![Preface
Maurice Dalton, Martin Forde, Ian Major and Declan Devine
Bioresorbable or biodegradable polymers are commonly used in various biomedi-
cal applications. Biodegradable polymers such as polyglycolic acid were first in-
troduced into biomedical science in the 1960s, followed by polylactic acid (PLA)
and polydioxanone in 1981 as suturing monofilament threads. The application of
bioresorbable polymers in the biomedical sector has been widely exploited since
then by immobilising suturing thread with analgesic or antibacterial drugs, and
the development of bioresorbable vascular scaffolds, wound-healing and intrave-
nous drug-delivery devices. Furthermore, biodegradable polymers have been in-
vestigated as a replacement for metallic orthopaedic devices due to their precise
control of material composition and microstructure. Other bioresorbable polymers
such as polyethylene oxide dissolve in physiological fluid without breaking down
of their macromolecular chains. These polymers are eliminated from the body via
dissolution, assimilation and excretion through metabolic pathways. The hydro-
lysing process breaks down the polymer into smaller units and its degradation
products are excreted by means of the citric acid cycle or by direct renal excretion
[1]. Vert and co-workers [2] stated that the metabolites of bioresorbable materials
are eliminated from the body with no residual side effects via assimilation of
monomer and oligomers units. The backbone remains intact due to the absence of
phagocytotic cells [2, 3]. The degradation process between natural and synthetic
resorbable polymers can be hydrolytic or enzymatic. Essentially, most synthetic
polymers are degraded by hydrolytic degradation, whereas natural polymers de-
grade via enzymatic degradation. Kim and co-workers indicated that the degrada-
tion of synthetic resorbable polymers is easier to predict because water levels are
constant in physiological conditions. However, natural polymers rely on enzy-
matic degradation, making degradation unpredictable because enzyme levels dif-
fer from tissue to tissue and from patient to patient [4].
Processing of bioresorbable implants can be achieved via conventional poly-
mer processing methods such as extrusion, injection and compressing moulding,
solvent spinning or casting. However, special consideration must be given when
processing these materials because heat can cause a reduction in the molecular
weight (MW) due to the hydrolysing of bonds. For example, Maspoch and co-
workers [5] characterised PLA extensively and concluded that processing PLA via
thermoplastic processes leads to decreases in MW [5, 6]. In addition, overheating
can depolymerise the polymer and, as a result, monomers can have a plasticis-
ing effect on the polymer [7]. Recently, alternative approaches utilising rapid
prototyping and micro-/nanofabrication processes have been employed. These
methods allow for improvement in the control of the microstructure of biomate-
rial scaffolds [8].
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Title: All in a Life-time
Author: Henry Morgenthau
French Strother
Release date: October 24, 2020 [eBook #63538]
Most recently updated: October 18, 2024
Language: English
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Bioresorbable Polymers Biomedical Applications 2nd Edition Declan Devine (Editor)
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- 7. Also of interest Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Volume : Drug Design and Action Campos Rosa, Camacho Quesada, ISBN ----, e-ISBN ---- Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Volume : Drugs and Their Biological Targets Campos Rosa, Camacho Quesada, ISBN ----, e-ISBN ---- Magneto-Active Polymers. Fabrication, characterisation, modelling and simulation at the micro- and macro-scale Pelteret, Steinmann, ISBN ----, e-ISBN ---- Bioelectrochemistry. Design and Applications of Biomaterials Cosnier (Ed.), ISBN ----, e-ISBN ---- e-Polymers. Editor-in-Chief: Seema Agarwal ISSN - e-ISSN -
- 8. Bioresorbable Polymers Biomedical Applications Edited by Declan M. Devine 2nd Edition
- 9. Editor Dr. Declan M. Devine Materials Research Institute Athlone Institute of Technology Dublin Rd Athlone, Co. Westmeath Ireland ISBN 978-3-11-064056-4 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-064057-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-064066-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2019931987 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck Cover image: HYBRID MEDICAL ANIMATION / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY www.degruyter.com
- 10. Preface Maurice Dalton, Martin Forde, Ian Major and Declan Devine Bioresorbable or biodegradable polymers are commonly used in various biomedi- cal applications. Biodegradable polymers such as polyglycolic acid were first in- troduced into biomedical science in the 1960s, followed by polylactic acid (PLA) and polydioxanone in 1981 as suturing monofilament threads. The application of bioresorbable polymers in the biomedical sector has been widely exploited since then by immobilising suturing thread with analgesic or antibacterial drugs, and the development of bioresorbable vascular scaffolds, wound-healing and intrave- nous drug-delivery devices. Furthermore, biodegradable polymers have been in- vestigated as a replacement for metallic orthopaedic devices due to their precise control of material composition and microstructure. Other bioresorbable polymers such as polyethylene oxide dissolve in physiological fluid without breaking down of their macromolecular chains. These polymers are eliminated from the body via dissolution, assimilation and excretion through metabolic pathways. The hydro- lysing process breaks down the polymer into smaller units and its degradation products are excreted by means of the citric acid cycle or by direct renal excretion [1]. Vert and co-workers [2] stated that the metabolites of bioresorbable materials are eliminated from the body with no residual side effects via assimilation of monomer and oligomers units. The backbone remains intact due to the absence of phagocytotic cells [2, 3]. The degradation process between natural and synthetic resorbable polymers can be hydrolytic or enzymatic. Essentially, most synthetic polymers are degraded by hydrolytic degradation, whereas natural polymers de- grade via enzymatic degradation. Kim and co-workers indicated that the degrada- tion of synthetic resorbable polymers is easier to predict because water levels are constant in physiological conditions. However, natural polymers rely on enzy- matic degradation, making degradation unpredictable because enzyme levels dif- fer from tissue to tissue and from patient to patient [4]. Processing of bioresorbable implants can be achieved via conventional poly- mer processing methods such as extrusion, injection and compressing moulding, solvent spinning or casting. However, special consideration must be given when processing these materials because heat can cause a reduction in the molecular weight (MW) due to the hydrolysing of bonds. For example, Maspoch and co- workers [5] characterised PLA extensively and concluded that processing PLA via thermoplastic processes leads to decreases in MW [5, 6]. In addition, overheating can depolymerise the polymer and, as a result, monomers can have a plasticis- ing effect on the polymer [7]. Recently, alternative approaches utilising rapid prototyping and micro-/nanofabrication processes have been employed. These methods allow for improvement in the control of the microstructure of biomate- rial scaffolds [8]. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110640571-201
- 11. The current work aims to address these issues and to highlight recent advances in the biomedical field that have being enabled by the use of biodegradable polymers. References 1. A.S. Hoffman, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2012, 64, 18. 2. C.X. Lam, M.M. Savalani, S.H. Teoh and D.W. Hutmacher, Biomedical Materials, 2008, 3, 34108. 3. M. Vert, S.M. Li, G. Spenlehauer and P. Guerin, Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, 1992, 3, 432. 4. S.H. Kim and Y. Jung in Biotextiles as Medical Implants, Eds., M.W. King, B.S. Gupta and R. Guidoin, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK, 2013. 5. F. Carrasco, P. Pags, J. Gmez-Prez, O.O. Santana and M.L. Maspoch, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2010, 95, 116. 6. S. Farah, D.G. Anderson and R. Langer, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2016, 107, 367. 7. K.J. Burg, S. Porter and J.F. Kellam, Biomaterials, 2000, 21, 2347. 8. G. Narayanan, V.N. Vernekar, E.L. Kuyinu and C.T. Laurencin, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2016, 107, 247. VI Preface
- 12. Contents Preface V Contributors XI Gavin Burke, Elaine Kenny, Maurice Dalton, Declan M. Devine, Eilish Hoctor, Ian Major and Luke Geever 1 Biodegradation and biodegradable polymers 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Natural biodegradable polymers 4 1.3 Synthetic biodegradable polymers 5 1.4 Polylactic acid 7 1.5 Polycaprolactone 9 1.6 Polyglycolic acid 11 1.7 Polydioxanone 12 1.8 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 13 1.9 Summary 13 Bibliography 13 Yuanyuan Chen, Marcelo Jorge Cavalcanti De Sá, Maurice Dalton and Declan M. Devine 2 Biodegradable medical implants 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Biodegradable sutures 18 2.3 Bone-fixation devices 20 2.4 Fully biodegradable stents 24 2.5 Biodegradable anti-adhesive tissue barriers 29 2.6 Tissue engineering 31 2.6.1 Bone tissue engineering 32 2.6.2 Repair of peripheral nerves 35 2.7 Summary 39 References 39 Gabriel Goetten de Lima, Shane Halligan, Luke Geever, Maurice Dalton, Chris McConville and Michael J.D. Nugent 3 Controlled release of poorly soluble active ingredients from bioresorbable polymers 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Poorly water-soluble drugs 48 3.3 Mechanisms of drug release from biodegradable polymers 50 3.4 Polymers for controlled release of poorly water-soluble drugs 52
- 13. 3.4.1 Controlled release from water-soluble/bioresorbable hydrogels 52 3.4.2 Controlled release from polymeric micelles 53 3.5 Recent strategies for poorly water-soluble drugs 55 3.5.1 Hydrogels/polymeric micelles 55 3.5.2 Nanocomposite hydrogels 57 3.6 Stimuli-responsive hydrogels 58 3.6.1 Hydrogels that are responsive to temperature 59 3.6.2 Hydrogels that are responsive to pH 61 3.6.3 Combining pH and temperature-responsive hydrogels 62 3.7 Applications of stimuli-responsive hydrogels 62 3.7.1 Injectable hydrogels in drug delivery 63 3.8 Summary 64 References 64 Martin Forde and Ian Major 4 Potential for biodegradable polymer-based nanotechnology in drug delivery 69 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 The bio-nano interface 70 4.3 Size and shape matter 71 4.3.1 Polymeric nanoparticles 71 4.4 Silver nanoparticles conjugated with polymers 72 4.4.1 Silver nanoparticles for gene technology 73 4.4.2 Silver nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis 73 4.5 Gold nanoparticles conjugated with polymers 74 4.6 Platinum nanoparticles conjugated with polymers 75 4.7 Other polymer non-metal nanoparticles for smart drug delivery 77 4.8 Biomedical implants 78 4.8.1 Neuronal implants 79 4.8.2 Cochlear and neural implants 80 4.9 Toxicity of nanoparticles – a major concern 80 4.10 Summary 82 References 83 Ian Major, Elaine Kenny, Andrew Healy, Luke Geever, Declan M. Devine and John Lyons 5 Processing of biodegradable polymers 87 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Hot-melt extrusion 87 5.3 Injection moulding 89 VIII Contents
- 14. 5.4 Fused deposition modelling 90 5.5 Special considerations for hot-melt processing bioresorbable polymers 93 5.5.1 Polylactic acid 93 5.5.2 Polycaprolactone 95 5.5.3 Polyglycolic acid 96 5.6 Summary 96 References 97 Emily Crowley, Maurice Dalton and Gavin Burke 6 Cytotoxicity and biocompatibility of bioresorbable polymers 101 6.1 Introduction 101 6.2 Foreign-body reaction 102 6.3 Natural biomaterials 104 6.3.1 Alginate 104 6.3.2 Chitosan 105 6.3.3 Hyaluronic acid 106 6.4 Synthetic biomaterials 108 6.4.1 Polylactic acid 108 6.4.2 Polyglycolic acid 113 6.4.3 Polycaprolactone 114 6.4.4 Polyethylene glycol 115 6.4.5 Polyvinyl alcohol 116 6.4.6 Polyvinylpyrrolidone 116 6.5 Summary 117 References 117 Abbreviations 121 Index 125 Contents IX
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- 19. The Project Gutenberg eBook of All in a Life-time
- 20. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: All in a Life-time Author: Henry Morgenthau French Strother Release date: October 24, 2020 [eBook #63538] Most recently updated: October 18, 2024 Language: English Credits: Produced by Chuck Greif, ellinora and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALL IN A LIFE- TIME ***
- 21. Contents List of Illustrations Appendix Index: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, Y, Z ALL IN A LIFE-TIME
- 23. HENRY MORGENTHAU ALL IN A LIFE-TIME BY HENRY MORGENTHAU IN COLLABORATION WITH FRENCH STROTHER ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS GARDEN CITY NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 1922 COPYRIGHT, 1921, 1922, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN
- 24. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. First Edition TO MY DEVOTED COMPANION MY WIFE WHO ORIGINATED SOME, AND STIMULATED ALL, OF MY BEST ENDEAVOURS
- 25. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I.New Worlds for Old 1 II.School Days 7 III.Apprenticed to the Law 18 IV.Real Estate 39 V.Finance 63 VI.Social Service 94 VII.Early Political Experiences 109 VIII.My Entrance into National Politics 128 IX.The Campaign of 1912 150 X.The Social Side of Constantinople 174 XI.My Trip to the Holy Land 211 XII.The Campaign of 1916 234 XIII.My Meetings with Joffre, Haig, Currie, and Pershing 249 XIV.John Purroy Mitchel 278 XV.A Hectic Fortnight—and Others 287 XVI.The International Red Cross 310 XVII.The Peace Conference 322 XVIII.My Mission to Poland 348 XIX.Zionism a Surrender, Not a Solution 385 Appendix 407 Index 441
- 26. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Henry Morgenthau Frontispiece FACING PAGE Mr. Morgenthau playfully refers to this picture as the Morgenthau dynasty 54 Mr. Morgenthau with Theodore Roosevelt, Charles E. Hughes, Oscar Straus, and other distinguished citizens 118 Mr. Morgenthau as one of the group of financiers, doctors, and sociologists who organized the international association of Red Cross societies 267 Ignace Paderewski, Premier of Poland, and her representative at Paris 358 Joseph Pilsudski, Chief of State of Poland, who was not, at first, in sympathy with the American Mission 374 Rabbi Rubenstein, a leader of the Jewish community at Vilna 390 ALL IN A LIFE-TIME
- 27. I CHAPTER I NEW WORLDS FOR OLD WAS born in 1856, at Mannheim, in the Grand Duchy of Baden. That was the old Germany, very different from the Prussianized empire with which America was to go to war sixty years later, and very different again from the bustling life of the western world to which I was to be introduced so soon and in which I was to play a part unlike anything which my most fanciful dreams ever pictured. Indeed, those were days of idyllic simplicity in South Germany and especially in that little city on the Rhine. The life of the people was best expressed by a word that was forever on their lips, gemütlich, that almost untranslatable word that implies contentment, ease, and satisfaction, all in one. It was a time of peace and fruitful industry and quiet enjoyment. The highest pleasure of the children was netting butterflies in the sunny fields; the great events of youth were the song festivals and public exhibitions of the “Turners” and walking excursions into the country; the recreation of the elders was at little tables in the public gardens, where, while the band played good music and the youngsters romped from chair to chair, the women plied their knitting needles over endless cups of coffee, and the men smoked their pipes and sipped their beer and talked of art and philosophy—of everything in the world, except world politics and world war. To us children who had seen no larger city, but had visited many small villages in the neighbourhood, Mannheim seemed quite an important town. It was at the point where the Neckar flows into the Rhine, and as this river flowed through the Odenwald, it constantly brought big loads of lumber and also many bushels of grain to Mannheim, which had become a distributing centre for various cereals and lumber, and was also a great tobacco centre. My father had cigar factories at Mannheim and also in Lorsch and Heppenheim and sometimes employed as many as a thousand hands. Nevertheless, the entire population of Mannheim was scarcely 21,000, and the thoughts of most of its inhabitants were bent on the sober concerns of their every-day struggles and on raising their large families, without
- 28. ambition for great riches or hope of higher place. None but the nobles dreamed of such grandeur as a carriage and pair; the successful tradesman only occasionally gratified a modest love of display or travel by hiring a barouche for a drive through the hop fields and tobacco patches surrounding the city to one of the near-by villages. Those whose mental powers were of a superior order exercised them in a keen appreciation of poetry, music, and the drama; Schiller and Goethe were their demi-gods, Mozart and Beethoven their companions of the spirit. The Grand Duke’s fatherly devotion to his subjects’ welfare had won him their filial affection; with political matters they concerned themselves almost not at all. My childhood recollections reflect the quiet colours of this atmosphere. My father was prosperous, and our home was blessed by the comforts and little elegancies that his means made possible; it shared in the artistic interests of the community by virtue both of his interest in the theatre and my mother’s passion for the best in literature and music. I was the ninth of eleven living children, and I recall the visits of the music teachers who gave my sisters lessons on the piano and taught my eldest brother to play the violin. We children learned by heart the poems of Goethe and Schiller and shared the pride of all Mannheimers that the latter poet had once lived in our city and that his play, “The Robbers,” was first produced at our Stadt Theatre. Those who like to reflect upon the smallness of the world will find it amusing to read that among the various friends of my family were quite a few with whom we are now on the most cordial relations in New York. Our physician was Dr. Gutherz, one of whose daughters married my neighbour, Nathan Straus. Their son and mine are intimate friends, and, in turn, their sons, Nathan 3d and Henry 3d, are now playmates in Central Park. Among such associations the first ten years of my life were passed. We studied hard, but we played hard, too. Nor were our muscles forgotten: we were given regular exercises, and great was my pride when I passed the “swimming test” one summer’s day, by holding my own for the prescribed half hour against the Rhine current and so winning the right to wear the magic letters R. S.—“Rhine-Swimmer”—on my bathing suit. Life was indeed gemütlich in the Mannheim of that period. It was not long, however, before the faraway world of America began to knock at our quiet door. A brother of my father had joined the gold rush to the Pacific and settled in San Francisco; he wrote us tales of the wild, free
- 29. life of California, its adventures and its wealth. Strange gifts came back from him—a cane for the Grand Duke, its head a piece of gold-bearing quartz; for us children queer mementoes of an existence that seemed all romance. From time to time, this “Gold-Uncle,” as we called him, gave American friends touring Europe letters of introduction to my father, and these visitors enhanced the charm of the United States. One such especially filled our minds with narratives of easily won riches; Captain Richardson, a bearded Forty-niner, whose accounts of the land of opportunity were so much more moving than our fairy tales as to affect even my father’s mature fancy. For my father heard them at a moment when, by an odd coincidence, an act of the American Congress had caused him great damage. In 1862 a tariff had been enacted by the United States which greatly increased the duty on cigars. For many years the largest part of his production had been exported to the United States. Father had a representative in New York, and his brother in San Francisco attended to the distribution on the Pacific Coast— they both had urged him to rush over all the cigars he could and land them before the law should go into effect. Unfortunately, the slow freighter that carried the last and biggest shipment arrived one day too late. Had she docked in time, my life might have been spent differently. That day’s delay meant the difference between profit and disaster to my father; the cigars, which, when duty free, would have yielded him a good return, were a dead loss when to their cost was added the burden of the new tariff charges. These changes in any event would have compelled him to seek a new market, as they closed America forever to goods of the cheap grade of German tobacco. That might have been arranged, but when the necessity to seek new fields was coupled with the crushing loss sustained upon this shipment, his finances were so weakened that he realized he would have to start afresh and on a smaller scale. This was a heavy blow to the pride of a man who had achieved a great business success and was a leading citizen in his community. The instinct to seek another field for the fresh start was fortified by the stories of opportunity in the land whose laws had just dealt the blow. He resolved to emigrate to America. I remember vividly the excitement in our household that was provoked by this momentous decision. Whatever may have been the doubts and heartburnings of our parents, to us children all was a joyous vista. We were
- 30. happy at the thought of travelling to that far land of golden promise and strange people; we had visions only of adventure, and we were the envy of our playmates who were not to share with us the voyage across the Atlantic Ocean or the excitement of life in America. The two eldest brothers and one of my sisters went ahead of us and established a home in Brooklyn. They wrote back their first impressions of New York; its great buildings and its crowded wharves; its masses of busy people hastening through the maze of streets and the novelty (to us) of horse cars pulled through the streets on railroad tracks. These letters gave us fresh thrills of emotion and new material for our active fancies. Then my father abandoned his now unprofitable business, sold his factories and home, packed our household goods and furniture, and possessed of about thirty thousand dollars in cash—all that remained of his fortune—led his wife and remaining eight children upon the expedition. I well remember the journey down the Rhine to Cologne, where we visited the beautiful cathedral before we took the train to Bremen; the solemn interview in the latter city at the offices of the North German Lloyd, where the last formalities were disposed of; and finally settling in our cabins of the slow old steamer Hermann as she put forth on her way across the wide Atlantic. My memories of the eleven-day voyage itself are rather vague. I recall playing around the deck with the other family of children on the ship. The daughter of one of those little playmates is now conducting a private school in New York City which three of my granddaughters attend. I remember, too, that on the stormiest day of our passage, I was proud of being the only child well enough to eat his meals, and that the Captain honoured me with a seat beside him at his table. Now, the newcomer to America, arriving at New York, stands on the deck of a swift liner and is welcomed by the Statue of Liberty and overwhelmed by the vaulting office-buildings springing high into the blue. I shall tell later how I have contributed to the creation of some of them. But on that June day of my arrival, in 1866, I simply felt that one of the momentous hours in my life had come, when I found myself stepping ashore into a vast garden of unlimited opportunities.
- 31. M CHAPTER II SCHOOL DAYS Y family took up their residence at 92 Congress Street, Brooklyn, which my elder brothers and two sisters, our pioneers, had prepared for us, and though handicapped as we were by our small knowledge of English, we younger children began our studies at the De Graw Street Public School in the September following our arrival. Eight months later, on the first day of May, 1867, we moved to Manhattan. It was a very simple New York to which we came. In domestic economy, portières were unknown, rugs a rarity; ingrain carpets, costing about sixty cents a yard, were the usual floor coverings; when the walls were papered, it was with the cheapest material; the only bathtubs were of zinc, and one to a house was the almost universal rule. Our home was No. 1121 Second Avenue, corner of Fifty-ninth Street—a three-storey, high-stoop brownstone house, rows of which were then being erected. It still stands there, the high stoop removed from it; stores are in the basements; the district has deteriorated to one of cheap tenements and small retail businesses. But in those days there was an effort to make Upper Second Avenue one of the chief residential streets of the city. The householders were mostly well-to-do Germans—people who had prospered on the Lower East Side and had outgrown their quarters there. The monotony of the thoroughfare was relieved only by the old-fashioned horse car that rumbled by every four or five minutes. Like the letter carriers of that period, neither the drivers nor the conductors wore uniforms. The line ended at Sixty-fourth Street where the truck-gardens began. On our way to Sunday School, at Thirty-ninth Street near Seventh Avenue, we would make a short-cut across the site where the first Grand Central Station was being erected. I had my little difficulties in school: I well remember how one of the boys told me that he deeply sympathized with me, because I would have to overcome the double handicap of being both a Jew and a German. So I greatly rejoiced when I saw the steady disappearance of the prejudice
- 32. against the Germans after they had succeeded in winning the Franco- Prussian War in 1871. About the most picturesque and artistic parade that had ever taken place in New York was arranged by all the German societies and their sympathizers, the singing clubs and the turn vereins participating. Non- Germans lent their carriages. Among the generous people was the famous Dr. Hemholdt, of patent medicine fame. He owned a rather fantastic vehicle, which was drawn by five horses decorated with white cockades and which he lent for the occasion to an uptown club of which my brother was the secretary. I was permitted to fill in, so that I saw with my own eyes and was deeply impressed by the crowds that lined the streets and vociferously and heartily, for the first time, gave their unstinted approval of the Germans. We children did not lose a day in our pursuit of education; for on the very day of our removal to Manhattan, I attended Grammar School No. 18, in Fifty-first Street near Lexington Avenue. At recess-time we boys used to play “tag” on the foundations of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, the construction of which had been stopped during the Civil War. I have very pleasant recollections of my early grammar school teachers, and especially of one who later was for years Clerk of the Board of Education, the efficient Lawrence D. Kiernan, who, while at School 18, was elected to the Assembly as a candidate of the “Young Democrats” and whose talks to us pupils on civic duty seemed like great orations and gave me my first impression of independence in politics. Nevertheless, I laboured under two disadvantages—one was my English; the difference in structure between my native and my adopted language gave me considerable trouble; so did the pronunciation of the letters w and d, but my greatest difficulty was the diphthong th, and to overcome it, I compiled and learned lists of words in which it occurred and for weeks devoted some time, night and morning, to repeating: “Theophilus Thistle, the great thistle- sifter, sifted one sieve-full of unsifted thistles through the thick of his thumb.” However, as the greatest stress was laid on proficiency in arithmetic, and as I had a natural aptitude for that study, my proficiency there balanced these deficiencies and took me into the highest class at the age of eleven. It was a general belief that all “Dutchmen” were cowards, and on the playground this idea was acted upon with considerable spirit. I was made the target of many a joke that I took in good part, until I realized that
- 33. something positive was required of me. Then when a husky lad taunted me with being a “square-headed Dutchman,” and refused my demand that he “take it back,” my fighting blood was roused, and I administered a sound thrashing, the result of sheer, unscientific force. Nothing evokes the admiration of the gallant Irish so much as a good fight, and the result of that battle was the liking of my comrades, and especially one of the leaders among them, John F. Carroll, later familiar to New Yorkers as a leader in Tammany. About this time I made up my mind to enter City College and, to prepare for that, I began looking about for a school which ranked higher than No. 18. There were a number of these, foremost among which were the Thirteenth and Twenty-third Street schools. I applied at both, but they were full. The next in rank was No. 14, in Twenty-seventh Street near Third Avenue, where they admitted me to the fourth class. I gladly accepted this comparative demotion, so as to utilize advantageously the two years remaining before I reached the college-entrance age, began my studies there in March of ’68, under Miss Rosina Hartman, a fine old spinster and a good teacher, and finished both her class and the third class before I was twelve. I was hardly settled in my seat in the second class when the following incident took place: Mr. Abner B. Holley, who taught the first class, came into the room and complained about the mathematical shortcomings of the boys just promoted into his care; he explained that in his method of teaching arithmetic, it was essential to have someone for leader, as a sort of spur for the pupils. He gave us fifteen examples: speed and accuracy were to be the tests; and the boy who solved them most quickly and correctly was to be promoted. I finished first and handed up my slate. Holley carefully compared my answers with those on his slip and, before any other pupil was ready to submit his work, rapped for attention, and said: “As these answers are all correct, there is no need of any other boy finishing. Morgenthau wins the promotion.” Being too young to graduate in ’69, I remained under Holley until June, 1870. He was an excellent instructor, and it required no effort on my part to keep the lead in mathematics. In fact, he took pride in displaying my efficiency, and whenever any trustee, or other visitor, came to school, they would have a general assembly of all the pupils and then he would have me
- 34. solve promptly some such problem in mental arithmetic as computing the interest on $350 for three years, six months, and twelve days at 6 per cent. Thus, as I required little of my time for what was, to most of the boys, our most exacting study, I devoted all my spare time to improving my pronunciation and mastering the spelling of English which is so hard for a boy not born to the language. I won 100 per cent. perfect marks throughout my second year and when, with about nine hundred other boys, I took my City College entrance-examination, I was well up among the three hundred selected for admission. I always look back with pleasure on those years in Public School No. 14. Iron stairways, modern desks, and electric lights have been installed since my day; the Irish and German pupils have passed, the Italian tide is ebbing; on the student list Russian, Ukrainian, Greek, and Armenian names now predominate—there is sometimes even a Chinese name to be found. At exercises there, attended by three of my classmates and by Dr. John H. Finley, New York’s Commissioner of Education, I celebrated, in 1920, the fiftieth anniversary of my graduation; I took the 1,900 pupils to a moving- picture show, and commenced my now regular custom of giving four watches twice a year to members of the graduating class; but as I then reviewed the past and looked at the present, I felt that the old spirit had been well preserved and that, whatever the nationality of the children who enter the old school, they all leave it American citizens. When I left there, I had my eyes longingly fixed upon the City College, but the law was then already my ultimate aim and wages were essential, so I spent my “vacation” as errand boy and general-utility lad in the law offices of Ferdinand Kurzman, at $4.00 a week. In those days little was known of “big business”; there were no vast corporations requiring continuous legal advice, and so the lawyers clustered within three or four blocks of the court- house; Kurzman’s quarters were at 306 Broadway, at the corner of Duane Street. My early duties were the copying and serving of papers, but the time soon came when, young though I was, I was sent to the District Court to answer the calendar and, occasionally, fight for an adjournment. Stenographers and typewriters being practically unknown, the lawyer would dictate and his clerks transcribe in longhand, make the required number of copies with pen and ink and then compare the results and correct any errors.
- 35. It was only when more than twenty copies were required that printing would be resorted to. Such was my existence from June 21st until September 16, 1870. All the while, I tried to further my education. I had joined the Mercantile Library in the previous February. Within a short time, I was attending the Cooper Institute classes in elocution and debating, and later secured instruction in grammar and composition at the Evening High School in Thirteenth Street. I tried to do as much good reading as I could, and I find that my list for 1871 ranges from Cooper’s “Spy,” “David Copperfield,” and “The Vicar of Wakefield” to Hume’s “History of England,” Mill’s “Logic,” and “The Iliad.” Of my life at City College I wish that I could write more, because I wish I had been privileged to graduate with the Class of 1875. There were 286 of us, and I remember very vividly some of the incidents of my brief stay. The halo of military distinction that encircled the brow of the president, General Alexander S. Webb, is still bright for me, and bright that day when the great Christine Nilsson came to our classroom and sang for us. Of the faculty, Professor Doremus remains especially vivid in my memory; electricity for illuminating purposes was at that time confined to powerful arc-lights; he tried to explain to us the possibility of some inventor some day subdividing the power in one of those lamps so that it could be used to illuminate private houses. Though “stumped” in anatomy and chemistry through my unfamiliarity with the long words employed, I stood well on the general roll and was No. 11. My college career was rudely ended on March 20, 1871, when my father withdrew me and put me to work. His difficulty in mastering the English language and American commercial methods were handicaps too severe for him. He lost most of his original money, and his unreinforced efforts could not support us all. Early in our occupancy of the Second Avenue house, the back parlour had to be rented as a doctor’s office, and shortly after my mother decided that it was her duty to take in boarders. I cannot speak of my mother as she was during these trials without the deepest emotion. There is nobody to whom I owe so much; there was no debt which so profoundly affected my entire career. In Mannheim her position had always been one of comfort. I had seen her there with good friends, good books, good dramas, and good music; she was the mistress of a commodious house, with a corps of competent servants, in a city with every custom and tradition of which she
- 36. was intimately familiar; respected by the community, the mother of thirteen children, she was calm, philosophic, considerate of every domestic call upon her, not only supervising our education, physical and mental, but also finding time to add continuously to her own broad culture. Now a complete change had come. She was a stranger in a strange land; most of her friends were new; the city of her husband’s adoption was a puzzle, its manners foreign, its language long almost unknown; there was small time for amusement; there was, on the contrary, the ever-constant and ever-pressing strain of helping, by her own endeavours, to make both ends meet. All of this deeply affected my young and impressionable mind. I feared lest my mother, who was my idol, and who was so superior in accomplishments and knowledge to the people that boarded with us, might, in the course of her duties, be compelled to render quasi-menial services. Luckily, two things prevented this. On the one hand, her wonderful poise and tact and her extraordinarily sweet nature won so prompt a recognition that the least gentle of our lodgers instinctively became worshippers at her shrine. On the other hand, my sisters, themselves bred to comfort, rivalled one another in a friendly struggle to shield her from every possible annoyance. High-spirited girls as they were, they did not hesitate to assume everything that might in any way hurt her sensibilities, and their devotion and self-sacrifice are among my tenderest memories. Appreciating how things were at home, I became quickly reconciled to abandoning textbook education, and instead, to plunging into the rough school of life. The influence of the beautiful spirit of my mother had early given me good ideals and a love of purity, and the ebb of the family fortunes developed an irrepressible ambition to accomplish four things: to restore my mother to the comforts to which she had been accustomed; to save myself from an old age of financial stress such as my father’s; to give my own children the chances in life that were all but denied to me, and to try to attain a standard of thought and conduct consonant with the fine concepts that characterized my mother’s mind and lips. My experiences were not unique, nor were my high resolves exceptionally heroic; they are found in the life history of most men. Nevertheless, such histories are not often told at first hand, so that what may have been commonplace in the happening becomes interesting in the narration. Forsaking the chronological order of my story, let me look
- 37. backward and forward in an attempt to present this phase of my mental development. I was full of energy, and had tremendous hopes as to my future success, which gave me a certain assurance that was often misconstrued into conceit, but which was really a conviction of the necessity to collect religiously a mental, moral, physical, and financial reserve guaranteeing the realization of my best desires. Accordingly, I pursued a rather carefully ordered course. At the age of fourteen I had taken very seriously my confirmation in the Thirty-ninth Street Temple, and now I formed the habit of visiting churches of many denominations and making abstracts of the sermons that I heard delivered by Henry Ward Beecher, Henry W. Bellows, Rabbi Einhorn, Richard S. Storrs, T. De Witt Talmage, and Dr. Alger, and many others of the famous pulpit-orators who enriched the intellectual life of New York. It was the era when Emerson led American thought, and I profited by passing my impressionable years in that period whose daily press was edited by such men as Horace Greeley, William Cullen Bryant, Charles A. Dana, Henry T. Raymond, and Lawrence Godkin. There lived with us a hunchbacked Quaker doctor, Samuel S. Whitall, a beautiful character, softened instead of embittered by his affliction, the physician at the coloured hospital, who gave half his time to charitable work among the poor. I frequently opened the door for his patients and ran his errands, and we became friends. I remember his long, religious talks, and how deeply I was impressed by Penn’s “No Cross, No Crown,” a copy of which he gave me. Largely because of it I composed twenty-four rules of action, tabulating virtues that I wished to acquire and vices that I must avoid. I even made a chart of these maxims, and every night marked against myself whatever breaches of them I had been guilty of. Looking over this record for February and March of 1872, I find that I charged myself with dereliction in not heeding my self-imposed admonitions against indulgence in sweets, departures from strict veracity, too much talking, extravagance, idleness, and vanity—a heavy indictment! The fact is that I had acquired an almost monastic habit of mind and loved the conquest of my impulses much as the athlete loves the subjection of his muscles to the demands of his will. In my commonplace book for 1871 I find transcribed two quotations that governed me. The one is from Dr. Hall’s “Happy Old Age” and runs:
- 38. Stimulants ... are the greatest enemies of mankind; there is no middle ground which anyone can safely tread, only that of total and most uncompromising abstinence. The other is from a sermon of Dr. Channing on “Self-Denial.” Young man, remember that the only test of goodness is moral strength, self-decrying energy.... Do you subject to your moral and religious convictions the love of pleasure, the appetites, the passions, which form the great trials of youthful virtue? No man who has made any observation of life but will tell you how often he has seen the promise of youth blasted ... honorable feeling, kind affection overpowered and almost extinguished ... through a tame yielding to pleasure and the passions. I took these warnings very seriously. How the state of mind engendered by these forces affected me in a purely material way, we shall soon see. From the outset of my business career, when an errand boy in Kurzman’s office, I found myself surrounded by employees, not perhaps more vicious than most, but certainly sharing the vices of the majority. They gave, at best, only what they were paid for, and not an ounce of energy or a minute of time beyond. I shrank from the possibility of becoming a mere clock clerk and gave all of my best self and held back nothing. I made mistakes, I had my failures from the standard that I had set; but my purpose held fast and I cheerfully pursued the rugged uphill road to success.
- 39. W CHAPTER III APPRENTICED TO THE LAW HEN I left City College, my father wanted me to become a civil engineer, but a brief experience in an engineer’s office convinced me that I lacked the requisite mathematical foundation, so I gave it up and accepted a position as assistant bookkeeper and errand boy at $6 a week in the uptown branch of the Phœnix Fire Insurance Company. In September, 1871, I improved myself by securing a $10 position with Bloomingdale & Company, who were then in the wholesale “corset and fancy-goods” business on Grand Street near Broadway. I kept the books and also helped to pack hoop-skirts, bustles, and corsets until the firm’s financial difficulties gave me an excuse for turning my ambition again to the law. I returned to Kurzman’s office, January 16, 1872. Though Kurzman’s perspicacity could pierce directly through the intricacies of any tangled case, his accounts were shamefully neglected. His check book was his only book of entry—he trusted his memory to keep track of what his clients owed him—so I voluntarily and without informing him arranged a regular system of accounts, and shall never forget his surprise and appreciation when, at the end of the year, I showed him what he had earned and the sources and also the amounts still due him. The most important branch of his practice was the searching of titles, and this gave me my early taste for real estate. This department was under the able management of Alfred McIntire, who graciously initiated me into the intricacies of his work. We were then in the midst of a real-estate boom mostly participated in by the recently created middle class. Houses were dealt in almost as freely as merchandise, the only hindrance being the delay occasioned by the searching of titles, which was still confined to the lawyers, as there were no title insurance companies. Contracts would frequently be assigned twice and sometimes thrice, before the great event, “the closing of the title.” Then the various couples involved—the seller, the assignors of the contract, and the final purchaser—would all troop into our offices. The women invariably
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