7. Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• Explain the chronology for the evolution of Internet of Things
(IoT)
• Relate new concepts with concepts learned earlier to make a
smooth transition to IoT
• List the reasons for a prevailing universal networked paradigm,
which is IoT
• Compare and correlate IoT with its precursors such as WSN,
M2M ( Machine to Machine Communication), and CPS ( Cyber
Physical System )
• List the various enablers of IoT
• Understand IoT networking components and various networking
topologies
• Recognize the unique features of IoT which set it apart from other
similar paradigms
8. Introduction
• The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given
rise to the popular paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT).
• Each second, the present-day Internet allows massively
heterogeneous traffic through it.
• This network traffic consists of images, videos, music, speech,
text, numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking messages, data
from sensors and actuators, health care data, data from vehicles,
home automation system status and control messages, military
communications, and many more.
• The total number of connected devices globally is estimated to be
around 25billion.
11. • IoT may be considered to be made up of connecting devices,
machines, and tools; these things are made up of
sensors/actuators and processors, which connect to the Internet
through wireless technologies.
• Another school of thought also considers wired Internet access
to be inherent to the IoT paradigm.
• For the sake of harmony, we will consider any technology
enabling access to the Internet—be it wired or wireless—to be
an IoT enabling technology.
• Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following
features
• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes,
mobile devices, and non-IP devices.
• Intermittent (infrequent) and often unstable connectivity
12. • IoT is speculated to have achieved faster and higher
technology acceptance as compared to electricity and
telephony.
• These speculations are not ill placed as evident from the
various statistics shown in Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5
16. • Figure 4.7 shows the various technological interdependencies
of IoT with other domains and networking paradigms such as
M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IoE), the Internet of
people (IoP), and Industry 4.0.
• Each of these networking paradigms is a massive domain on its
own, but the omnipresent nature of IoT implies that these
domains act as subsets of IoT.
17. M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a
system of connected machines and devices, which can talk
amongst themselves without human intervention.
• The communication between the machines can be for updates
on machine status (stocks, health, power status, and others),
collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of the systems
and the environment, and others.
• CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a
closed control loop—from sensing, processing, and finally to
actuation—using a feedback mechanism.
• CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through
the feedback control loop, which ensures that until the desired
state is attained, the system keeps on actuating and sensing.
• Humans have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems;
most of the ground-level operations are automated
18. IoE: Internet of environment The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with
minimizing and even reversing the ill-effects of the spreading of
Internet-based technologies on the environment.
• The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable
farming, sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy
efficiency of systems and processes, and others.
• In brief, we can safely assume that any aspect of IoT that concerns and
affects the environment, falls under the purview of IoE.
Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth
industrial revolution pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing
industry.
• The previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization,
mass production, and the industrial revolution, respectively.
• This paradigm strongly puts forward the concept of smart factories,
where machines talk to one another without much human involvement
based on a framework of CPS and IoT.
• The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better
resource and workforce management, optimization of production time
and resources, and better upkeep and lifetimes of industrial systems.
19. IoP: Internet of people IoP is a new technological movement on
the Internet which aims to decentralize online social
interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks while
maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data.
•A famous site for IoP states that as the introduction of the
Bitcoin has severely limited the power of banks and
governments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power of
corporations, governments, and their spy agencies.
21. M2M (Machine-to-Machine)
Definition: M2M refers to the communication and data exchange between two or more
machines without human intervention.
Focus: Primarily focused on direct communication between devices for specific tasks or
monitoring.
Applications: Industrial automation, remote monitoring (e.g., temperature, pressure),
asset tracking, and telematics.
Connectivity: Often uses dedicated networks or cellular connections.
IoT (Internet of Things)
Definition: IoT is a broader concept that involves the interconnection of physical
devices, vehicles, and other objects embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and
network connectivity.
Focus: Beyond direct device communication, IoT aims to create interconnected
ecosystems where devices can interact, collect data, and perform actions based on that
data.
Applications: Smart homes, smart cities, wearables, healthcare, agriculture, and
manufacturing.
Connectivity: Primarily relies on the internet for communication and data exchange.
22. Feature M2M IoT
Scope
Limited to direct device
communication
Broader, encompassing
interconnected
ecosystems
Connectivity
Dedicated networks or
cellular
Internet
Applications
Industrial automation,
remote monitoring
Smart homes, cities,
wearables, etc.
Data Analysis
Basic data collection and
processing
Complex data analytics
and decision-making
Key Differences
Relationship Between M2M and IoT
• While M2M is a subset of IoT, IoT encompasses a wider range of applications
and functionalities.
• M2M provides the foundation for IoT by enabling devices to communicate
and share data.
• IoT then leverages this connectivity to create more complex and intelligent
systems.
In essence, M2M focuses on the "how" of device communication, while IoT
focuses on the "what" and "why" of connected devices.
24. CPS (Cyber-Physical Systems)
Definition: CPS is a system that integrates computing and networking
technologies with physical processes to monitor and control physical
entities.
Focus: On the interaction between the physical and digital worlds, enabling
real-time monitoring, control, and decision-making.
Applications: Robotics, autonomous vehicles, smart grids, industrial
automation, and healthcare.
Key components: Physical processes, embedded computers, sensors,
actuators, and communication networks.
IoT (Internet of Things)
Definition: IoT refers to the interconnection of physical devices, vehicles, and
other objects embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network
connectivity.
Focus: Primarily on connecting physical objects to the internet for data
collection, sharing, and remote control.
Applications: Smart homes, smart cities, wearables, healthcare, agriculture,
and manufacturing.
Key components: Physical devices, sensors, network connectivity, and data
analytics.
25. Feature IoT CPS
Focus Connecting physical objects
to the internet
Integration of physical and
digital processes
Applications
Broader range (smart
homes, wearables, etc.)
More specialized (robotics,
autonomous vehicles)
Control
Remote monitoring and
control
Real-time monitoring,
control, and decision-
making
Complexity Generally less complex
More complex due to the
integration of physical and
digital components
Key Differences
Relationship Between IoT and CPS
While IoT and CPS are distinct concepts, they are often intertwined in real-
world applications. IoT devices can be components of CPS, providing data for
monitoring and control. CPS can also be used to implement IoT solutions,
such as smart grids and autonomous vehicles.
In essence, IoT provides the connectivity and data infrastructure, while CPS
focuses on the integration and control of physical processes.
27. WoT (Web of Things)
Definition: WoT is a framework that enables seamless interaction between
physical objects and the web, allowing them to be addressed, discovered,
and controlled using web technologies.
Focus: On integrating physical objects into the web ecosystem, making them
accessible and controllable through web-based interfaces.
Applications: Smart homes, industrial automation, and IoT applications that
require web-based interaction.
Key components: Web protocols (HTTP, REST, Web Sockets), semantic web
technologies, and device APIs.
IoT (Internet of Things)
Definition: IoT refers to the interconnection of physical devices, vehicles, and
other objects embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network
connectivity.
Focus: Primarily on connecting physical objects to the internet for data collection,
sharing, and remote control.
Applications: Smart homes, smart cities, wearables, healthcare, agriculture, and
manufacturing.
Key components: Physical devices, sensors, network connectivity, and data
analytics.
28. Feature IoT WoT
Focus
Connecting physical
objects to the internet
Integrating physical
objects into the web
Web integration Indirect (through APIs
or gateways)
Direct (using web
protocols)
Standardization Less standardized
More standardized
(e.g., W3C standards)
Interoperability Can be challenging
More focused on
interoperability
Key Differences
Relationship Between IoT and WoT
WoT can be considered a subset of IoT, specifically focused on the
integration of physical objects with the web. IoT encompasses a broader
range of applications, while WoT provides a framework for enabling
seamless interaction between physical objects and web-based systems.
In essence, IoT provides the foundation for connecting physical objects,
while WoT provides the tools and standards for integrating them into
the web ecosystem.
30. 4.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies
• IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of
technologies (both legacy and modern), which occur at various planes of
this paradigm.
• As shown in Figure 4.8, we can divide the IoT paradigm into four
planes:
(1) Services plane
(2) Local connectivity plane
(3) Global connectivity plane
(4) Processing plane
32. • If we consider a bottom-up view, the services offered fall under the
control and purview of service providers.
•The service plane is composed of two parts: a) things or devices
and b)low-power connectivity
a. Things or devices: The things may be wearable, computers,
smartphones, household appliances, smart glasses, factory machinery,
vending machines, vehicles, robotics, etc
b. Low-power connectivity:
• The low-power and low-range connectivity is used to connect the
things in local implementation.
• Commonly use such as WiFi, Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA,
DASH, Insteon, and others.
• The range of these connectivity technologies is severely restricted;
• They are responsible for the connectivity between the things of the IoT
and the nearest hub or gateway to access the Internet.
33. 2. Local connectivity:
• It is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple local IoT
deployments.
• This distribution may be based on the physical placement of the things,
based on the application domains, or even based on providers of services.
• Services such as address management, device management, security,
sleep schedule, and others fall within the scope of this plan.
• The local connectivity plane falls under the purview of IoT management
as it directly deals with strategies to use/reuse addresses based on things
and applications.
3. Global connectivity:
•This Plane plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense by
allowing for worldwide implementations and connectivity between things,
users, controllers, and applications.
•This plane also falls under the purview of IoT management as it decides
how and when to store data, when to process it, when to forward it, and
in which form to forward it.
•The Web, data centers, remote servers, Cloud, and others make up this
34. 4. The processing plane
• It can be considered a top-up of the basic IoT networking framework.
• The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various
application areas such as industries, transportation, healthcare, and
others is the result of this plane.
• The members in this plane are IoT tools.
• The various sub-domains of this plane include intelligence, data
conversion, learning cognition, algorithms, visualization, and analysis of
various computing paradigms such as “big data”, “machine learning”, and
others, which fall within the scope of this domain.
38. 4.4 IoT Networking Components
• An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may
vary with their application domains.
• Various established works such as that by Savolainen et al. [2] generally
outline five broad categories of IoT networking components.
• However, we outline the broad components that come into play during
the establishment of any IoT network, into six types:
1) IoT node,
2) IoT router,
3) IoT LAN,
4) IoT WAN,
5) IoT gateway, and
6) IoT proxy.
39. A typical IoT implementation from a networking perspective is shown
in Figure 4.9.
40. (i) IoT Node:
• These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN.
• Each of these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor,
and a radio.
•The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly
or using a common gateway for that LAN.
(ii) IoT Router:
• An IoT router is a networking equipment that the routing of
packets between various entities in the IoT network, it keeps the
traffic flowing correctly within the network.
(iii) IoT LAN:
•The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity like within
a building or an organization.
•Typically consist of short-range connectivity technologies.
• IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet.
41. (iv) IoT WAN:
• The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments
such as LANs.
• They are typically organizationally and geographically wide, with
their operational range lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of
kilometers.
(v) IoT Gateway:
• An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a
WAN or the Internet.
• Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.
• Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs.
(vi) IoT Proxy:
• Proxies actively lie on the application layer and perform application
layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities.
• Typically, application layer proxies are a means of providing
security to the network entities under it.
![4.4 IoT Networking Components
• An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may
vary with their application domains.
• Various established works such as that by Savolainen et al. [2] generally
outline five broad categories of IoT networking components.
• However, we outline the broad components that come into play during
the establishment of any IoT network, into six types:
1) IoT node,
2) IoT router,
3) IoT LAN,
4) IoT WAN,
5) IoT gateway, and
6) IoT proxy.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter4finalmodule1-250401061946-ab3e4da8/85/Chapter-4_Final_Module-1-pptx-cloud-comp-38-320.jpg)
