsule consists of two diaphragms that have been welded together on their circumferences
and are almost exclusively corrugated. The capsule is constructed of bronze, Monel, stainless
steel or other alloys depending on the fluid application.
Its advantage over the bourdon tube is that is can withstand much higher pressures, up to 300
bar (30,000 kPa).
Capacitance capsules are a very popular primary element in pressure and differential pressure
transmitters. Capacitance is the electrical property that permits an electrical circuit to store a
charge. A capacitor is the electronic component that exhibits capacitance and consists of two
conductive electrical plates separated by a non-conductive dielectric material. The amount of
capacitance is dependent on the area of the plates and the distance between them.
A capacitance capsule consists of the capsule that is filled with a dielectric material. The two
parts of the capsule are the plates and are of fixed area, therefore the only variable is the
distance between them. If a pressure is applied to one side of the capsule, the distance
between the two plates is decreased thereby increasing the capacitance since the relationship
between the distance between the plates is inversely proportional to the capacitance. The
change in capacitance is measured by an electronic circuit and is proportional to the pressure
applied.

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The piezoelectric sensor is based on the principle that when a quartz (or other
suitable material) crystal is compressed an electrical potential is produced. This
electrical potential is proportional to the pressure applied and is measured by an
electronic circuit.
Piezoelectric Sensor

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The strain gauge is based on the electrical conductivity of a conductor which is a
constant property of individual materials. When a conductor is stretched or
compressed without breaking, itsconductance or electrical resistance changes. On
compression, the resistance decreases while on elongation (or stretching) the
resistance increases. This relationship can be expressed in the simple formula that
resistance is proportional to the length of the conductor divided by the area of the
conductor times the resistance coefficient of the material.
Strain Gauge

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Capable of measuring differential pressure (that is,
the difference between a high pressure input and a
low pressure input) and therefore called DP
transmitters or DP cells.
The DP transmitter consists of:
Body containing display, electronic module &
power module.
Manifold with isolation, bypass & vent valves.
The transducer (DP cell) inserted in a pressure
capsule .
A pressure capsule has to be used to obtain
maximum sensitivity.
A pressure capsule has a sensitivity range that
closely matches the anticipated pressure of the
measured fluid.
Differential Pressure Transmitter

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Three Valve Manifold
A three-valve manifold is a device that is used to ensure that the capsule will not be
over-ranged during bringing the transmitter in/out of the service.
Allows isolation of the transmitter from the process loop.

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Installation
When installing anypressure
measuring device, consider:
Excessive (high or low) process
pressure or temperature – select
the proper materials of the parts
exposed to the process for safe
operation.
Corrosive process fluids - select the proper materials of the parts exposed to the process for safe
operation or use seals on the input lines.
Instrument range - the primary element must be chosen to match the desired range, however,
the range shouldn’t be selected to be too large as this will lead to less accuracy.
Select overpressure stops and/or blow out (rupture) disc to prevent damage to the instrument
or unsafe conditions to personnel.
High vibration installations – install the instrument away from high vibration equipment.
High process pressure fluctuations – install pulsation dampers (snubbers) on the instrument
input lines.
Steam installations – install pigtail seals (siphons) on the instrument input lines to prevent steam
from being present in the instrument.
Corrosive or extreme temperature environment – install the instrument in an enclosure and use
heat tracing or cooling where required.

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Flow Measurement

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Flow Measurement
Differential Pressure (Head) Type
Orifice Plate
Venturi Tube
Flow Nozzles
Elbow
Pitot Tube, Averaging Pitot Tube (Annubar)
Wedge Meter
V-Cone
Velocity Type
Magnetic
Ultrasonic - Transit Time, Doppler
Turbine
Vortex
Mass Type
Coriolis
Thermal
Variable Area meter
Rotameter
Commonly Used Flow Devices

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Differential Pressure Flow Measurement
Differential Pressure (Head) Type
Differential pressure flow measurement is the most common method used in
industry. However, before the device used to measure flow by the differential
pressure method can be studied, a good understanding of flow theory is required.
The equation of continuity states that: “The volume rate of flow (Q) passing any given
point in a pipe is equal to the cross-sectional area of the pipe (A) times the velocity
(v) at that point.”

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A fluid flowing in a pipe is governed by Bernoulli's theorem which states: “The sum
of the pressure head, velocity head and elevation head at one point is equal to their
sum at another point."
Bernoulli's theorem
1
P+ 1 1 2
=P+ 2
2
2 2
rV +rgh rV +rgh
2 2
1 1
Pressure
Energy
Kinetic
Energy
PerUnit
Volume
Potential
Energy
Per unit
Volume
EnergyPerUnitVolumeBefore=EnergyPerUnitVolumeAfter

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Accurate flow measurement using the pressure differential principle involves many
other factors. When fluids are flowing through a pipe at different velocities, they
exhibit different flow patterns. At low velocities, the fluid appears to “tumble” as it
flows past a point. This is called turbulent flow.
At higher velocities, the fluid flows in parallel layers, with the outer layers (that are in
contact with the pipe) moving slightly slower due to friction. This is called laminar
flow.
Fluid Flow

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Reynold's Number
The Reynold’s number (Re) is a measurement of turbulent and laminar flow. It is a
dimensionless number that reflects the flow profiles and is a factor of the fluid’s:
Density (ρ).
Flow velocity (v ).
Pipe diameter (D).
Fluid viscosity (µ).
Reynold’s number is calculated by the formula: Re= (ρvD/µ)
Reynold's Number

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If a restriction is introduced into a pipe and according to Bernoulli’s Theorem, there
will be a differential pressure across the restriction. As in control valves, the pressure
recovers after passing through the restriction, but never back to 100%. There will be
a small permanent pressure loss, one of the disadvantages of differential pressure
flow meters.
Differential Pressure Flow Measurement Principle

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Flow Equation

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By far the most common device used as a restrictor to create the differential pressure
used in flow measurement is the orifice plate. In its most simple form, the orifice plate is
nothing more than a steel plate with a hole drilled in it and placed in the pipe. However
basic the concept is, developing an orifice plate to produce the greatest accuracy with
the least pressure drop is a science which has developed several design types. Accuracy
is dependent on the orifice plate design, tap location and the piping.
Advantages:
Low cost.
Easy maintenance.
Small size, compact.
Can be field fabricated.
Disadvantages:
Poor accuracy (0.5 – 2%).
Requires a transmitter.
Square root (not linear output).
High pressure loss.
Requires specific upstream and downstream distances from disturbances (bends or
valves).
Orifice Plate

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Orifice plates are generally constructed from stainless steel with the hole being
machined to close tolerances. They usually have a paddle or handle attached on
which is stamped critical information such as material, thickness, orifice diameter, tag
number and which side faces upstream (if not marked, the text always faces
upstream). Orifice plates without the paddle are called universal plates.
Orifice Plate Construction

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Orifice types

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Pressure Taps

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The Venturi tube is an elongated pipe that is
shaped like the vena contracta flow pattern. The
design has an inlet cone and an outlet cone. The
inlet cone angle is 19-23º and the outlet cone
angle is 5-15º. The pressure taps are located
upstream (¼ -½D) of the inlet cone and
downstream at the throat.
There are many advantages to the Venturi tube:
More accurate than the orifice plate; 0.5 – 3%.
Lower pressure drop.
Higher flow rate than the orifice plate.
Can handle slurries and solids.
Less straight pipe run upstream.
The disadvantages of the Venturi tube is
the higher cost and the fact that it is difficult to
maintain or replace.
Venturi Tube

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The flow nozzle is a cone shaped
insert into the pipe whose
properties, advantages and
disadvantages fall in between those
of the orifice plate and venturi
tube. A typical application is high
flow rates of superheated
steam. The nozzle itself can have
many different shapes as
determined by the manufacturer.
Flow Nozzle

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Pitot Tube
The pitot tube is a bent hollow tube with
the point facing upstream in a pipe. The
differential pressure is the static (line)
pressure of the pipe and the impact
pressure in the tube (caused by the
velocity of the flowing fluid). It is usually
inserted into the center of the pipe
Its characteristics are similar to the orifice
plate but with a lesser pressure loss. Due
to its installation, it only measures the flow
at one point and which is an average of the
flow rate.
Its most common uses are for measuring
air or gas flows in pipes but can also be
used to measure velocity (in airplanes).
Pitot Tube

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Standard Installations
Liquid Service
For liquid service always mount the D/P cell below the orifice plate to ensure the
sensing (impulse) lines are always filled with liquid and not entrapped gas bubbles.

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Gas Service
For gas service always mount the D/P cell above the orifice plate to ensure the
sensing (impulse) lines are always filled with the gas and not condensed liquids or
entrained solids.

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Steam Service
For steam service always mount the D/P cell below the orifice plate to ensure the
sensing (impulse) lines are always filled with water. Toensure this condensate pots
can be installed at the orifice.

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Velocity Flow Meters
Velocity based flow meters operate on the principle of
measuring the velocity of the fluid that is flowing. The equation
of continuity states that: “The volume rate of flow (Q) passing
any given point in a pipe is equal to the cross-sectional area of
the pipe (A) times the velocity (v) at that point.” Stated
mathematically: Q=Av.
Since the area is constant, flow (Q) is proportional to velocity
(v). The signals that the different types of velocity meters
produce vary, but all are electronically modified by a meter
constant (particular to the individual meter) to produce a
volumetric flow rate. There are four main types of velocity
meters:
Turbine Meter
Vortex Shedder Meter
Ultrasonic Meter
Magnetic Flow Meter
Velocity Meters

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The turbine meter is comprised of a multi-blade
rotor assembly, resembling a propeller, mounted in
the pipe. The fluid flowing past the blades of the
turbine meter causes it to turn at
a velocity proportional to the flow rate. Used for
liquids and gases, but low viscosity liquid service is
more common. Bearing wear is a common problem
with turbine meters.
The rotor is suspended by and rotates on precise
bearings offering little resistance. The rotor blade
diameter is just slightly smaller than the internal
diameter of the pipe. Turbine rotation is detected by
solid state devices, most commonly reluctance or
inductance types. The rotor is suspended in the pipe
by upstream and downstream supports that not only
act as supports but also offer some flow
conditioning, much like straightening vanes.
Turbine Meters

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The vortex meter is based on the principle that when a flowing fluid strikes a non-
streamlined object, the flow is separated as it flows around the object. The flow
cannot follow the contour of the object on the downstream side and it separates
itself from the object in the form of eddy currents or vortices. When this occurs, the
separation causes an alternating high velocity/low flow cycle to happen.
Vortex Shedding Meters

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Ultrasonic Meters
Ultrasonic meters measure difference in upstream vs. downstream transit time of a
sonic signal across the path of a flowing fluid. They have no moving parts and a very
high rangeability.
Ultrasonic meters can be divided into two distinct types: Transit time and Doppler.
The transit time ultrasonic flow meter is based on the principle of measuring the time
it takes for an ultrasonic wave to move from the transmitter to the receiver.

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The Doppler ultrasonic flow meter uses reflected ultrasonic waves to measure the
fluid velocity. The frequency of the ultrasonic waves will be reflected back from
particles in the flowing fluid, however it will experience a phase shift which is
proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
Doppler ultrasonic flow meter

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Commonly referred to as the magflo or mag
meter, it is based on the principle of
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
which states: “Avoltage will be induced
when a conductor moves through a
magnetic field.” The meter consists of an
electromagnetic coil attached to the outside
of the pipe. Two electrodes protrude
through the pipe and are in contact with the
fluid. The fluid, which must be conductive
(or have conductive particles in it) acts as
the conductor. When the coil is energized
and the fluid flows through the pipe, a small
voltage is generated. The amount of voltage
is dependent on the speed to the fluid
passing through the coil (fluid velocity) and
is proportional to the flow rate.
Magnetic Flow Meters

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Mass Flow Measurement
Mass flow measurement is the volumetric flow
rate multiplied by the constant density of the fluid. If
the density varies slightly, which occurs in most
processes, then the mass measurement accuracy is
affected. Also, if pressure and temperature vary, then
the density varies, which once again will produce an
inaccurate reading.
Mass flow measurement can be accomplished by
using a flow computer which receives temperature,
pressure, density and volumetric flow readings from
various devices and computes the mass flow. The
calculation of the mass flow is dependent on the
accuracy of the devices. If any of the devices is out
of calibration the accuracy of the final mass
flow is affected.
Another means of determining mass flow is the use
of mass flow meters that measure the mass directly.
This method is independent of changes in
temperature, pressure, density, and volumetric flow
readings.

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The most common type of mass flow meter is the
coriolis meter. It operates on the principle of motion
mechanics. As it moves through the tube, the fluid is
forced to take on the vertical movement of the tube,
in one direction on the inlet side and in the opposite
direction on the outlet side causing a “twisting”
(Coriolis effect) of the tube. This occurs for half the
cycle of the vibration. On the other half cycle, the
opposite occurs with the twisting motion in the
opposite direction. Detectors on either side of the
tube detect this small motion caused by the twisting
action. The amount of twist is directly proportional to
the mass flow through the tube. The frequency of the
vibration is directly proportional to the density of the
fluid.
A phase shift is generated between the vibration of
the two tubes. This amplifies the movement to be
detected.
Coriolis Meter

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Many manufacturers produce coriolis mass
flow meters. Most use a proprietary
design. Some of the meters have single,
double, or even triple tubes in straight,
curved, or bent tube configurations.
Coriolis Meter Design

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Another type of mass flow meter is the
thermal mass meter. It is based on the
theory that if a heated electrode is placed
in contact with the fluid (either directly or
indirectly), the amount of heat conducted
away from the electrode is proportional
to the mass flow.
In practice, the electrode is heated to a
constant temperature with no
flow. When flow occurs the fluid
conducts away some of the heat. The
temperature loss is proportional to the
mass flow.
The thermal mass meter is almost used
exclusively on gases. Typical designs
include in-line, insertion or capillary type
with single or double electrodes.
Thermal Mass Meter

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Attributes
Mass flow meters attributes include:
Small.
Handles low flows.
High accuracy (0.5%).
Average pressure drop.
Generally low maintenance.
Produce a mass flow without having to use any other sensors (density, pressure,
temperature).
Relatively expensive.
Equipped with their own signal conditioner, most being of the smart type.
Attributes

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Level Measurement

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Level Measurement
Contact type instrument
Sight-type Instruments
Float-type Instruments
Hydrostatic Pressure-type
Displacer-type Instrument
Electrical-type Instruments
Non-contact type instruments
Sonic-type Instruments
Radiation-type Instruments
Types of level measurement

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Level Measurement
Sight glass
The level gauge, or sightglass is to liquid level measurement as manometers are to
pressure measurement: a very simple and effective technology for direct visual
indication of process level.
Types of Sight glasses
Reflex-type
Transparent type
Magnetic type
Tubular type

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Level Measurement
Magnetic type Sight gauges have a float inside a nonmagnetic chamber. The float
contains a magnet, which rotates wafers over as the surface level increases or
decreases. The rotating wafers present the opposite face, which has a different
colour. It is more suitable for severe operating conditions where liquids are under
high pressure or contaminated.
Magnetic type

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Level Measurement
The only way to ensure proper two-part liquid interface level indication in a sightglass
is to keep both ports (nozzles) submerged
Interface level gauges
If a lighter (less dense) liquid exists above
a heavier (denser) liquid in the process vessel,
the level gauge may not show the proper interface

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Level Measurement
Floats give a direct readout of liquid level when they are connected to an indicating
instrument through a mechanical linkage. A simple example of this is the
weighted tape tank gauge. The position of the weighted anchor against a gauge
board gives an indication of the liquid level in the tank. The scale of the gauge
board is in reverse order, i.e. the zero level indication is at the top and the
maximum level indication is at the bottom of the gauge board.
Float type instruments

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Level Measurement
Different types of level measurements

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Level Measurement
Example

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Hydrostatic Head Level Measurement
Hydrostatic head level measurement is based on
the principle that the pressure at the bottom of a
column of liquid is directly related to the height of
the liquid (h, in inches or millimeters) and
the relative density (RD) of that liquid. If the
pressure exerted by the head or height of liquid is
measured then the level can be
determined. Hydrostatic head is an indirect
method of level measurement as the level
is inferred by the pressure that is measured.
The relationship between the height of liquid or
level and pressure can be defined by the formula:
P=SGp x ρp xh
Introduction to Hydrostatic Head Level Measurement

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Measuring Liquids Using Hydrostatic
HeadThere are two methods for
measuring liquids using hydrostatic
head, open tank and closed
tank. In both cases, the most common
instrument used to measure the
pressure is the differential pressure cell
or transmitter (D/P cell). A D/P cell is
used instead of a simple pressure
transmitter or pressure gauge to
eliminate any error due to changes in
atmospheric pressure. Any changes in
atmospheric pressure will be applied to
both sides of the D/P cell and will
cancel each other.
Measuring Liquids Using Hydrostatic Head

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Open Tank Measurement

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Elevation and Suppression AdjustmentsThe
calculations in the examples are only valid if the
differential pressure transmitter (D/P cell) is
mounted at the datum point. In practice, the
D/P cell is quite often either mounted above or
below the datum point, in which case the
following adjustments must be made:
Suppression – is the adjustment made when the
D/P cell (or any measuring device) is mounted
below the datum line. Zero
suppressionindicates you need to lower the
nominal zero point.
Elevation – is the adjustment made when the
D/P cell is mounted above the datum line. Zero
elevation indicates you need to raise the
nominal zero point.
Elevation and Suppression Adjustments

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Closed Tank Measurement
Most level applications in industry involve closed tanks under some pressure. The
differential pressure transmitter (D/P cell) is also used for closed tank applications.
Note: Ps = Pstatic, the pressure inside the tank.
In order to accurately measure the head pressure of the liquid alone, closed tank
applications must compensate for the static pressure of the vapor above the liquid.
Both pressure input taps for the transmitter are connected to the tank. As in open
tank measurement, the high pressure (PH) side of the transmitter is connected to the
base, or 0% datum of the tank. The low pressure (PL) side of the transmitter is
connected to the top of the tank through a pipe referred to as a "reference leg." The
reference leg must be either completely dry (empty) or completely filled with liquid.
Closed Tank Measurement

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A “dry leg” on the low side refers to the low side piping
being completely void of liquids. This application only
works with non-condensing liquids in the tank. If used
with condensing liquids, some liquid could build up on
the low or dry side and would then create an error
since this height of liquid would induce an
uncompensated pressure on the low side.
The equation for calculating the pressure exerted by
the liquid in a closed tank with a dry leg is:
P = RDp x h but P = PH - PL and PH = P + PS and PL = PS
Dry Leg Closed Tank Measurement

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Wet Leg Closed Tank MeasurementIf
condensing liquids or steam are to be
measured, then the installation must contain a
“wet leg" on the low side. It is called a wet leg
since the low side piping is always completely
filled with the condensate liquid of the tank or
some other inert liquid such as glycol. In this
manner, a constant pressure is generated on
the low side and can be accounted for when
calibrating the instrument. Tocalculate the
differential pressure (PH – PL) at the D/P cell,
two calculations are required; one for the
pressure resulting from the process liquid in
the tank minus that of the pressure resulting
from the liquid in the wet leg.
Wet Leg Closed Tank Measurement

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Condensate PotTo ensure the wet leg is always
filled, a condensate pot is installed at the top of
the leg to provide adequate liquid. The
condensate pot is located at the top of the tank
close to where the wet leg is connected to the
tank and is filled with sufficient volume of liquid
to completely fill the wet leg piping. It can be
filled with the process fluid, but more often is
filled with an inert liquid such as glycol. In any
case, it must be a liquid that will not vaporize.
Condensate Pot

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Used If the process liquid contains suspended solids or is chemically corrosive or
radioactive.
It is desirable to prevent it from coming into direct contact with the level transmitter.
A bubbler tube is immersed to the bottom of the vessel in which the liquid level is to
be measured.
A gas (called purge gas) is allowed to pass through the bubbler tube.
Consider that the tank is empty, so, the gas will escape freely at the end of the tube
and therefore the gas pressure inside the bubbler tube will be at atmospheric
pressure.
As the liquid level inside the tank increases, pressure exerted by the liquid at the base
of the tank (and at the opening of the bubbler tube) increases.
As a result, the gas pressure in the bubbler tube will continue to increase until it just
balances the pressure of the liquid & any excess supply pressure will escape as
bubbles through the liquid.
The bubbler tube is connected to the high-pressure side of the transmitter, while the
low pressure side is vented to atmosphere.
Bubbler System

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Bubbler system Considerations
The purge gas supply must be reliable,
if the flow stops for any reason, the
level measurement will cease to be
accurate.
The purge gas supply pressure must
exceed the hydrostatic pressure at all
times, or else the level measurement
range will fall below the actual liquid
level. (preferred to be better by 10 psi)
The purge gas must not adversely react
with the process.
The purge gas must not contaminate
the process.
The purge gas must be reasonable in
cost, since it will be continuously
consumed over time.
Bubbler System

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Displacer
It is based on Archimedes' principle of Buoyancy
Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by
continuously measuring the weight of the displacer immersed in the process liquid.
As liquid level increases, the displacer experiences a greater buoyant force, making it
appear lighter to the sensing instrument, which interprets the loss of weight as an
increase in level and transmits a proportional output signal.
Displacer

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Displacer
Used in clean liquids of constant density
Apparent weight causes an angular
displacement of the torque tube (a torsion
spring, a frictionless pressure seal).
This angular displacement is linearly
proportional to the displacer's weight
Standard displacer volume is 100 cubic
inches and the most commonly used
lengths are 14, 32, 48, and 60 in.
the buoyant force can also be detected by
other force sensors, including springs and
force-balance instruments
Torque Tube

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Displacer
Dry Calibration

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Displacer
Suppose we have a displacer instrument measuring the interface level between two
liquids having specific gravities of 0.850 and 1.10, with a displacer length of 30 inches
and a displacer diameter of 2.75 inches (radius = 1.375 inches).
Fbuoyant = γ1V1 + γ2V2
Fbuoyant = γ1πr2l1 + γ2πr2l2
Fbuoyant (LRV) = πr2γ2L
Fbuoyant (URV) = πr2 γ1L
Displacement interface level measurement

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Displacer
Calibration example

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Capacitive
Capacitive level measurement

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Ultrasonic
The ultrasonic transmitter operates by:
Applying a voltage pulse to a piezoelectric
crystal which generates an ultrasonic pulse.
The pulse travels to the surface and is
reflected.
The reflected wave (or echo) returns to
strike the crystal generating a small voltage
spike of the same frequency.
The time is measured for the round trip and
compared to the reference height of the
transducer and is proportional to the level.
Ultrasonic Level Measurement

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Radar
The fundamental difference between a radar instrument and an ultrasonic
instrument is the type of wave used: radio waves instead of sound waves. Radio
waves are electromagnetic in nature (comprised of alternating electric and magnetic
fields), and very high frequency (in the microwave frequency range – GHz).
Sound waves are mechanical vibrations (transmitted from molecule to molecule in a
fluid or solid substance) and of much lower frequency than radio waves.
Radar level measurement

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Radar
Example for radar level transmitters

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Nuclear
Nuclear radiation systems have the ability to “see” through tank walls, and thus they
can be mounted on the outside of process equipment.
Suitable for liquid or solid material detection.
Composed of a radioactive source material and a radiation detector, the two are
mounted across the diameter of a storage vessel for either solid or liquid material.
The product to be measured is attenuating the radiation coming from the radioactive
source and according to the height of the product in the vessel, more or less of the
original radiation is reaching the detector.
This measuring signal is then transferred to an
output signal which directly correlates to the
actual Level of the product.
Nuclear level instrument

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Nucleur
Two typical nuclear level instruments:
Using a single low-level gamma-ray source on one side of the process vessel and a
radiation detector on the other side of the tank.
Using several gamma sources at different heights on the tank.
Nuclear level instrument

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Temperature Measurement

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Temperature is the amount of hotness or coldness in a body. It is the amount of heat
in that body.
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between one body to another as a result
of a difference in temperature. This transfer is from a body with a higher temperature
to one with a lower temperature.
Heat is transferred between bodies by three distinct methods:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

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Temperature Units
Temperature UnitsA calorie is an SI heat unit. One calorie is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius.
Temperature is the amount of hotness or coldness, that is, the thermal energy in a
body. It is the amount of heat in that body.
The unit of temperature in the SI system is degrees Celsius and is commonly used in
laboratory and scientific work. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale commonly used in
the United States. The scientific community uses the absolute temperature scale.

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The liquid-in-glass thermometer was the first temperature
measuring device. It consists of a glass bulb at the bottom
and a thin glass or capillary tube extending upward. The
glass tube and bulb are closed and have a liquid partially
filling them. The empty space is usually a vacuum.
When the bulb is heated, liquid volume will increase
and travel up the glass tube. The tube is calibrated in the
temperature scale that the thermometer was designed
for.
Thermometer fills include mercury (not produced
anymore, due to health and safety concerns) or colored
water, alcohol, or oil.
A disadvantage of the glass thermometer is that it is very
fragile. Toprotect the thermometer in industrial uses, a
metallic protective sleeve can be used.
Thermometers

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Another type of thermometer is the bi-metallic strip thermometer. The main
component is a strip of metal consisting of two different metals bonded together.
The two metals have different coefficients of thermal expansion. When heated, each
will expand at a different rate. Since they are bonded together, if one end is heated,
one metal will expand faster than the other. This results in a curving or rotational
movement of the free end. The free end is attached to an instrument’s linkage, much
like a C-type bourdon tube in a pressure gauge. The rotational movement will cause a
deflection in the pointer that is attached to the linkage, and the temperature can be
read from the dial. When cooled, the strip returns to its original position.
The bi-metallic strip can be a spiral, single helix, or multiple helical.
Bimetallic Strip

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While a thermometer has a round dial, the stem containing a bi-metallic strip can be
different lengths.
Thermometers are also referred to as temperature gauges and in industry, the bi-
metal strip primary element is the most common one in use. Typical temperature
ranges include:
Glass-filled thermometer are -150º C to 500º C (-238ºF to 932º F).
Bi-metallic elements are -75º C to 550ºC (-103º F to 1022º F).
These are typically used in thermometers and in temperature compensation devices
for other instruments.
Bimetallic Strip

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A filled thermal system has a liquid or gas
filled bulb and a long, metal capillary tube
which is connected to a spiral bourdon
tube.
When the bulb is heated, the liquid or gas
expands, increasing pressure in the fixed
volume of the bulb, capillary, or bourdon
tube assembly.
Increasing pressure causes the tip to
rotate, which moves the instrument's link
and lever system. When cooled, the
pressure in the filled system returns to its
original condition. Capillary length can
range from a few centimeters (1 in) to 15
meters (49 ft) in length.
Filled Thermal Systems

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There are four types of filled thermal systems.
The type is determined by the fill liquid or gas
and the type of compensation.
Class I – filled with a liquid.
Class II – filled with a vapor.
Class III – filled with a gas.
Class IV – filled with mercury.
An ambient temperature compensation is
required due to the long length of the capillary
tube. The measurement may be outside a
building in a high, low, or changing ambient
temperature, while the instrument could be
inside the building at a constant temperature.
The liquid or gas would experience both
temperatures, causing an error in
measurement. Ambient compensation adjusts
for this temperature differential.
Filled Thermal Systems

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A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is based
on the principle that when a conductor is heated,
its electrical resistance increases. Temperature is
directly and linearly proportional to a conductor’s
resistance. If we measure resistance, we can
convert that measurement to a temperature
reading.
The conductor most commonly used in industrial
RTDs is platinum, but copper and silver
conductors are also used. The Platinum 100 RTD
is the most common element in industry and is
referred to as the Pt-100 RTD. The resistance of
the RTD is 100 ohms at 0º C (32º F), the reference
point.
The conductor is usually wound in a coil and is
sheathed in a 6 mm stainless-steel tube. The
entire assembly is referred to as the probe.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

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The electronic circuit used to measure the resistance
change is called a Wheatstone bridge. The RTD is on
one leg of the bridge measuring circuit. The bridge
output is proportional to the temperature.
Since the bridge circuit measures the total
resistance, it measures the resistance of the RTD and
the lead wires are measured. Lead wires can be
relatively long and can be exposed to a different
temperature than that of the RTD probe. This may
produce an error in measurement. Lead length
compensation is therefore required. The most
common type is the 3-wire lead compensation, in
which a dummy wire is placed in the same leg of the
bridge circuit as the RTD itself.
RTDs are almost exclusively used as primarily
elements for temperature transmitters, they are very
rarely used as a stand-alone device.

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The wires of the RTD are universally
color coded to indicate which lead wire
is which. The color coding is
dependent on whether the probe is a
2-wire, a 3-wire or 4-wire configuration.
Typical ranges for RTD elements are -
250º C to 650º C (-418º F to 1200º F).
They almost exclusively used in
transmitters, but may also be used
as temperature probes for machine
monitoring equipment. Compared to
the other types of elements, the RTDs
are more accurate, linear, rugged and
inexpensive.

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Platinum has been accepted as the material which best fist all the criteria and has been
generally accepted for industrial measurement between –300 and 1200° F (-150 and
650 °C ). The effect of resistances inherent in the lead wires of the RTD circuit on the
temperature measurement can be minimized by increasing the resistance of the
sensor; however, the sensor will also be increased. RTDS are commercially available
with resistances from 50 to 1000 ohms at 32°F ( 0°C) and increase resistance 0.385
ohms for every °C of temperature rise.
PT 100 means that resistance of the element at reference temperature( 0°C) equal to
100 Ω while PT 1000 resistance equal to 1 kΩ .

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The thermistor is a primary element that is very similar to the RTD. It, too, is based
on the theory that the resistance of a material increases or decreases with a change
in temperature. The amount of change is proportional to the thermistor’s coefficient
of resistance.
RαkT
where
R = a material’s resistance
k = a material’s coefficient of resistance
T = the temperature of the material
Thermistor

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Thermocouples
Thermocouples are based on the principle that when the junction of two dissimilar
metals is heated, a small millivoltage signal is generated that is proportional to the
temperature.
Togenerate a current flow, the two metals must be joined at the other end.
The sensing or measuring junction is referred to as the hot junction, while the other
end (which is connected to the measuring device), is referred to as the reference or
cold junction.
The formula for calculating the voltage generated in a thermocouple circuit is:
mVtotal = mVhot junction – mVcold junction

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Thermocouple Types

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Thermocouple extension wires connect the hot or measurement junction with the
measuring device or cold junction. They must be the same material and have the
thermoelectric properties of the thermocouple itself. This is required to avoid a
measurement error by making another junction if, for instance, copper wire was used as the
extension wire for both leads.
Typical ranges vary between -270° C to 2320° C (-454° F to 4208° F), depending on the type
of thermocouple. Thermocouples are used for high temperature applications, in-flame
applications, and as the primary element for transmitters and machine monitoring
equipment. Advantages include:
Linear.
Wide and high range.
Inexpensive.
Rugged.
Does not require an external power supply.
Thermocouple Construction

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Thermocouple tip style
Ungrounded –
For use in
corrosive and
pressurized
apps. Slow
response time.
Offers electrical
isolation.
Grounded – For use
in corrosive and
pressurized apps.
Quicker response
time than
ungrounded due to
improved heat
transfer.
Exposed – For use
in dry, non-
corrosive, non-
pressurized apps.
Quickest response
time of all three.

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Thermocouple VS RTD VS Thermistor

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The thermowell is used to protect the temperature element
from process hazards while enabling an accurate
measurement. A thermowell must be mounted to contact
process fluid. This means it is subjected to corrosion, abrasion,
high pressures, open flames, and other potential hazards.
The thermowell is a hollow tube closed on one end and open
on the other. The closed end is inserted into the process
through standard threads or flanges, or by welding. The
temperature element is inserted into the open end, which
allows it to measure the temperature while isolated from the
process fluid.
The thermowell also allows the temperature element to be
removed easily for calibration, maintenance, or replacement,
without the need for a process shutdown. Thermowells are
usually constructed out of stainless steel, but could be made
from other alloys depending on the process fluid.
Thermowells

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Infrared thermometers measure temperature
using the infrared energy emitted from objects.
They are sometimes called laser thermometers,
pyrometers, or non-contact thermometers to
describe the device’s ability to measure
temperature from a distance.
Infrared sensors measure the amount of
radiation emitted by a surface. Electromagnetic
energy radiates from all matter, regardless of its
temperature. In many process situations, the
energy is in the infrared region. As the
temperature increases, the amount of infrared
radiation and the average frequency go up. By
measuring the amount of infrared energy
emitted by the object, the object's temperature
can be determined.
Infrared Thermometers

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A thermal imaging camera allows the user to
see a two dimensional image displayed in
heat. This infrared image is created using a
tiny grid of infrared detectors inside the
thermal imaging camera behind a lens.
When all of the individual temperature
values are converted from a numeric
temperature value to a color associated with
a temperature, a thermal image is generated.
Thermal images are useful for many
industrial applications. Most industrial
problems such as overloaded panels or failing
bearings in a motor generate heat as a by-
product.
In this diagram, it is easy to see the greatest
source of heat inside the motor.
Thermography (Thermal Imaging)

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Final Control Elements
Control Valves

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Final Control Element
Control Valve Components
Actuator
Body
Accessories

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Body
Bonnet
Trim
Packing
Actuator
Basic Valve Components

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Body
Is the main part of the valve. All other parts fit onto the body.
It is usually cast or forged and the shape varies with the type of valve.
Inlet and outlet pipes fit onto the valve body through threaded, bolted (flanged) or
welded joints.
The fluid passes through the valve body when the valve is open.
The valve body must be strong enough to take the maximum pressure of the process
fluid. It must also be made of a material that is not attacked by the fluid.
Bonnet
Is a removable cover fitted to the body. Some bonnets support the moving parts of
the valve. Others just close the hole in the body through which the moving parts pass
for assembly and dismantling.

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Trim (Plug and Seat )
Is the name given to the parts inside a valve. This normally includes:
The opening/closing element—closes the fluid path through the valve body
The valve stem—connects the actuator to the closing element
The valve seat—makes a seal with the closing element when the valve is closed
Packing
It allows the valve stem to pass into the valve body without loss of fluid or fluid
pressure from the valve. It forms a dynamic seal between the valve stem and the
bonnet.
Actuator
Operates the stem and closing element assembly.

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Control Valve Body
Control Valve Classification
Control
Valve
Linear
Motion
Globe
Globe
Single
port
Double
port
Angle 3 way
Diaphragm Gate
Rotary
Motion
Ball Butterfly Disk

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Globe valves restrict the flow of fluid by altering the distance between a movable
plug and a stationary seat (in some cases, a pair of plugs and matching seats). Fluid
flows through a hole in the center of the seat, and is more or less restricted by how
close the plug is to that hole. The globe valve design is one of the most popular
sliding-stem valve designs used in throttling service.
Globe Valves

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Single-ported Globe
Large amount of force required to drive the stem
Tight shut off
Used in small diameter applications
Double-ported Globe Valve
The purpose of a double-ported globe valve is to
minimize the force applied to the stem by process
fluid pressure across the plugs which comes in trade
of tight shutoff of the valve
Globe valve

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3-way Valves
Three-way valves are useful in services where a flow stream must be diverted (split)
between two different directions, or where two flow streams must converge (mix)
within the valve to form a single flow stream.

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The inlet and outlet ports are at right angle to each
other .
Can be installed in case of no inline globe valve can
be installed
Angle Valves

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Diaphragm valves use a flexible sheet pressed
close to the edge of a solid dam to narrow the
flow path for fluid. These valves are well suited
for flows containing solid particulate matter such
as slurries.
Precise throttling may be difficult to achieve due
to the elasticity of the diaphragm.
This diaphragm completely separates the valve
trim from the fluid flowing through the valve.
This means that the fluid does not contact the
trim and the stem does not need any gland
packing.
Diaphragm Valve

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Gate valves work by inserting a dam (gate) into the path of
the flow to restrict it, in a manner similar to the action of a
sliding door. Gate valves are more often used for on/off
control than for throttling.
Gate Valve

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In the ball valve design, a spherical ball with a passageway cut through the center
rotates to allow fluid more or less access to the passageway. When the passageway is
parallel to the direction of fluid motion, the valve is wide open; when the passageway
is aligned perpendicular to the direction of fluid motion, the valve is fully shut
(closed).
Ball Valve

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Butterfly valves are quite simple to understand: the
“butterfly” element is a disk that rotates perpendicular
to the path of fluid flow. When parallel to the axis of
flow, the disk presents minimal obstruction; when
perpendicular to the axis, the disk completely blocks
any flow. Fluid-tight shutoff is difficult to obtain in the
classic butterfly design unless the seating area is lined
with a soft (elastic) material.
Butterfly Valves

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Disk valves (often referred to as eccentric disk valves, or as high-performance
butterfly valves) are a variation on the butterfly design intended to improve seat
shut-off. The disk’s center is offset from the shaft centerline, causing it to approach
the seat with a “cam” action that results in high seating pressure. Thus, tight shut-off
of flow is possible even when using metal seats and disks.
Disc Valve

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PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
They are basically of two types
Diaphragm actuator
Piston actuator
These actuators are designed so that with a specific change of air pressure, the
spindle will move sufficiently to move the valve through its complete stroke from
fully-closed to fully-open.
Actuators

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This actuator contains a diaphragm and a spring. When
no pressure acts on the diaphragm, the spring keeps the
valve in a fully closed position.
As process pressure increases above the spring's back
force, the diaphragm is pushed down and the valve opens.
The process itself supplies the energy used to move the
valve, but the device responsible for the actual movement
is the diaphragm actuator.
Diaphragm Valve Actuator

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Piston Actuator
This piston actuator works much like a diaphragm
actuator except that a piston is used to move the valve
stem.
The piston is much stronger than the
diaphragm. Therefore, piston-actuated valves are used for
higher differential pressures than diaphragm-operated
actuators.
Piston actuators are designed to safely operate on supply
pressures up to 150 PSIG (1,034 kPag).

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Rotating Actuators (RACK-AND PINION MECHANISM)
A pair of pneumatically-actuated pistons move a rack
and pinion mechanism to convert linear piston motion
into rotary shaft motion to move the butterfly trim.

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Electric operators with proportional or infinite positioning control have limited use in
the process industries. Their primary use has been in remote areas, such as tank
farms and pipeline stations, where no convenient air supply is available. Slow
operating speeds, maintenance problems in hazardous areas and economics have
prevented wide acceptance for throttling applications.
Electric motors have long been used to actuate large valves, especially valves
operated as on/off (“shutoff”) devices. Advances in motor design and motor control
circuitry have brought motor operated valve (MOV) technology to the point where it
now competes with legacy actuator technologies such as pneumatic in actuating
throttling valves as well.
Electric Actuators (MOV)

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Electric Actuators (MOV)
An electric actuator providing on/off rotary actuation to a ball valve. This particular
electric actuator comes with a hand crank for manual operation, in the event that the
electric motor (or the power provided to it) fails

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Direct Body
Valve Failure modes

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Reverse Body
Valve Failure modes

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The purpose of valve accessories is to obtain the best operational and safety
performance from the control valve and actuator combination. Most control valves
do not operate with simply an actuator but rather with a variety of accessories to
maximize the performance of the valve.
The most common control valve accessories are:
Hand wheel or manual level.
Air set.
Transducer.
Volume booster.
Fail-safe system.
Limit switches.
Quick Exhaust valve
Positioner.
Control Valve Accessories

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The hand wheel or manual lever is used to
open or close a valve if the automatic
control system fails. It can also be used to
“torque” close a valve that might be slightly
leaking. The types available are the typical
hand wheel or a variety of different levers.
It is mounted to either the actuator or
valve bonnet so that it is attached to the
stem (either actuator or valve stem) and
can override the actuator.
Hand Wheel/Manual Lever

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The air set provides the required
instrument air for the control valve
and its accessories. The usual
components are an air regulator
and a filter to ensure dry air for
the instruments. In many cases, a
combined filter regulator is used.
Air Set

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In most modern industrial facilities, the control system is electronic or digital,
however most of the control valves are operated by pneumatic actuators. The
transducer will convert the standard 4 to 20 mA electronic signal to the required 3-15
psi signal. The current-to pneumatic (air) transducer, commonly referred to as an I/P
transducer is a relatively simple device and literally produced by all instrument
manufacturers. Although the appearance may vary, the principle of operations is
similar for all manufacturers.
Transducer (I/P)

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A volume is sometimes required on larger
actuators. A large actuator is required for
larger pipe valves. The normal air set
regulator cannot provide the required
volume of air to operate the actuator and
valve in the desired response time. The
volume booster is a pneumatic 1:1 relay in
which it receives the pneumatic 3-15 psi
signal and transmits the same signal only
with a much larger volume or flow rate. It
also vents at a higher rate so that on a
decrease of pressure, the response time is
similar. The volume booster has an input
signal (3-15 psi), an output signal and an air
supply. The volume booster is physically
located between the device supplying the
control signal to the actuator and the
actuator.
Volume Booster

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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike
is the solenoid valve.
A “solenoid” is nothing more than a coil of wire designed to produce a magnetic field
when energized. Solenoid actuators work by attracting a movable iron armature into
the center of the solenoid coil when energized, the force of this attraction working to
actuate a small valve mechanism.
Solenoid Valve

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A simple fail safe system consists of a solenoid valve and an optional air volume tank.
The purpose of the fail-safe system is to ensure the control valve either closes or
opens (determined by process conditions) in the case of an instrument failure and
loss of signal to the valve. Depending on the action of the valve, either air-to-open or
air-to-close, on an emergency or control system failure, a signal will be sent to the
solenoid valve to operate the valve and move it to its fail safe position.
Fail-safe System

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Limit switches can be attached to the actuator stem or
the valve stem on globe valves to provide feedback to
the control room on the actual position of the
valve. These are usually set to indicate fully open or
fully closed. They are also easily attached to rotary
valves and can provide an easy-to-see local indication of
the valve position. In the case of MOV (motor operated
valves) block valve, they can also be used to start and
stop the motor and safe-guard the valve shaft from
being over-torqued and possible damage. The limit
switch is merely a micro switch that is tripped by a small
lever when the valve reaches its predefined limit.
Limit Switches

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Quick Exhaust valve
It is used in case of quick venting is important in a control valve .

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The valve positioner is a device which receives the control signal and compares that
signal to the actual position of the valve then sends a signal to the actuator to move
the valve to the exact position called for by the control system. The positioner senses
the valve opening through a position feedback link connected to the valve stem
which acts as the positioner’s input signal. The control signal from the I/P is its
setpoint. The difference between these two is the error signal. The positioner reacts
to this error signal which is the difference between where the valve opening actually
is and where the control system wants it. Based on this difference, the positioner
sends a signal to reposition the valve to the exact desired position. In actuality, the
positioner acts like a pneumatic feedback controller. Not all control valves are
equipped with positioners, but the vast majority are. The term control valve is
generally thought of as the combination of the positioner, actuator and valve.
Positioner

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Positioners essentially act as control systems within themselves the valve’s stem
position is the process variable (PV), the command signal to the positioner is the set
point (SP), and the positioner’s signal to the valve actuator is the manipulated
variable (MV) or output.
Positioner

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Psitioner types
Pneumatic Positioners
They are intrinsically safe and can provide a
large amount of force to close a valve.
Single-acting positioners send air to one side of
a single-acting valve actuator that is opposed by
a range spring.
Double-acting positioners send and exhaust air
from both sides of the actuator.
Electric Valve Positioners
Electric valve positioners send and receive
electrical signals.

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Digital or “Smart” Devices
Digital or “smart” devices use digital electronics to position the valve actuator and can monitor
and record data. They are very accurate, use less air than analog positioners and allow for
online digital diagnostics.
Many modern positioners are multi-functional and can incorporate many features into one
device, the smart positioner features are:
Link less connection to the valve stem, feedback is provided using a magnetic follower.
Integral position transmitter.
Integral I/P transducer.
Integral air set.
Limitswitches.
Split-range capability.
Field changeable action: direct or reverse to operate
either air-to-open or air-to-close valves.
Customizable flow characteristics.
Adaptable to both globe and rotary valves.
HART communication accessing:
Calibration data.
Diagnostics.
Configuration data.
Data trending.
Wireless capabilities.

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The controller itself must contain some method of comparing the controlled variable
(now the measured variable) to the setpoint. This device is known as a summing
junction or comparator. The setpoint is given an arbitrary designation as a positive (+)
value while the measured variable is given a negative (-) designation so that when
the comparator examines both values a numerical difference is obtained.
For the control block the following symbols have been assigned:
Setpoint: r.
Controlled variable: c.
Error: e.
Controllers

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Not all manipulated variables are the same as the controlled variable. A common
example where they are the same is the controlled variable being flow rate and the
manipulated variable is changing the flow.
Examples of where they are different are:
The controlled variable being the output temperature of a heat exchanger and the
manipulated variable being the steam flow in. Flow is being manipulated to control
temperature.
The controlled variable being the level in a tank and the manipulated variable being
the flow out. Flow is being manipulated to control level.
Variables

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Direct/Reverse Acting Controllers
Another feature of the controller is its ability to be a direct or reverse acting
controller.
A direct acting controller increases its output for an increase in the controlled
variable.
A reverse acting controller operates in the opposite manner. This is required to
maintain the integrity of a fail-safe system where control valves may be air-to-open or
air-to-close depending on the process.
Direct/Reverse Acting Controllers

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Control Modes
How the controller reacts to an error
signal is known as controller
response. Continuous control (a
controller is continually receiving the
controlled variable signal and
comparing it the setpoint) can have
many different modes. The most
common control modes are:
On-Off control.
Proportional control (P).
Proportional plus integral control (PI).
Proportional plus integral plus
derivative (PID).
Lesser used control modes are
integral only (I) and proportional plus
derivative (PD).
Control Modes

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On-Off Control
On-Off control is also known as two-
position control. In on-off control the
controller only has two outputs, 0%
or 100%, therefore the valve will
either be fully open or completely
closed.
If the level of the tank drops due to usage downstream, the transmitter will sense this
and send a signal to the controller. The controller compares the lower signal to the
setpoint and generates a signal to the control valve to open and allow more water
into the tank to raise the level. Since the controller is an on-off controller the signal to
the valve is 100%, the valve opens and water flows into the tank raising the level. The
level now is higher than the setpoint so the controller reacts and gives 0% signal. This
closes the valve and the water drops below the required level and the cycle begins
again. The characteristics of on-off control are a cycling controlled variable and the
final control element being either at 0% or 100% (180º out of phase with the level).
The process is depicted in the graphic.

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A proportional control mode amplifies the controller's output to the final control
element. This is an illustration of a 50% proportional band. When a controller with
this proportional band receives a 10% change in measurement value, the output from
the controller changes by 20%. The result is instantaneous.
Proportional Control (P)

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Reset Control (I)
A reset control repeats a controller's actions and returns the variable to set point. It
is a time-weighted response that corrects the value based on the amount of error
over time.

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Rate (Derivative) Control (D)
A rate control adjusts the controller's output according to the speed at which the
variable is moving toward or away from set point. It is also a time-weighted
response, but it acts in response to an input value.

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Proportional Control (P)
Most processes cannot tolerate a constant cycling of the controlled variable, not to
mention the wear-and-tear on a control valve that is continuously cycling between
opened and closed positions.
Proportional control was developed to give a more steady process response. The
output of the proportional controller is algebraically proportional to the error signal
and therefore the controlled variable signal. The output response is also adjustable
by changing the gain (Kp) of the controller. A gain of 1 will produce and equal
percentage of output change for the same input change.
This means that if the controlled variable changes by 10% then the output will also
change by 10%. A gain of 5 means that if the controlled variable changes by 10% the
output will change by 50%. The higher the gain, the more the output will respond
(faster).
Conversely, a gain of 0.5 means that for a 10% change in controlled variable, the
output will only change 5% so for a lower gain the output will respond less
(slower). An older term for gain is proportional band. An On-Off controller has a very
high gain.

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Proportional band is defined as the range of values of the input required to produce a
0 to 100% change in output. If the proportional band is 100 then 100% input will
produce an output change of 100% (same as a gain of 1). Similarly, a proportional
band of 50 will result in a 100% change in output (same as a gain of 2). Proportional
band is expressed in terms of % and can be related to gain by the formula:
Proportional band
If a sudden change (step change) occurs to a steady state process such as a setpoint
change or major disturbance, the controller will respond by changing its output to
counter that change. The process will respond and once again the water flow in will
equal the water flow out producing a steady state condition. How fast this occurs is
dependent on the controller gain, Kp.

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The major disadvantage of proportional control is that of offset. Offset always
occurs after a disturbance and is only eliminated if the process returns to its
original steady state condition of 50%. Offset occurs due to the dynamics of
the process. These include dead times, process and measurement lags friction
in valves and other factors. In other words, the process cannot and does not
react to any change instantaneously.
Offset Problem

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Toeliminate offset, another control mode is
applied, that of integral (or reset). Integral
basically keeps applying the output change
again and again until the offset is eliminated. In
actuality, integral action is the mathematical
integration of the error signal. Integral action is
not usually employed by itself, but is combined
with proportional to produce a proportional +
integral (PI) control action.
The output of the controller is the sum of the
proportional action plus the integral action.
Proportional action occurs only once, when the
initial error is detected, integral action
continues until the error is reduced and
eliminated. Like the units of proportional
control (proportional band [%] or gain) integral
is expressed in two different terms, it can be
reset time (minutes) or repeats per minute.
Proportional Plus Integral (PI) Control

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In slow reacting processes like temperature or
large level tanks, the reaction time with just a PI
controller may not be quick enough to prevent
significant overshoot, which in a level process
could be dangerous. Tospeed up the response
of a controller in these situations a third mode
or action is introduced, that of derivative or
rate.
Adding derivative actually adds lead to a
process which inherently is slow or
lagging. Derivative action applies an initial step
to the output as soon as an error is detected,
thereby moving the valve just as an error
occurs. The initial amount that the output
changes is determined by the gain(proportional
setting of the controller) and then by how much
the process is still changing.
Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivation (PID) Control

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The total reaction of a controller is the
sum of the actions of the different
modes applied, for example in a PID
controller the output change is the sum
of the change due to proportional + the
change due to integral + the change due
to derivative.
A block diagram of the controller shows the additive properties of a PID controller
output:

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The control scheme of a PID feedback controller is the most common control scheme
used in industry today. However, due to the different process dynamics,
sometimes PID control is not enough to maintain good control. Other control
schemes have been developed to improve the response of the process to
disturbances, some being:
Cascade control.
Ratio control.
Split range.
Feedforward control.
Selectors, Overrides, and Interlocks.
Multivariable control.
Adaptive control.
Types of Control Schemes

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Cascade control is the use of two PID feedback controllers together to produce better
process dynamics (response). Two controllers are arranged so that the output of one
controller provides the setpoint for the other controller which controls the one
control valve in the loop.
Cascade Control

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The main objective of the control scheme is to maintain a specific level in the tank by
manipulating the control valve. If only feedback control were used, the output of the
level controller (LC) would go directly to the level control valve and there would be no
need for the flow loop (FT and FC). However, tighter control of the process can be
achieved by implementing cascade control by adding the flow loop.
Cascade Control Application

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The control loops are designated:
Primary or outer loop is the level control loop with its output being the setpoint for
the secondary loop.
Secondary or inner loop is the flow control loop and it receives its setpoint from the
level controller.
Control loop design

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When implementing a cascade control loop, the following apply:
The secondary loop need only be a Proportional controller but adding the PI action
will improve response.
The primary loop should be a PI controller to eliminate offset and will probably
benefit from PID control.
Cascade consists of two controllers but only one control valve.
The secondary loop should be faster responding than the primary loop.
When tuning the loop:
Place the primary loop on manual.
Tune the secondary loop.
Tune the primary loop with the secondary loop on automatic.
Cascade Control Considerations

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Cascade Control Modes

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Disturbance Rejection Comparison
Set Point Tracking Comparison
Cascade Control Effect

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Ratio Control
Ratio control consists of two flow controllers and two control valves controlling the
mixing of two process variables (such as fuel and air for combustion). One stream is
required to be a specific ratio (or fraction) to the other stream.
There are many ratio control configurations. Some are quite complex. In a simple
ratio controller the output of one controller feeds a ratio or fraction controller
(station).

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Another type is the “uncontrolled” ratio where there is only one controller, that being
on the primary stream. A transmitter on the secondary stream provides a signal to
the ratio controller station where the ratio is calculated and its output becomes the
setpoint for the primary flow controller.
Types of Control Schemes

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In a split range control application, the output of one controller feeds two control
valves. The loop is usually calibrated so that one control valve is operated by the 0 to
50% output signal from the controller and the other valve from the 50 to 100%
signal. A typical PID controller can be used in the split range application.
Split Range Control

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Feedforward control is much different than feedback control. Feedback control works
to eliminate errors after they occur. Feedforward control operates to prevent errors
from occurring in the first place. However, feedforward control is very complex and
requires more hardware. Sensors are used on potential disturbances and when a
disturbance is sensed action is taken before the disturbance can affect the process
and create an error. A significant theoretical knowledge of process dynamics is
required plus the capability for process modeling to make feedforward control a
success. It is usually only applied in complex or critical control applications.
Feedforward Control

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A simple example is shown in the first graphic.
The feedforward element is the estimated steam demand as sensed by the steam
flow transmitter. If demand increases, the feedforward element will open the
feedwater valve before the drop in level is sensed.
Feedforward Application

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Feedforward Application
A more complex scheme is for a lead-lag boiler combustion control scheme, shown in
the second graphic. Both the fuel flow and air flow control loops are receiving
feedforward information from the master pressure controller and boiler master.

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Selectors provide one of several signals to a
controller. For example, a number of
temperatures from a reactor may be sent to a
selector that identifies the highest of the
temperatures and sends it to the controller. This
system keeps the highest of the temperatures at
the controller set point. This type of system is
seen on Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit
Regenerators and on Hydrocracker Reactors.
Selectors

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An override is similar to a selector, but it is used where the measurements are
different types of variables. For example, suppose a unit has a pump feeding a unit
with a downstream flow controller and control valve. The control valve opens and
closes as needed to control the flow.
But in some cases, the pressure downstream of the control valve must be kept below
a certain value. In these cases, an override can be provided from a pressure controller
to the speed controller. Note that the override controller selects the lower signal from
the flow and pressure controller. Overrides are found throughout process facilities.
Overrides

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Interlock systems prohibit certain actions until certain conditions are met. For
example, a car has an interlock that will allow it to start only when it is in park. In a
gas home furnace, the valve on the gas to the burner will not open unless a
temperature detector mounted near the pilot shows the pilot is burning. Interlocks
are present for safety reasons. In a process facility, interlocks are found on:
Boilers in the light-off system.
Fully regenerative catalytic reformers (as part of the reactor switching system).
Cokers in the drum switching system.
You must never disable interlock systems without first reviewing established safety
procedures.
Interlocks

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Multivariable control is employed when there is more than one control loop and
variable in a single process. This is quite often the case. For example, there are two
control loops in a process. When there is a change in one manipulated variable, it
affects both controlled variables causing both controllers to react. Similarly, the same
can occur with the second loop. This can cause innumerable problems as one loop
starts chasing the other and stability may never be reached. When feedback loops are
interacting with each other, they need to be decoupled and multivariable control can
accomplish this. It is, however a very complex and mathematical process to
determine the proper decoupling. It is even more complicated when two or more
loops interact with each other.
Modern DCS systems with their built-in algorithms make the implementation of
feedforward and multivariable control easier, but these control schemes still remain
in the domain of the engineer.
Multivariable Control

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Adaptive control is another benefit of the DCS and computer control era. Adaptive
control can tune and program controllers “on the go” by collecting live process data
and determine controller operating parameters for the optimum results and
performance and then input these parameters without taking the system off
line. Controllers basically “self-tune” themselves when operating parameters or
conditions change.
Adaptive Control

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Control Systems
DCS/PLC/SCADA

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Control System
Industrial Control Systems is a general term that includes several types of control
systems:
Relay Control Systems (Classic Control/Hard wired Control)
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC).
Distributed Control Systems (DCS).
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.
ICS are typically used in industries such as electrical, water and wastewater, oil and
natural gas, chemical, transportation, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, and
discrete manufacturing (e.g., automotive).
These control systems are used for critical infrastructures that are often highly
interconnected and mutually dependent systems
Introduction

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DCS
DCS are used to control industrial processes such as electric power generation, oil
refineries, water and wastewater treatment, and chemical, food, and automotive
production.
DCS are integrated as a control architecture containing a supervisory level of control
overseeing multiple, integrated sub-systems that are responsible for controlling the
details of a localized process.
Product and process control are usually achieved by deploying feedback or
feedforward control loops whereby key product and/or process conditions are
automatically maintained around a desired set point

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PLC
PLCs are computer-based solid-state devices that control industrial equipment and
processes.
While PLCs are control system components used throughout SCADA and DCS systems,
they are often the primary components in smaller control system configurations used
to provide operational control of discrete processes such as automobile assembly
lines and power plant soot blower controls.
PLCs are used extensively in almost all industrial processes

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SCADA systems are generally used to control dispersed assets using centralized data
acquisition and supervisory control.
DCS are generally used to control production systems within a local area such as a
factory using supervisory and regulatory control.
PLCs are generally used for discrete control for specific applications and generally
provide regulatory control.
Different Function between DCS & SCADA and PLC

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Comparison between DCS and PLC
DCS PLC
Mfr sells a complete system of integrated
components.
Mfr sells some components; an SI
acquires others and engineers the system.
Mfr supports the system. Mfr supports the components.
On-line repair/ maintenance are the
norm.
Off-line repair/ maintenance are the
norm.
Users expect to evolve/upgrade/expand a
system over 10/20/30 years.
System is a one-off project (like a house).
Upgrades / expansions are new projects.
Large number of I/O’s Small number of I/O’s
Slower response Fast response
Handles complex control loops Handles simple control loops
Mainly used as BPCS Mainly Used in Packages and safety
systems

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DCS Example
HIS HIS
PRT
PRT
HIS
NIU NIU
Ethernet Connectivity(optional)
Inkjet
Printer
DM
Printer
FCS
RIO BUS
OPERATOR/ENGINEERING
STATION
OPERATOR STATION SUB-SYSTEM
INTERPLANT
NETWORKPC
(OPTIONAL)
DUAL “V NET”
10 Mbps
HIS – Human Interface Station.
FCS – Field Control Station.
NIU – Node Interface Unit.
RIO Bus – Remote I/OBus.

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SCADA System Hardware Example

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SCADA System Software Example

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PLC Example

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DCS Architecture
DCS
Hardware
Main
Field Control Station
Operator Work Station
Engineering Work Station
Communication Bus
Gateways
Auxiliary
Operator Keyboard
Mouse
Printer
Software
Graphic Interface
History Modules (Trends)
Faceplates
Alarm Systems
Maintenance Guide
Control Loop Configuration
Input Output Definition

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Field Control Station
Controller Module
Power Supply
Permanent Memory
Communication Interface Card
Discrete I/O Modules
Analogue I/O Modules

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CPU diagram

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Redundancy and Fault tolerance
• Touse more than one
component to do same task
.
• Ex : Full redundant system
Redundancy
• Touse more than one
component to exclude
faulted modules or increase
system availability
• 1oo2 , 2oo3
Fault
tolerance

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Redundancy
COMP
CPU SYNC CPU
BUFFER
COMP
CPU SYNC CPU
BUFFER
INPUT
OUTPUT
BUFFER BUFFER

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Types Of interface Cards
DCS
Input
AnalogueInput
Tx’s
DigitalInput
switches
Output
Analogue
Output
Control Valves
DigitalOutput
On/off Valves

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Components in the SCADA system
include:
Field I/O
Master Station (Human-Machine
Interface/HMI)
Remote Station (Remote Terminal
Units/RTU)
Communications Network
SCADAArchitecture

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Field Instrumentation refers to the sensors and actuators that are directly interfaced
to the plant or equipment. They generate the analog and digital signals that will be
monitored by the Remote Station.
Signals are also conditioned to make sure they are compatible with the
inputs/outputs of the RTU or PLC at the Remote Station.
The important characteristic of the remote site is that control loops are independent
of the master site. The master site only reads and sends set point changes, while the
actual feedback control is performed by the controllers at the remote site.
Field I/O

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The Central Monitoring Station (CMS) is
the master unit of the SCADA system. It is
in charge of collecting information
gathered by the remote stations and of
generating necessary action for any event
detected. The CMS can have a single
computer configuration or it can be
networked to workstations to allow
sharing of information from the SCADA
system.
Master Station

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Field instrumentation connected to the plant or equipment being monitored and
controlled are interfaced to the Remote Station to allow process manipulation at a
remote site. It is also used to gather data from the equipment and transfer them to
the central SCADA system. The Remote Station may either be an RTU (Remote
Terminal Unit) or a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller). It may also be a single board
or modular unit.
The RTU (Remote Terminal Unit) is a rugged computer with very good radio
interfacing. It is used in situations where communications are more difficult. One
disadvantage of the RTU is its poor programmability. However, modern RTUs are now
offering good programmability comparable to PLCs.
Remote Station

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The Communication Network
refers to the communication
equipment needed to transfer
data to and from different sites.
The medium used can either be
internet, cable, telephone,
satellite, or radio.
Communications Network

Basics instrument andcontrol SYSTEMS

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