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- 1. Communication via Printed Media 2. Communication Essentials Hasan Hüseyin Erkaya Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi 2019 Source: Creative Commons, a Primer for Communication Studies, https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on- communication-studies/index.html 1
- 2. 2. Communication Essentials Questions: • How did humans develop the ability to communicate? • Are humans the only creatures on earth that communicate? • What purpose does communication serve in our lives? • Why do I have to communicate? 2
- 3. 2. Communication Essentials One of 126 Definitions of Communication: • The process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts. Study of communication • Dates back to Ancient Greeks • Departments at universities have been established about 100 years ago 3
- 4. 2. Communication Essentials History: • Some speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic; words that sound like that to which they refer—words like boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack. • This ability to communicate gave them an advantage: They could talk, cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also more predisposed to communicate • This eventually led to a “Talking Culture” during the “Talking Era.” From 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication, aside from gestures. 4
- 5. 2. Communication Essentials History: • The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, • To plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, farmers needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions. • Leaders, businessman, clergy, philosophers emerged; they got interested in writing 5
- 6. 2. Communication Essentials History: • “Manuscript Era” lasted about 5000 years—the most privileged in society knew how to read and write (after 1800 CE, literacy rate increased) • New communication technologies brought the “Print Era” (1450 to 1850) by the invention of the printing press (mass production of texts) • New communication technologies (radio, telegraph, telephone, and television) led to “Audiovisual Era,” (1850 to 1990) • Digital technology: the “Internet Era,” (from 1990 to the present) 6
- 7. 2. Communication Essentials History: • The oldest essay and book ever found were written about communication • Aristotle and other Ancient Greek philosophers wrote on communication. They focused on the art of rhetoric, which refers to speaking well and persuasively, and the importance of being an ethical rhetor, or communicator • Roman orators wrote on rhetoric. Cicero: Rhetoric = invention + arrangement + style + delivery +memory. 7
- 8. 2. Communication Essentials History: • Invention: the use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways • Arrangement: the organization of speech • Style: the use of language • Delivery: the vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker. • Memory: the techniques to retain and then repeat large amounts of information. 8
- 9. 2. Communication Essentials History: • The Age of Enlightenment in the 1700s: – a societal turn toward scientific discovery and the acquisition of knowledge, – an explosion of philosophical and scientific writings on many aspects of human existence. • This focus on academic development continued into the 1900s and the establishment of distinct communication studies departments. • Early1900s: professors of communication worked in rhetoric or English departments and sometimes called “professors of speech.” Tension between professors of wring and professors of speech 9
- 10. 2. Communication Essentials Forms of Communication • Depends on participants, channels used, and contexts. • There are five main forms of communication: – Intrapersonal communication – Interpersonal communication – Group communication – Public communication – Mass communication 10
- 11. 2. Communication Essentials Intrapersonal Communication • Communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. • Triggered by some internal or external stimulus. • Takes place only inside our heads. • Can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment • Helps build and maintain our self-concept • Can help to let off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future • Helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-being. • Inability to self-talk could mean mental illness. 11
- 12. 2. Communication Essentials Interpersonal Communication • Communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. • It builds, maintains, and ends our relationships • It occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields – intercultural communication, – organizational communication, – health communication, – computer-mediated communication • It can be planned or unplanned; interactive, it is usually structured and influenced by social expectations 12
- 13. 2. Communication Essentials Interpersonal Communication • More goal oriented; fulfills instrumental and relational needs. • Meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. • Since it deals directly with personal relationships it is subject to miscommunication and communication conflict. • To be a good interpersonal communicator, conflict management skills and listening skills are needed. 13
- 14. 2. Communication Essentials Group Communication • Communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. • It is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. • It is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. • Goal-oriented group communication usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole group. • Elements of interpersonal communication occur within group communication too. 14
- 15. 2. Communication Essentials Public Communication • A sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience • The most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication • The formality and focus on the sender make many new and experienced public speakers anxious before an audience. • Being face-to-face with the audience, the speaker can get some verbal and nonverbal feedback from the audience. 15
- 16. 2. Communication Essentials Mass Communication • Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. • Print media: newspapers and magazines and alike • Electronic media: radio, television, internet (podcasts, websites, blogs, and social media) • It is highly intentional; the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. • Could be live or recorded • No personal connection between participants. There is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass communication. 16
- 17. 2. Communication Essentials Transmission Model of Communication • Communication: a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a • Focuses on the sender and message • Receiver: a target or end point • The sender sends the message but would not konw if the receiver got it 17
- 18. 2. Communication Essentials The Transmission Model of Communication sender receiver channel ‘‘Hello!’’ = message encoding decoding noise noise 18
- 19. 2. Communication Essentials Transmission Model of Communication • Falls short of explaining face-to-face communication • There are barriers to effective communication: Noise 19
- 20. 2. Communication Essentials Interaction Model of Communication • Communication: a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts. • An interactive two-way process with feedback • Feedback: messages sent in response to other messages. • Less message focused; more interaction focused • Acknowledges: some messages may not even be received; some messages are also unintentionally sent. 20
- 21. 2. Communication Essentials The Interaction Model of Communication sender-receiver sender-receiver channel ‘‘How are you?’’ = message encoding decoding noise noise decoding encoding feedback channel ‘‘Fine, thank you.’’ = message feedback channel physical context psychological context 21
- 22. 2. Communication Essentials Interaction Model of Communication • Takes physical and psychological context into account • Physical context includes the environmental factors • Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors 22
- 23. 2. Communication Essentials The Transaction Model of Communication • Communication: more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. • The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context. • Communication is integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand them but also create and change them. • Communication is a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. 23
- 24. 2. Communication Essentials The Transaction Model of Communication • We communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. • We don’t communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities. • Participants are not senders and receivers; they are communicators • The transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters 24
- 25. 2. Communication Essentials Transaction Model of Communication communicator communicator co-creation of meaning physical and psychological context socialcontext relational context culturalcontext 25
- 26. 2. Communication Essentials The Transaction Model of Communication • Social context: the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication • Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error • Relational context: the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship between communicators. • Cultural context: various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. 26
- 27. 2. Communication Essentials Communication Principles • Communication is integrated into all parts of our lives: academic, pro • fessional, personal, and civic lives • Academic: – Good communication skills can help you succeed in academic settings and set you up for success postgraduation. • Professional: – Good communication skills are necessary for functioning in entry-level jobs, including listening, writing, motivating/persuading, interpersonal skills, informational interviewing, and small-group problem solving – Employers appreciate good listening skills and the ability to communicate concisely because efficiency and clarity are often directly tied to productivity and success in terms of profit or task/project completion 27
- 28. 2. Communication Essentials Communication Principles • Personal: – Communication forms, maintains, and ends our interpersonal relationships • Civic: – Communication helps to make a difference in our communities by • improving the quality of life of community members; • raising awareness about social, cultural, or political issues; or • participating in a wide variety of political and nonpolitical processes – 2,400 years ago, Aristotle wrote that it is through our voice, our ability to communicate, that we engage with the world around us, participate in our society, and become a “virtuous citizen.” 28
- 29. 2. Communication Essentials Communication Meets Needs • Communication is far more than the transmission of information • Physical Needs – Physical needs include needs that keep our bodies and minds functioning. – Communication happens with our brain, mouth, eyes, and ears, actually has many more connections to and effects on our physical body and well-being. – Communication can tell others that our physical needs are not met. – There are strong ties between the social function of communication and our physical and psychological health – Communication can help us thrive. Better communication, less stress, depression and anxiety 29
- 30. 2. Communication Essentials Communication Meets Needs • Instrumental Needs – include needs that help us get things done in our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and long-term goals. – Fulfilling these goals is an ongoing communicative task, which means we spend much of our time communicating for instrumental needs. – Some instrumental needs include influencing others, getting information we need, or getting support. – Communication that meets our instrumental needs helps us “get things done.” – Imagine the communication process involved in building a house. 30
- 31. 2. Communication Essentials Communication Meets Needs • Relational Needs – include needs that help us maintain social bonds and interpersonal relationships. – Communicating for relational needs helps us achieve the social relating that is an essential part of being human. – Communication meets our relational needs by giving us a tool through which to develop, maintain, and end relationships. – Communicating for relational needs isn’t always positive. Some people’s “relational needs” are negative, unethical, or even illegal. Although we may feel the “need” to be passive aggressive or controlling, these communicative patterns are not positive and can hurt our relationships. 31
- 32. 2. Communication Essentials Communication Meets Needs • Identity Needs – include our need to present ourselves to others and be thought of in particular and desired ways. – Our identity changes as we progress through life, but communication is the primary means of establishing our identity and fulfilling our identity needs. – Communication allows us to present ourselves to others in particular ways. – We desire to present different faces in different contexts. We all perform different roles in different contexts. 32
- 33. 2. Communication Essentials Communication is a Process • an interchange of verbal and/or nonverbal messages within a continuous and dynamic sequence of events. • no distinct beginning, end or predetermined sequence of events • Messages vary in terms of the amount of conscious thought that goes into their creation. In general, intentional communication usually includes more conscious thought and unintentional communication usually includes less • The communication process is dynamic, irreversible and unrepeatable 33
- 34. 2. Communication Essentials Communication is Guided by Culture and Context • Context is a dynamic component of the communication process. • Culture and context influence how we perceive and define communication. • Western culture tends to put more value on senders than receivers and on the content rather the context of a message. • These cultural values are reflected in our definitions and models of communication. • People are socialized from birth to communication in culturally specific ways that vary by context. 34
- 35. 2. Communication Essentials Communication is Learned • We are born with the capacity and ability to communicate, but everyone communicates differently. This is because communication is learned rather than innate. • Communication patterns depends on the context and culture • Many cultures have distinct languages consisting of symbols • Communication is symbolic in that the words that make up our language systems do not directly correspond to something in reality • All symbolic communication is learned, negotiated, and dynamic • We are all socialized into different languages, but we also speak different “languages” based on the situation we are in. 35
- 36. 2. Communication Essentials Rules and Norms • Social context and the rules and norms associated with social context affect our communication. • Verbal, nonverbal, mediated, or interpersonal, our communication is guided by rules and norms. • “Phatic communion” (spoken connection) refers to scripted and routine verbal interactions that are intended to establish social bonds rather than actually exchange meaning. (E.g. Greeting somebody in the hallway) • When and how we engage in phatic communion are influenced by norms and rules 36
- 37. 2. Communication Essentials Communication has Ethical Implications • Ethics deals with our beliefs about what is right and wrong, but the choice is often not as clear-cut • “Communication ethics” deals with the process of negotiating and reflecting on our actions and communication regarding what we believe to be right and wrong. • Aristotle: “In the arena of human life the honors and rewards fall to those who show their good qualities in action.” • Aristotle: we should act “to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way.” This quote connects to communication competence, which focuses on communicating effectively and appropriately 37
- 38. 2. Communication Essentials National Communication Association (of USA) has principles: • We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society. • We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through the expression of intolerance and hatred. • We are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice. • We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of others. 38
- 39. Next Presentation: 3. Communication Essentials (Part 2) 39
- 40. 40 Thanks for your attention Hasan Hüseyin Erkaya Eskişehir Osmangazi University February 2019 40