Beginners: Radio Frequency, Band and Spectrum (V3)
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Welcome to this tutorial where we break down the complex topic of radio spectrum in a clear and accessible way. In this video, we explore: ✅ What is spectrum, frequency, and bandwidth? ✅ How does wavelength affect antenna design? ✅ The difference between FDD and TDD ✅ 5G spectrum ranges – FR1 and FR2 ✅ The role of mmWave, and why it's misunderstood ✅ What makes 5G Non-Standalone (NSA) different from 5G Standalone (SA) ✅ Concepts like Carrier Aggregation, Dual Connectivity, and Dynamic Spectrum Sharing (DSS) ✅ Why spectrum refarming is critical for modern mobile networks ✅ Evolution of antennas from legacy networks to Massive MIMO Whether you're just getting started with wireless technology or brushing up on the latest in 5G and beyond, this video is designed to help you learn and stay up to date. 👍 Like the video if you find it helpful 🔔 Subscribe for more tutorials on 5G, 6G, and mobile technology 💬 Drop your questions or comments below—we’d love to hear from you! All our #3G4G5G slides, videos, blogs and tutorials are available at: Tutorials: https://www.3g4g.co.uk/Training/ Videos: https://www.youtube.com/3G4G5G Slides: https://www.slideshare.net/3G4GLtd Our channels: 3G4G Website – https://www.3g4g.co.uk/ The 3G4G Blog – https://blog.3g4g.co.uk/ Telecoms Infrastructure Blog – https://www.telecomsinfrastructure.com/ Operator Watch Blog – https://www.operatorwatch.com/ Connectivity Technology Blog – https://www.connectivity.technology/ Free 5G Training – https://www.free5gtraining.com/ Free 6G Training – https://www.free6gtraining.com/ Private Networks Technology Blog - https://blog.privatenetworks.technology/
Beginners: Radio Frequency, Band and Spectrum (V3)
- 1. Radio Frequency, Band and Spectrum (April 2025) @3g4gUK
- 2. Before we begin This video provides a very simplistic explanation for a very complex topic. ©3G4G
- 3. Agenda ©3G4G • Spectrum Basics • Spectrum for 5G • Antennas for Mobile Networks • Spectrum for Wi-Fi • Spectrum for Satellite Communications • Spectrum for 6G • Summary
- 5. Spectrum ©3G4G • A Spectrum (plural ‘spectra’ or ‘spectrums’) is used to classify something on a scale between two extreme points. For example: • The ‘political’ spectrum consisting of extreme left and extreme right and different ranges in between • The ‘socio-economic’ spectrum comprising of working class, middle class and upper class. • In this video we will look at ‘Radio’ spectrum which is part of ‘Electromagnetic’ spectrum.
- 6. ©3G4G
- 8. What is ‘Frequency’? ©3G4G • Frequency is something that happens over and over and over again. • It is very frequent, consistent, and repetitive • Frequency is the number of times a specified event occurs within a specified time interval. A standard measure of frequency is hertz (Hz) – number of cycles per second
- 9. The Electromagnetic Spectrum ©3G4G • The electromagnetic spectrum is a collective term to refer to the entire range and scope of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, from 3 Hertz (written as Hz) to 300 Exahertz (300,000,000,000,000,000,000 Hz) • 1000 Hz = 1 kilo Hz (kHz) • 1000 kHz = 1 Mega Hz (MHz) • 1000 MHz = 1 Giga Hz (GHz) • 1000 GHz = 1 Tera Hz (THz) • 1000 THz = 1 Peta Hz (PHz) • 1000 PHz = 1 Exa Hz (EHz)
- 10. ©3G4G The Radio Spectrum is part of spectrum from 3Hz to 3000GHz (3 THz)
- 11. What is a (Frequency/Spectrum) ‘Band’ ©3G4G • Bands are group of frequencies, defined to make it easier to remember • Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between max and min of any defined or undefined band. • For example, you have a band from 700MHz to 800MHz, BW = 100MHz
- 12. Larger Bandwidth means more data flow ©3G4G • Visualise bandwidth as pipes carrying water. The fatter the pipe, the more water can flow through it 500 Mbps 200 Mbps 50 Mbps
- 13. Wavelength ©3G4G • Wavelength (generally written as Greek letter Lambda ‘λ’) is the distance between similar points on two back-to-back waves. • Its calculated λ = c / f, where c is the speed of light, 299,792,458 m/s • For 1MHz, λ = 299.792458 metres or roughly 300 m • For 1GHz, λ is roughly 30cm
- 14. ©3G4G
- 15. Phase ©3G4G • Phase is the same frequency, same cycle, same wavelength, but are 2 or more wave forms not exactly aligned together • Phase can be measured in distance, time, or degrees.
- 16. Effect of Phase shifts ©3G4G
- 17. Amplitude ©3G4G • Amplitude is the height, force or power of the wave • The power of signal is proportional to its amplitude • Amplitude has no relationship with frequency, wavelength or phase of a signal
- 18. What is the Plural of an ‘Antenna’? ©3G4G • Antennas or Antennae? • Antennas are used when referring to electrical instruments, such as a rod or wire for sending or receiving radio waves • Antennae is used to refer to the protuberances found on the heads of insects, crabs, and other arthropods
- 19. Antennas and wavelength ©3G4G • Antennas should be half wavelength (λ/2) for perfect reception but can be as low as λ/10 • Car on left: FM Radio (88 – 108 MHz) antenna • Car on right: Digital DAB Radio (175 – 230 MHz) antenna
- 20. Antennas and wavelength ©3G4G • Antennas should be half wavelength (λ/2) for perfect reception but can be as low as λ/10 • Left: Rabbit ears antenna optimised for receiving VHF signals (30 – 300 MHz) with good quality (high amplitude) signal • Right: Multi-element beam antenna to catch more frequencies than just VHF and also works with poor quality (low amplitude) signal
- 21. Importance of Frequency selection ©3G4G 2.1GHz 900MHz Higher frequency means faster decay Lower frequency means more users in a given cell Higher frequency gets reflected from walls and have poor penetration Lower frequency gets attenuated from walls but still penetrates
- 22. ©3G4G
- 23. TDD v/s FDD Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) Simpler to implement Simultaneous downlink and uplink transmission No need for synchronisation hence simpler implementation Needs paired spectrum UL/DL ratio is fixed. Time Division Duplex (TDD) Implementation is complex Only uplink (UL) or downlink (DL) at any time Need for synchronisation within the whole network No need for paired spectrum Number of UL/DL ratio is changeable Transmitter Transmitter UE ©3G4G UE
- 24. Antennas and wavelength ©3G4G • Antennas should be half wavelength (λ/2) for perfect reception but can be as low as λ/10 • Old GSM 900MHz feature phone
- 25. Antennas and wavelength ©3G4G • Antennas should be half wavelength (λ/2) for perfect reception but can be as low as λ/10 • iPhone 4 Antennas
- 26. Antennas and wavelength ©3G4G • Antennas should be half wavelength (λ/2) for perfect reception but can be as low as λ/10 • Samsung Galaxy S8 Antennas
- 27. Antennas and wavelength Realme GT2 Pro, Released: January 2022 ©3G4G
- 29. ©3G4G 300 GHz – 430 THz Infrared Source: Ofcom
- 30. 5G Spectrum ©3G4G (Once upon a time) 3GPP was only looking at frequencies from 450 MHz to 52.6 GHz for 5G. 3GPP has divided 5G frequencies in 2 parts: • Frequency Range 1 (FR1): 450 MHz – 7.125 GHz • Frequency Range 2 (FR2): 24.25 GHz – 52.6 GHz OUTDATED
- 31. 5G Spectrum ©3G4G 3GPP is now looking at frequencies from 410 MHz to 71 GHz for 5G. 3GPP has divided 5G frequencies in 2 parts: • Frequency Range 1 (FR1): 410 MHz – 7.125 GHz • Frequency Range 2 (FR2) is further subdivided in 2 parts: • FR2-1: 24.25 GHz – 52.6 GHz • FR2-2: 52.6 GHz – 71 GHz Source: 3GPP TS 38.101-1 V18.7.0 (2024-09)
- 32. 5G Spectrum ©3G4G 3GPP is now looking at frequencies from 410 MHz to 71 GHz for 5G. 3GPP has divided 5G frequencies in 2 parts: • Frequency Range 1 (FR1): 410 MHz – 7.125 GHz • Frequency Range 2 (FR2) is further subdivided in 2 parts: • FR2-1: 24.25 GHz – 52.6 GHz • FR2-2: 52.6 GHz – 71 GHz Source: 3GPP TS 38.101-1 V18.7.0 (2024-09) Technically mmWave starts from 30 GHz but people refer to all frequencies in FR2 as mmWave
- 33. ©3G4G 0 10 GHz 20 GHz 30 GHz 40 GHz 50 GHz 60 GHz 70 GHz 80 GHz 90 GHz 100 GHz FR1: 410 MHz – 7.125 GHz FR2: 24.25 GHz – 71 GHz Non-mmWave 5G mmWave 5G
- 34. Popular Frequency bands for different Technologies ©3G4G 0 10 GHz 20 GHz 30 GHz 40 GHz 50 GHz 60 GHz 70 GHz 80 GHz 90 GHz 100 GHz 2G, 3G, 4G Non millimeter wave 5G Millimeter wave 5G 0 10 GHz 20 GHz 30 GHz 40 GHz 50 GHz 60 GHz 70 GHz 80 GHz 90 GHz 100 GHz 2.4GHz Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc. 5GHz Wi-Fi WiGig – 60GHz Wi-Fi Up to 6GHz 802.11ax 5G FR1 (410 MHz – 7.125 GHz) 5G FR2 (24.25 GHz – 71 GHz) 802.11be EHT (1 GHz – 7.125 GHz) 802.11ad / 802.11ay (57.24 GHz – 70.20 GHz)
- 35. 5G: Multiple Layers for multiple needs ©3G4G Coverage Layer Sub-1GHz Capacity Layer 1GHz – 7.125GHz High Throughput Layers 24.25GHz – 71GHz
- 38. ©3G4G Coverage Capacity Coverage Layer: FDD <1 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband FDD 1 – 2.7 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband TDD 2.3 – 7 GHz High-throughput Layer: mmWave TDD 24 – 71 GHz Picture Based on Original by Ericsson Multiple Spectrum Layers for Multiple Needs
- 39. ©3G4G Coverage Capacity Coverage Layer: FDD <1 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband FDD 1 – 2.7 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband TDD 2.3 – 7 GHz High-throughput Layer: mmWave TDD 24 – 71 GHz Picture Based on Original by Ericsson Multiple Spectrum Layers for Multiple Needs Popular Bands: 600/700 MHz for 5G 800 MHz for 4G (LTE) 900 MHz for 2G (GSM) 3.5 GHz – most popular band for 5G 26/28 GHz – most popular band for 5G Popular Bands: 1800 MHz for 2G (GSM) 1800 MHz for 4G (LTE) 2100 MHz for 3G (UMTS) 2600 MHz for 4G (LTE)
- 40. Device Antennas at 28GHz ©3G4G
- 41. Standalone vs Non-Standalone ©3G4G Based on original by Ericsson EPC LTE EPC LTE NR Standalone 4G Non-Standalone 5G Standalone 5G 5GC NR
- 42. LTE Carrier Aggregation & 5G Dual Connectivity ©3G4G f1 f2 f3 f4 LTE Carrier Aggregation 4G / LTE f1 f2 f3 f4 Dual Connectivity (DC) 5G NSA f5 f6 LTE Carrier Aggregation 5G NR Carrier Aggregation While LTE-A supported up to 5 Component Carriers (CC), each with a max of 20 MHz for Carrier Aggregation, LTE-A Pro supports 32 CCs 5G NR supports up to 16 CCs of max 400 MHz
- 43. 5G Spectrum Challenge ©3G4G f1 f2 f3 f4 LTE Carrier Aggregation 4G / LTE f1 f2 f3 f4 Dual Connectivity (DC) 5G NSA f5 f6 LTE Carrier Aggregation 5G NR Carrier Aggregation While LTE-A supported up to 5 Component Carriers (CC), each with a max of 20 MHz for Carrier Aggregation, LTE-A Pro supports 32 CCs 5G NR supports up to 16 CCs of max 400 MHz • In practice
- 44. 5G Bandwidth (BW) ©3G4G f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 LTE Carrier Aggregation 5G NR Carrier Aggregation 5G NSA BW = 4G Carrier Aggregated BW + 5G Carrier Aggregated BW 5G SA BW = 5G Carrier Aggregated BW Dual Connectivity (DC)
- 45. 5G and IMT-2020 – Theoretical Data Rates ©3G4G Submission 1: SRIT Component RIT: NR Component RIT: E-UTRA/LTE Submission 2: NR RIT RIT = Radio Interface Technology SRIT = Set of Radio Interface Technologies Standalone (SA) Non-Standalone (NSA) Theoretical Peak Data Rates for 5G – SRIT (NSA) is: • Downlink: 140 Gbit/s + 32 Gbit/s = 172 Gbit/s • Uplink: 65 Gbit/s + 13.6 Gbit/s = 78.6 Gbit/s Theoretical Peak Data Rates for 5G – NR RIT (SA) is: • Downlink: 140 Gbit/s • Uplink: 65 Gbit/s
- 46. Typical Operator Spectrum – 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G ©3G4G 2G 3G 4G 5G FR1 – 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz FR2 – 24.25 GHz to 71 GHz
- 47. Refarming the Spectrum ©3G4G 4G 5G 4G Static Allocation Scheme 4G 4G / 5G Dynamic Spectrum Sharing (DSS)
- 48. Typical Operator Spectrum – 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G ©3G4G 2G 3G 4G 5G FR1 – 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz FR2 – 24.25 GHz to 71 GHz
- 49. ©3G4G Antennas for Mobile Networks
- 50. Conventional Antennas vs Massive MIMO ©3G4G Source: Ericsson
- 51. ©3G4G Source: Paul Rhodes on LinkedIn
- 52. Conventional Antennas vs Massive MIMO ©3G4G Source: Ericsson
- 53. Conventional Antennas vs Massive MIMO ©3G4G Source: Ericsson
- 54. ‘Leaky Feeder’ or ‘Radiating Cable’ ©3G4G
- 56. Wi-Fi Spectrum in 2.4, 5 & 6 GHz ©3G4G Source: ENEA Lower 6 GHz band Upper 6 GHz band
- 57. Regulations Enabling 6 GHz Wi-Fi ©3G4G Source: Wi-Fi Alliance
- 58. Wi-Fi Spectrum around the world ©3G4G
- 61. Spectrum Approach for Satellite Services ©3G4G Dedicated Satellite Spectrum • Uses spectrum that has been historically allocated exclusively for satellite communication. • Examples: • L-band (e.g., 1–2 GHz) • S-band (2–4 GHz) • Ku-band, Ka-band • Pros: • No interference with terrestrial networks. • Long-established regulatory frameworks. • Cons: • Limited bandwidth. • Not aligned with terrestrial mobile ecosystem (e.g., phones need custom chipsets or antennas). • Use Case: Traditional MSS services, high-latency broadband for remote areas. Shared Mobile Spectrum (with MNO) • Satellites and terrestrial mobile networks share the same frequency bands in licensed mobile spectrum • Examples: • n255/n256 (Band 53/53N) • 3GPP Rel-17 NTN NR/IoT • Pros: • Allows unmodified mobile phones to connect to satellites. • Leverages existing terrestrial network ecosystem. • Cons: • Interference and coordination with terrestrial networks needed. • Spectrum sharing policies differ by region/regulator. • Use Case: Direct-to-device (D2D) satellite services (emergency messaging, SMS, voice, low-speed data).
- 64. 6G Spectrum Terminology ©3G4G Source: Next G Alliance
- 65. World Radiocommunication Conference 2023 & 2027 ©3G4G • The World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC) is a global event organized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) every three to four years. • Its primary purpose is to review and, if necessary, revise the Radio Regulations—an international treaty that governs the use of the radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbits, both geostationary and non- geostationary.
- 66. WRC-23 Main Results Summary ©3G4G Source: Qualcomm
- 67. ©3G4G
- 68. WRC-27 IMT Bands Under Consideration ©3G4G • Mobile-satellite service (MSS) bands under consideration • Direct-to-device (D2D) • Mobile satellite in IMT bands between 694/698 MHz and 2.7 GHz • New Mobile Satellite Bands under study • 1427 – 1432 MHz • 1645.5 – 1646.5 MHz • 1880 – 1920 MHz • 2010 – 2025 MHz • 2120 – 2170 MHz • Existing 3GPP defined NTN bands:
- 69. ©3G4G Coverage Capacity Coverage Layer: FDD <1 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband FDD 1 – 2.7 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband TDD 2.3 – 7 GHz High-throughput Layer: mmWave TDD 24 – 71 GHz Picture Based on Original by Ericsson Multiple Spectrum Layers for Multiple Needs
- 70. ©3G4G Coverage Capacity Coverage Layer: FDD <1 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband FDD 1 – 2.7 GHz Capacity Layer: Midband TDD 2.3 – 7 GHz Picture Based on Original by Ericsson Multiple Spectrum Layers for Multiple Needs Proposed 6G Capacity Layer: Upper-midband TDD 7 – 15 GHz High-throughput Layer: mmWave TDD 24 – 71 GHz Proposed 6G High-throughput Layer: sub-THz TDD 90 – 300 GHz
- 71. Summary – Radio Frequency, Band and Spectrum ©3G4G • Radio frequency is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, used for wireless communication across generations from 2G to 6G. • Spectrum is divided into bands and layers to balance coverage, capacity, and speed requirements. • Bandwidth determines the data rate—more bandwidth = higher throughput. • 5G spectrum spans FR1 (Sub-7 GHz) and FR2 (24.25–71 GHz), with FR2 often referred to as mmWave. • FDD and TDD are two duplexing methods, each suited to different spectrum and deployment needs. • Carrier Aggregation and Dual Connectivity enhance speed and flexibility, especially in 5G NSA deployments. • Spectrum refarming allows reuse of older bands for newer technologies like 5G. • Antenna design evolves with frequency—smaller wavelengths enable advanced tech like Massive MIMO and beamforming.
- 72. References and Further Reading ©3G4G • 3G4G: Radio Frequency, Band and Spectrum (link) • 3G4G: Bandwidth, Throughput, Latency & Jitter in mobile networks (link) • 3G4G: 5G Spectrum (link) • 3G4G: Connectivity in Planes (link) • 3G4G - Opinion: 5G and the Sun - Is 5G Dangerous? (link) • Telecoms Infrastructure Blog: Ericsson's Massive MIMO Handbook(s) (link) • Telecoms Infrastructure Blog: Bringing Connectivity to Underground Rail Network (link) • 3GPP: Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) (link) • The 3G4G Blog: New 5G NTN Spectrum Bands in FR1 and FR2 (link) • The 3G4G Blog: Tutorial Session on Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs) and 3GPP Standards from 5G to 6G (link) • Sqimway – Anything you need about 3GPP Spectrum Bands (link)
- 73. Thank You To learn more, visit: 3G4G Website – https://www.3g4g.co.uk/ 3G4G Blog – https://blog.3g4g.co.uk/ Telecoms Infrastructure Blog – https://www.telecomsinfrastructure.com/ Operator Watch Blog – https://www.operatorwatch.com/ Connectivity Technology Blog – https://www.connectivity.technology/ Free 5G Training – https://www.free5gtraining.com/ Free 6G Training – https://www.free6gtraining.com/ Private Networks – https://www.privatenetworks.technology/ Follow us on Twitter: https://twitter.com/3g4gUK Follow us on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/3g4gUK/ Follow us on LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/3g4g Follow us on SlideShare: https://www.slideshare.net/3G4GLtd Follow us on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/3G4G5G ©3G4G