![Slide 25
Blondel’s Theorem
• In the previous example:
– What are the “ASSUMPTIONS”?
– When do we get errors?
• What would the “Right Answer” be?
• What did we measure?
)cos()cos()cos( cccbbbaaasys IVIVIVP θθθ ++=
)]cos()cos([)]cos()cos([ bbcccbbaaasys IIVIIVP θθθθ −+−=](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/sema2017burdentestingtheoryandpracticetomlawton11-171110153552/85/Burden-Testing-Theory-and-Practice-25-320.jpg)
Burden Testing, Theory, and Practice
- 1. 1 10/02/2012 Slide 1 Burden Testing, Theory, and Practice Prepared by Tom Lawton, TESCO The Eastern Specialty Company For Southeastern Electricity Metering Association (SEMA) Wednesday, November 8, 2017 8:30 a.m.
- 2. Slide 2 Topics we will be covering • The Basics- Differences Between Self Contained and Transformer or Instrument Rated Meter Sites • Transformer Rated Meter Forms • Test Switches and CT’s • Blondel’s Theorem and why this matters to us in metering • Meter Accuracy Testing in the Field • Checking the Health of your CT’s and PT’s • Site Verification and not just meter testing
- 3. Slide 3 Self Contained Metering •Typically found in residential metering •Meters are capable of handling the direct incoming amperage •Meter is connected directly to the load being measured •Meter is part of the circuit •When the meter is removed from the socket, power to the customer is interrupted
- 4. Slide 4 Transformer Rated Metering • Meter measures scaled down representation of the load. • Scaling is accomplished by the use of external current transformers (CTs) and sometimes voltage transformers or PTs). • The meter is NOT part of the circuit • When the meter is removed from the socket, power to the customer is not effected.
- 5. Slide 5 9S Meter Installation with 400:5 CT’s 400A 400A 400A LOAD 5A 5A 5A SOURCE PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C The Basic Components
- 6. Slide 6 Typical Connections Typical Connections for Common Transformer (Instrument) Rated Meter Forms
- 7. Slide 7 TESCO/Georgia Power 2017 Caribbean Meter School Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification Full Load Light Load Power Factor Meter Accuracy Testing Meter Accuracy Testing in a Nutshell
- 8. Slide 8 Meter Testing 5A PHASE A SOURCE PHASE C PHASE B LOAD 400A 400A 400A 5A5A Isolate the Meter from the Service 9S Meter Installation
- 9. Slide 9 The Importance of CT Testing in the Field • One transformer in three wired backwards will give the customer a bill of 1/3rd the actual bill. • One broken wire to a single transformer will give the customer a bill of 2/3rd the actual bill • One dual ratio transformer inappropriately marked in the billing system as 400:5 instead of 800:5 provides a bill that is ½ of the actual bill. And the inverse will give a bill double of what should have been sent. Both are lose-lose situations for the utility.
- 10. Slide 10 The Importance of CT Testing in the Field (cont) •Cross Phasing (wiring errors) •Loose or Corroded Connections •CT Mounted Backwards •CT’s with Shorted Turns •Wrong Selection of Dual Ratio CT •Detect Magnetized CT’s •Burden Failure in Secondary Circuit •Open or Shorted Secondary •Mislabeled CT’s •Ensures all Shorting Blocks have been Removed
- 11. Slide 11 Testing at Transformer Rated Sites Meter Accuracy Full Load Light Load Power Factor CT Health Burden Testing Ratio Testing Admittance Testing Site Verification
- 12. Slide 12 Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification Functionality with Burden Present on the Secondary Loop PHASE A • Some burden will always be present – junctions, meter coils, test switches, cables, etc. • CT’s must be able to maintain an accurate ratio with burden on the secondary.
- 13. Slide 13 CT’s – Functions and Terminology All CT’s fall within an accuracy class. IEEE Standards have defined accuracy classes. Accuracy Classifications and Burden
- 14. Slide 14 CT’s – Functions and Terminology Example: 0.3% @ B0.1, B0.2, B0.5 Accuracy Classifications and Burden
- 15. Slide 15 Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification Functionality with Burden Present on the Secondary Loop Example Burden Spec: 0.3% @ B0.1, B0.2, B0.5 or There should be less than the 0.3% change in secondary current from initial (“0” burden) reading, when up to 0.5Ohms of burden is applied Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification
- 16. Slide 16 Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification Current Transformers Conceptual Rtepresentation Real, with core losses Ideal. No losses
- 17. Slide 17 Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification Functionality with Burden Present on the Secondary Loop 0.3% @ B0.1, B0.2, B0.5 0.0000 1.0000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 6.0000 0 2 4 6 8 Initial Reading = 5Amps 0.3% x 5A = 0.015A 5A – 0.015 = 4.985A Burden Reading 0 5.0000 0.1 4.9999 0.2 4.9950 0.5 4.9900 1 4.9800 2 4.9500 4 4.0000 8 0.8000
- 18. Slide 18 Ratio of Primary Current to Secondary Current PHASE A SOURCE LOAD 400A 400A 400A 5A5A Calculate Ratio Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification
- 19. Slide 19 Meter Testing 9S Meter Installation 5A PHASE A SOURCE PHASE C PHASE B LOAD 400A 400A 400A 5A5A What if? 355:5 405:5 200:5 Shorted etc. Fundamentals of Polyphase Field Meter Testing and Site Verification
- 20. Slide 20 Three Phase Power Blondel’s Theorem The theory of polyphase watthour metering was first set forth on a scientific basis in 1893 by Andre E. Blondel, engineer and mathematician. His theorem applies to the measurement of real power in a polyphase system of any number of wires. The theorem is as follows: - If energy is supplied to any system of conductors through N wires, the total power in the system is given by the algebraic sum of the readings of N wattmeters, so arranged that each of the N wires contains one current coil, the corresponding voltage coil being connected between that wire and some common point. If this common point is on one of the N wires, the measurement may be made by the use of N-1 wattmeters.
- 21. Slide 21 Three Phase Power Blondel’s Theorem • Simply – We can measure the power in a N wire system by measuring the power in N-1 conductors. • For example, in a 4-wire, 3-phase system we need to measure the power in 3 circuits.
- 22. Slide 22 Three Phase Power Blondel’s Theorem • If a meter installation meets Blondel’s Theorem then we will get accurate power measurements under all circumstances. • If a metering system does not meet Blondel’s Theorem then we will only get accurate measurements if certain assumptions are met.
- 23. Slide 23 Blondel’s Theorem • Three wires • Two voltage measurements with one side common to Line 2 • Current measurements on lines 1 & 3. This satisfies Blondel’s Theorem.
- 24. Slide 24 Blondel’s Theorem • Four wires • Two voltage measurements to neutral • Current measurements on lines 1 & 3. How about line 2? This DOES NOT satisfy Blondel’s Theorem.
- 25. Slide 25 Blondel’s Theorem • In the previous example: – What are the “ASSUMPTIONS”? – When do we get errors? • What would the “Right Answer” be? • What did we measure? )cos()cos()cos( cccbbbaaasys IVIVIVP θθθ ++= )]cos()cos([)]cos()cos([ bbcccbbaaasys IIVIIVP θθθθ −+−=
- 26. Slide 26 Blondel’s Theorem • Phase B power would be: – P = Vb Ib cosθ • But we aren’t measuring Vb • What we are measuring is: – IbVacos(60- θ) + IbVccos(60+ θ) • cos(α + β) = cos(α)cos(β) - sin(α)sin(β) • cos(α - β) = cos(α)cos(β) + sin(α)sin(β) • So
- 27. Slide 27 Blondel’s Theorem • Pb = Ib Va cos(60- θ) + Ib Vc cos(60+ θ) • Applying the trig identity – IbVa(cos(60)cos(θ) + sin(60)sin(θ)) IbVc (cos(60)cos(θ) - sin(60)sin(θ)) – Ib(Va+Vc)0.5cos(θ) + Ib(Vc-Va) 0.866sin(θ) • Assuming – Assume Vb = Va = Vc – And, they are exactly 120° apart • Pb = Ib(2Vb)(0.5cosθ) = IbVbcosθ
- 28. Slide 28 Blondel’s Theorem • If Va ≠ Vb ≠ Vc then the error is • %Error = -Ib{(Va+Vc)/(2Vb) - (Va-Vc) 0.866sin(θ)/(Vbcos(θ)) How big is this in reality? If Va=117, Vb=120, Vc=119, PF=1 then E=-1.67% Va=117, Vb=116, Vc=119, PF=.866 then E=-1.67%
- 29. Slide 29 Blondel’s Theorem Condition % V % I Phase A Phase B non- Blondel Imb Imb V φvan I φian V φvbn I φibn % Err All balanced 0 0 120 0 100 0 120 180 100 180 0.00% Unbalanced voltages PF=1 18% 0% 108 0 100 0 132 180 100 180 0.00% Unbalanced current PF=1 0% 18% 120 0 90 0 120 180 110 180 0.00% Unbalanced V&I PF=1 5% 18% 117 0 90 0 123 180 110 180 -0.25% Unbalanced V&I PF=1 8% 18% 110 0 90 0 120 180 110 180 -0.43% Unbalanced V&I PF=1 8% 50% 110 0 50 0 120 180 100 180 -1.43% Unbalanced V&I PF=1 18% 40% 108 0 75 0 132 180 125 180 -2.44% Unbalanced voltages PF≠1 PFa = PFb 18% 0% 108 0 100 30 132 180 100 210 0.00% Unbalanced current PF≠1 PFa = PFb 0% 18% 120 0 90 30 120 180 110 210 0.00% Unbalanced V&I PF≠1 PFa = PFb 18% 18% 108 0 90 30 132 180 110 210 -0.99% Unbalanced V&I PF≠1 PFa = PFb 18% 40% 108 0 75 30 132 180 125 210 -2.44% Unbalanced voltages PF≠1 PFa ≠ PFb 18% 0% 108 0 100 60 132 180 100 210 -2.61% Unbalanced current PF≠1 PFa ≠ PFb 0% 18% 120 0 90 60 120 180 110 210 0.00% Unbalanced V&I PF≠1 PFa ≠ PFb 18% 18% 108 0 90 60 132 180 110 210 -3.46% Unbalanced V&I PF≠1 PFa ≠ PFb 18% 40% 108 0 75 60 132 180 125 210 -4.63% Power Measurements Handbook
- 30. Slide 30 Site Verification: Why should we invest our limited meter service resources here • These customers represent a disproportionately large amount of the overall revenue for every utility in North America. • For some utilities the ten percent of their customers who have transformer rated metering services can represent over 70% of their overall revenue. • While these numbers will vary from utility to utility the basic premise should be the same for all utilities regarding where Meter Services should focus their efforts • This is perhaps one of the larger benefits that AMI can provide for our Utilities – more time to spend on C&I metering and less on residential Easy Answer: Money.
- 31. Slide 31 Potential list of tasks to be completed during a Site Veriification of a Transformer Rated Metering SIte • Double check the meter number, the location the test result and the meter record • Perform a visual safety inspection of the site. This includes utility and customer equipment. Things to look for include intact down ground on pole, properly attached enclosure, unwanted voltage on enclosure, proper trimming and site tidiness (absence of discarded seals, etc.) • Visually inspect for energy diversions (intentional and not). This includes broken or missing wires, jumpers, open test switch, unconnected wires and foreign objects on meters or other metering equipment. Broken or missing wires can seriously cause the under measurement of energy. A simple broken wire on a CT or VT can cause the loss of 1/3 to 1/2 of the registration on either 3 element or 2 element metering, respectively. • Visually check lightning arrestors and transformers for damage or leaks. • Check for proper grounding and bonding of metering equipment. Poor grounding and bonding practices may result in inaccurate measurements that go undetected for long periods of time. Implementing a single point ground policy and practice can reduce or eliminate this type of issue. • Burden test CTs and voltage check PTs.
- 32. Slide 32 Site Verification Checklist (cont) • Verify service voltage. Stuck regulator or seasonal capacitor can impact service voltage. • Verify condition of metering control wire. This includes looking for cracks in insulation, broken wires, loose connections, etc. • Confirm we have a Blondel compliant metering set up • Compare the test switch wiring with the wiring at the CTs and VTs. Verify CTs and VTs not cross wired. Be sure CTs are grounded in one location (test switch) only. • Check for bad test switch by examining voltage at the top and bottom of the switch. Also verify amps using amp probe on both sides of the test switch. Verify neutral connection to cabinet (voltage). • Check rotation by closing in one phase at a time at the test switch and observing the phase meter for forward rotation. If forward rotation is not observed measurements may be significantly impacted as the phases are most likely cancelling each other out. • Test meter for accuracy. Verify demand if applicable with observed load. If meter is performing compensation (line and/or transformer losses) the compensation should be verified either through direct testing at the site or by examining recorded pulse data. • Loss compensation is generally a very small percentage of the overall measurement and would not be caught under utilities normal high/low checks. However, the small percentages when applied to large loads or generation can really add up overtime. Billing adjustments can easily be in the $million range if not caught early.
- 33. Slide 33 Site Verification Checklist (cont) • Verify metering vectors. Traditionally this has been done using instruments such as a circuit analyzer. Many solid state meters today can provide vector diagrams along with volt/amp/pf and values using meter manufacturer software or meter displays. Many of these desired values are programmed into the meters Alternate/Utility display. Examining these values can provide much information about the metering integrity. It may also assist in determining if unbalanced loads are present and if CTs are sized properly. The vendor software generally has the ability to capture both diagnostic and vector information electronically. These electronic records should be kept in the meter shop for future comparisons. • If metering is providing pulses/EOI pulse to customers, SCADA systems or other meters for totalization they also should be verified vs. the known load on the meter. If present test/inspect isolation relays/pulse splitters for things like blown fuses to ensure they are operating properly. • Verify meter information including meter multiplier, serial number, dials/decimals, Mp, Ke, Primary Kh, Kr and Rate. Errors in this type of information can also cause a adverse impact on measured/reported values. • Verify CT shunts are all opened. • Look for signs of excessive heat on the meter base e.g. melted plastic or discoloration related to heat
- 34. Slide 34 Periodic Site Inspections….. ….Can Discover or Prevent: •Billing Errors •Bad Metering set-up •Detect Current Diversion •Identify Potential Safety Issues •Metering Issues (issues not related to meter accuracy) •AMR/AMI Communications Issues •The need for Unscheduled Truck Rolls due to Undetected Field Related Issues •Discrepancies between what is believed to be at a given site versus the actual setup and equipment at the site
- 35. Slide 35 Questions and Discussion Tom Lawton TESCO – The Eastern Specialty Company Bristol, PA Tom.Lawton@tescometering.com Cell: 215-688-0298 This presentation can also be found under Meter Conferences and Schools on the TESCO web site: www.tesco-advent.com