Chapter 2 individual learning and behaviour
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This document discusses various theories and models of learning including: 1. Classical conditioning which associates an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus. 2. Operant conditioning where behavior is modified through reinforcement or punishment. 3. Cognitive learning theories which focus on mental processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving. 4. Social learning theories that emphasize learning through observation and modeling behaviors. It also describes different learning styles including divergers, convergers, accommodators, and assimilators based on how people perceive and process information. Reinforcement and behavior modification aim to increase desired behaviors through consequences like rewards or praise.
![David Kolb: Learning Styles Inventory
CONCRETE EXPERIENTIAL
ABSTRACT CONCEPTUAL
ACTIVE REFLECTIVE
EXPERIMENTATION OBSERVER
„WHY‟ QUADRANT [35%]
Learns by seeking out meaning
Connects to values & emotions
Seeks outcomes & interaction
Build rapport
Sell the idea
Trainer role: MOTIVATOR
„WHAT‟ QUADRANT [22%]
Learns by thinking through ideas
Seeks facts and is impressed by research
Wants to know what the experts thinks
Reflects on ideas
Usefulness generally irrelevant
Information junkies
„Teach it like it is ….‟
Trainer role: TEACHER
„HOW‟ QUADRANT [18%]
Learns by testing theories
Needs to know how things work
Seeks usability
Wants exercises and feedback
„Give me an explanation!‟
‘What’s in it for me?’
‘What are the facts?’‘How does this work?’
Trainer role: COACH/FACILITATOR
„WHAT IF‟ QUADRANT [25%]
How is it useful?
Learns by trial and error
Seeks hidden possibilities
Welcomes self discovery
How can I make money out of this?
‘Where can I apply this?’
Trainer role: COLLEAGUE](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter2individuallearningandbehaviour-130929213955-phpapp01/85/Chapter-2-individual-learning-and-behaviour-25-320.jpg)
Chapter 2 individual learning and behaviour
- 2. Motivation Individual Behavior & Performance Ability Role Perceptions Situational Factors MARS Model
- 3. What is learning Relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of a persons‟ interaction with the environment Change in behavior acquired through practice / training ◦ Prior Experience ◦ Behavior modification ◦ Reinforced practice or experience
- 5. No Response Before Conditioning UR (Salivation) Conditioning US (Food) UR (Salivation) CS (Bell) CR (Salivation) Classical Conditioning US
- 6. Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning refers to the process that behavior produces certain consequences and how we behave in the future will depend on what these consequences are Learning is a habit through enforcement or reward Reward / Reinforcement Stimulus Response Drive Habit
- 8. Social Learning Theories Observe Mental Picture of the Behavior Outcome (Rewards / Punishments)
- 10. The Learning Process There are five major reasons why people do not learn as effectively as is desirable: 1. They do not recognize an activity as learning – they simply see it as „doing a piece of work‟. 2. They partially see something as involving learning, but fail to use the opportunity fully. 3. An off-the-job learning experience is badly designed and/or implemented 4. The opportunity for learning is provided in a way which fits poorly with the way in which an individual likes to learn. 5. The learning opportunity is not perceived as relevant to the needs of, and benefits sought by, the learner.
- 11. The Learning Cycle Having an experience Concluding Planning Reviewing Since we learn mostly by doing things and then thinking about how we have done them, The learning sequence can be set out as a learning cycle. All designed learning experiences should take people round the cycle in appropriate balance and sequence, and all activities at work which contain learning potential should similarly be analyzed and monitored through each stage of the cycle.
- 12. Preferred ways of Learning • If everyone followed the learning cycle by giving sufficient attention at each stage of the cycle then we would increase the chances of learning effectively. • Effective learning for individuals requires a recognition that one of the reasons why individuals do not learn fully from any particular experience is that it may not match the way in which they like to learn. • Thus the fact is that different people have different reactions to an apparently similar experience which could involve learning. • The individual‟s styles are consistent with the four stages of the learning cycle – so one of the reasons why individuals do not give appropriate attention to each stage of the cycle is that they simply do not like that particular kind of learning
- 14. The Learning Cycle and Styles Activist Having an experience Theorist Concluding From the experience Pragmatist Planning the next steps Reflector Reviewing the experience Doers: Activists & Pragmatists Thinkers: Reflectors & Theorists
- 15. “Doers” learn best from activities where: There are new experiences / problems They can engross themselves in short „here & now‟ activities: role plays, etc. Where they have a lot of visibility They are put into a difficult task without support There is an obvious link between subject matter and opportunity on the job They are shown techniques for doing things with practical advantages currently applicable in their jobs They have the chance to try out and practice techniques with coaching / feedback from a credible expert They can concentrate on practical issues
- 16. “Thinkers” learn best from activities where: They are encouraged to watch / think / chew over activities They are allowed to think before action, to assimilate before commenting They have the opportunity to review what has happened, what they have learned They can reach a decision on their own time without pressure and tight deadlines They have time to explore methodically the associations and inter-relationships between ideas, events and situations They are in structured situations with clear purposes They have a chance to question and probe the basic methodology, assumptions or logic behind something They are intellectually stretched
- 17. Activists • Learns best from relatively short here-and-now tasks • These may be managerial activities on the job or on courses: such as business games and competitive teamwork exercises • They learn less well from situations involving a passive role such as listening to lectures or reading Strengths: Flexible & open minded; Happy to have a go; Happy to be exposed to new situations; Optimistic about anything new and therefore unlikely to resist change. Weaknesses: Tendency to take the immediate obvious action without thinking; Often take unnecessary risks; Tendency to do too much themselves; Rush into action immediately
- 18. Reflectors • Learn best from activities where they are able to stand back, listen and observe. • They like collecting information and being given the opportunity to think about it. • They learn less well when they are rushed into things without the opportunity to learn. Strengths: Careful, thorough, methodical; Thoughtful, rarely jump to conclusions; Good at listening, assimilating information. Weaknesses: Tendency to hold back from participation; Slow to reach a decision; Tendency to be cautious, less risks; Non-assertive – not forthcoming
- 19. Theorists • Learn best when they can review things in terms of a system, a concept, a model or a theory. • They are interested in and absorb ideas even where they may be distant from current reality. • They learn less well from activities presented without this kind of explicit or implicit design. Strengths: Logical „vertical‟ thinkers; Rational and objective; Good at asking probing questions; Disciplined approach. Weaknesses: Restricted in lateral thinking; Low tolerance to uncertainty, disorder and ambiguity; Intolerant of anything subjective or intuitive; Full of „shoulds, oughts and musts‟.
- 20. Pragmatists • Learn best when there is an obvious link between the subject matter and the problem or opportunity on the job. • They like being exposed to techniques or processes which can be applied in their immediate circumstances. • They learn less well from learning events which seem distant from their own reality. “Does it apply to my situation?” Strengths: Keen to test things in practice; Practical, down to earth, realistic; Business like – straight to the point; Technique oriented. Weaknesses: Tendency to reject without an obvious application; Not interested in theory / basic principles; Impatient with what they see as waffle; On balance, task and not people oriented; Tendency to seize first expedient solution
- 21. Strengthening under-utilized styles Learning styles have themselves been learned from experience – hence malleable You are forced to get out of your comfort zone Perseverance will make it more familiar and natural A preferred „doer‟ can practice the thinking styles and vice versa. - you become an all round learner.
- 22. Learning Styles • Learning style results tell us only what we are now in terms of preferred ways of learning; they are not fixed for ever. • They are sometimes affected by the particular context in which an individual works • It is also possible for some people to attempt deliberately to change their moderate or low learning style preferences by changing the behaviours that caused that result. • People learn more and more effectively from work on real problems. • (P)Programmed Knowledge + (Q) Questioning = (L) Learning
- 25. David Kolb: Learning Styles Inventory CONCRETE EXPERIENTIAL ABSTRACT CONCEPTUAL ACTIVE REFLECTIVE EXPERIMENTATION OBSERVER „WHY‟ QUADRANT [35%] Learns by seeking out meaning Connects to values & emotions Seeks outcomes & interaction Build rapport Sell the idea Trainer role: MOTIVATOR „WHAT‟ QUADRANT [22%] Learns by thinking through ideas Seeks facts and is impressed by research Wants to know what the experts thinks Reflects on ideas Usefulness generally irrelevant Information junkies „Teach it like it is ….‟ Trainer role: TEACHER „HOW‟ QUADRANT [18%] Learns by testing theories Needs to know how things work Seeks usability Wants exercises and feedback „Give me an explanation!‟ ‘What’s in it for me?’ ‘What are the facts?’‘How does this work?’ Trainer role: COACH/FACILITATOR „WHAT IF‟ QUADRANT [25%] How is it useful? Learns by trial and error Seeks hidden possibilities Welcomes self discovery How can I make money out of this? ‘Where can I apply this?’ Trainer role: COLLEAGUE
- 26. Preference dimensions Perception dimension In the vertical Perception dimension, people will have a preference along the continuum between: · Concrete experience: Looking at things as they are, without any change, in raw detail. · Abstract conceptualization: Looking at things as concepts and ideas, after a degree of processing that turns the raw detail into an internal model. People who prefer concrete experience will argue that thinking about something changes it, and that direct empirical data is essential. Those who prefer abstraction will argue that meaning is created only after internal processing and that idealism is a more real approach.
- 27. Processing dimension In the horizontal Processing dimension, people will take the results of their Perception and process it in preferred ways along the continuum between: · Active experimentation: Taking what they have concluded and trying it out to prove that it works. · Reflective observation: Taking what they have concluded and watching to see if it works.
- 28. Divergers (Concrete experiencer/Reflective observer) Social Comfort Learner Divergers take experiences and think deeply about them, thus diverging from a single experience to multiple possibilities in terms of what this might mean. They like to ask 'why', and will start from detail to constructively work up to the big picture. They enjoy participating and working with others but they like a calm ship and fret over conflicts. They are generally influenced by other people and like to receive constructive feedback. They like to learn via logical instruction or hands-one exploration with conversations that lead to discovery.
- 29. DIVERGER - Those with highest scores in Concrete Experience (CE) and Reflective Observation (RO). Divergers have characteristics opposite from convergers. Their greatest strengths lie in creativity and imaginative ability. A person with this learning style excels in the ability to view concrete situations from many perspectives and generate many ideas such as in a "brainstorming" session. Research shows that Divergers are interested in people and tend to be imaginative and emotional. They tend to be interested in the arts and often have humanities or liberal arts backgrounds. Counselors, organizational development specialists, and personnel managers tend to be characterized by this learning style.
- 30. Convergers (Abstract conceptualization/Active experimenter) Devil’s Advocate Learner Convergers think about things and then try out their ideas to see if they work in practice. They like to ask 'how' about a situation, understanding how things work in practice. They like facts and will seek to make things efficient by making small and careful changes. They prefer to work by themselves, thinking carefully and acting independently. They learn through interaction and computer-based learning is more effective with them than other methods.
- 31. CONVERGER - Those with highest scores in Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Active Experimentation (AE). This person's greatest strength lies in the practical application of ideas. A person with this style seems to do best in those situations where there is a single correct answer or solution to a question or problem and can focus on specific problems or situations. Research on this style of learning shows that Convergers are relatively unemotional, preferring to deal with things rather than people. They often choose to specialize in the physical sciences, engineering, and computer sciences.
- 32. Accomodators (Concrete experiencer/Active experimenter) Hand’s On Learner Accommodators have the most hands-on approach, with a strong preference for doing rather than thinking. They like to ask 'what if?' and 'why not?' to support their action-first approach. They do not like routine and will take creative risks to see what happens. They like to explore complexity by direct interaction and learn better by themselves than with other people. As might be expected, they like hands-on and practical learning rather than lectures.
- 33. ACCOMMODATOR - Those with highest scores in Concrete Experience (CE) and Active Experimentation (AE). Accommodators are polar opposites form Assimilators. Their greatest strengths lie in carrying out plans and experiments and involving themselves in new experiences. They are risk-takers and excel in those situations requiring quick decisions and adaptations. In situations where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," they tend to discard it and try something else. They often solve problems in an intuitive trial and error manner, relying heavily on other people for information. Accomodators are at ease with people but may be seen as impatient and "pushy." Their educational background is often in practical fields such as business or education. They prefer “action-oriented" jobs such as
- 34. Assimilators (Abstract conceptualizer/Reflective observer) Fact Oriented Learner Assimilators have the most cognitive approach, preferring to think than to act. They ask 'What is there I can know?' and like organized and structured understanding. They prefer lectures for learning, with demonstrations where possible, and will respect the knowledge of experts. They will also learn through conversation that takes a logical and thoughtful approach. They often have a strong control need and prefer the clean and simple predictability of internal models to external messiness. The best way to teach an assimilator is with lectures that start from high-level concepts and work down to the detail. They prefer reading material, like to learn with seriousness rather than play.
- 35. ASSIMILATOR - Those with highest scores in Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Reflective Observation (RO). This person's strength lies in the ability to understand and create theories. A person with this learning style excels in inductive reasoning and in synthesizing various ideas and observations into an integrated whole. This person, like the converger, is less interested in people and more concerned with abstract concepts, but is less concerned with the practical use of theories. For this person it is more important that the theory be logically sound and precise; in a situation where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," the Assimilator would be likely to disregard or re-examine the facts. As a result, this learning style is more characteristic of the basic sciences and mathematics rather than the applied sciences. Assimilators often choose careers involving research and planning.
- 36. Behavior Modification Antecedents & Consequences of Behavior Antecedents • What happens before the behavior Behavior • What the person says or does Cosequences • What happens after the behavior
- 37. Contingencies of Reinforcement Consequence Introduced No Consequence Consequence Removed havior reases s intained Positive Reinforcement Bonus / Praise Negative Reinforcement Stops Criticising havior reases Punishment Demotion / Discharge Extinction Do -Nothing Punishment Removing pleasant consequence
- 38. Applicability Reinforcement ◦ Financial Cash payments, Time off, Paid Vacations ◦ Non-Financial Objective or Performance Feedback ◦ Social Attention, Recognitions, Commendations, Compliments, Praise ◦ Mixed
Editor's Notes
- #3: Singapore Airlines – Applications screened through series of tests & 2 interview. Customer orientation & other competenciesAbout 1 in every 50 selectedTraining for high customer service standards
- #6: Neutral stimuli causes a response through association with natural stimuli.Pavlov – Fundamental researchGuthrie – Developed model
- #7: Watson – Pioneering workThorndike – Law of EffectHull – Drive – Habit Reinforcement
- #8: Tolman – Stimulus-Stimulus connection
- #9: Theory that learning occurs by observing others & modeling behavior that leads to favorable outcomes & avoiding behaviors that lead to punishing consequences.Interaction of Behavioral, cognitive & environmental determinants of behavior.Millar & Dollard – ImitationBandura – Observation / Modelling
- #38: Positive Reinforcement occurs when introduction of consequence increases or maintains behaviorNegative Reinforcement occurs when removal or avoidance of consequence increases or maintains behaviorPunishment occurs when consequence decreases behaviorExtinction occurs when behavior decreases because no consequence follows. Behavior that is not reinforced tends to disappear. Extinction is a “Do-Nothing” strategy
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