![34. Match the following file types to their description.
I. Sockets A. Unbuffered files used to exchange data
II. Character devices B. Virtual connections between two processes
III. Named pipes C. Provide a FIFO mechanism
IV. Block devices D. Buffered files used to exchange data
Answer: B A C D Reference: File Systems Difficulty: Difficult
35. Match the type of directory to its definition.
I. /lib A. Where files with no names are placed
II. /etc B. Contains information on printers, log files, and transient data
III. /lost+found C. Could be a rich source of evidence if not recently cleaned
IV. /var D. Library files
V. /tmp E. Contains shadow password files
Answer: D E A B C Reference: System Directories Difficulty: Difficult
36. Match the following GREP tokens with their related functions.
I. * A. Used to match the ASCII hexadecimal representation of a single character
II. xHH B. Implements an OR situation
III. [] C. When placed after a character, matches any number of occurrences of that character
IV. . D. Matches a single character
Answer: C A B D Reference: Using Grep to Search File Contents Difficulty: Difficult
37. Match the hex signature with its file extension.
I. 00 00 01 00 A. BMP
II. FF D8 FF E1 xx xx 45 78 69 66 00 B. ICO
III. 42 4D C. PNG
IV. 89 50 4E 47 0D 0A 1A 0A D. JPEG
Answer: B D A C Reference: File Signatures Difficulty: Difficult](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/8837-250531000659-deed0aad/85/Computer-Forensics-Principles-and-Practices-1st-Edition-Volonino-Test-Bank-11-320.jpg)
![has been considered one of the greatest of organ players. After a
successful career in England, he came to America in 1880. He did
much towards popularizing and elevating the art of organ playing in
this country. Prominent among contemporary English organists
stands Edwin H. Lemare (1865-——), who succeeded Frederic
Archer as organist of Carnegie Hall, Pittsburg, in 1902. He is a skilful
virtuoso, a composer of originality, and a leading representative of
the modern English school.
Modern Organ Music.—Organ playing and composition have
kept pace with the mechanical and artistic evolution of the
instrument, and the lines between the various schools are becoming
less closely drawn. The tendency of builders to imitate orchestral
tone and effects has had influence on composers and players alike.
This tendency is less noticeable in the works of the German school,
where a modified polyphony still flourishes, based on the principle of
the classic treatment of the chorale and growing out of the music of
the Lutheran Church. The organ compositions of the modern French
school are characterized by grace, refinement and originality,
coupled with a certain dignity and elegance. They combine free
harmonic treatment and modern polyphony, together with certain
ornate characteristics, growing out of the elaborate ceremonial
music of the Latin Church, and bringing into play all the resources of
tone color and expressive treatment of the modern instrument. Much
the same may be said of the modern English school, which
nevertheless still shows traces of the early English style, based on
the dignity and purity of cathedral use and tradition. The orchestral
tendency, both in composition for the organ and in the transcription
of orchestral works for the instrument, shows itself more or less in
all schools, and the organ, in addition to its position in the church, is
becoming more and more a concert instrument. The compositions of
the American organists reflect, in a measure, the characteristics of
the schools in which they have been trained, and in particular show
traces of the styles of the masters with whom they have chiefly
studied.[9]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/8837-250531000659-deed0aad/85/Computer-Forensics-Principles-and-Practices-1st-Edition-Volonino-Test-Bank-34-320.jpg)
![Part of an Air by Caccini.
[Listen.]
Caccini claimed the new style as his invention, and it is certain
that parts of Euridice were composed by him, though Peri’s name
alone appears on the title page of the published work. Emulating the
success of his colleague, the former soon set the same drama to
music.
Characteristics of the Early Opera.—The two settings are so
similar that one might almost be taken for the other. Both display the
same characteristics. Of dramatic feeling or characterization as
understood at the present day there is no sign; development of
musical thought, none whatever; a dreary waste of recitatives is but
slightly relieved by the occasional flourishes (giri e gruppi, that is,
runs and turns) allowed the singers by the taste of the times. The
choruses, however, which are introduced freely, serve to vary the
monotony somewhat. They exhibit a singular mingling of the old and
new styles, natural under the circumstances. The voices sing either
in a recitative-like unison, or begin in fugato, and later move in
simple harmonic progression. Their distaste for the contrapuntal
style led these reformers to reject it so far as they could. Its
appearance at all is due to the fact that no other mode of writing for](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/8837-250531000659-deed0aad/85/Computer-Forensics-Principles-and-Practices-1st-Edition-Volonino-Test-Bank-43-320.jpg)
Computer Forensics Principles and Practices 1st Edition Volonino Test Bank
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- 5. CHAPTER 7: INVESTIGATING WINDOWS, LINUX, AND GRAPHIC FILES Multiple Choice: 1. Examples of user data include all of the following EXCEPT A. User passwords B. User profiles C. Program files D. Temp files Answer: A Reference: Investigating Windows Systems Difficulty: Easy 2. In an NTFS system, by default, which of the following have access to files and folders not uniquely theirs? A. Each user in the Group folder B. Only those users in the Users folder C. Each user who successfully logs in D. Only the user assigned to those resources Answer: D Reference: Separation of Duties Difficulty: Moderate 3. All of the following are key differences in identifying an operating system EXCEPT A. The Recycle Bin folder B. Operating system folder names C. User root folder construction D. Folders containing group userids Answer: D Reference: Identifying the Operating System Difficulty: Moderate of a Target Hard Drive
- 6. 4. Which of the following is the primary default folder in Windows 2000 and XP? A. Documents and Settings B. My Documents C. User Root D. My Computer Answer: A Reference: Documents and Settings Folder Difficulty: Moderate 5. The user root folder may contain all of the following EXCEPT A. Internet data B. Application parameters C. Wallpaper D. Registry settings Answer: D Reference: User Root Folder Difficulty: Difficult 6. Sources of e-evidence within Windows subfolders can include all of the following EXCEPT A. Pointers to Office files B. Listing of programs on the Quick Launch bar C. Pointers to Internet Favorites D. The user’s address book Answer: C Reference: Application Data Folder Difficulty: Moderate 7. In a forensics context, hidden information about files and folders is called A. Artifact data B. Metadata C. Archive data D. Read-only data Answer: B Reference: Metadata Difficulty: Moderate
- 7. 8. All configuration information needed by the operating may be located in which of the following? A. System folder B. Configuration file C. Autoexec.bat file D. Registry hives Answer: D Reference: Registry Difficulty: Moderate 9. When you send a job to the printer, Windows creates a(n) A. Enhanced metafile (EMF) B. Enhanced image file (IMF) C. Temporary print file (TPF) D. Tagged image format file (TIFF) Answer: A Reference: Print Spool Difficulty: Moderate 10. Which of the following is NOT one of the file types available within Linux? A. Block devices B. Directories C. Named pipes D. Superblock Answer: D Reference: File Systems Difficulty: Moderate 11. Which of the following is one of the default directories created when installing Linux? A. /setup B. /default C. /bin D. /swap Answer: C Reference: System Directories Difficulty: Moderate
- 8. 12. Which of the following is considered an excellent source to obtain information on when passwords were last changed within a Linux system? A. /etc/sysconfig B. /etc/shadow/passwd C. /etc/shadow D. /etc Answer: C Reference: Key Linux Files and Directories to Investigate Difficulty: Moderate 13. If you change a file extension by renaming the file, A. You also change the data in the file B. You will not be able to open the file C. Windows will change the icon that represents the file D. You also change the data header Answer: C Reference: File Signatures Difficulty: Moderate 14. In steganography, the original file that contains the hidden information is the A. Steganographic carrier B. Carrier medium C. Hiding medium D. Concealing medium Answer: B Reference: Steganography Difficulty: Moderate 15. Clues that may indicate stego use include all of the following EXCEPT A. The sophistication of the computer’s owner B. Software clues on the computer C. Type of crime being investigated D. Large number of files in the Recycle Bin Answer: D Reference: Steganography Difficulty: Moderate
- 9. Fill in the Blank: 16. System data and artifacts are files generated by the ________. Answer: operating system Reference: Investigating Windows Systems Difficulty: Moderate 17. Files are first loaded into a(n) ________ before being printed. Answer: buffer Reference: Investigating Windows Systems Difficulty: Difficult 18. A(n) ________ is created by the computer for each user. Answer: userid Reference: Data and User Authentication Weaknesses of FAT Difficulty: Moderate 19. A(n) ________ is designed as a hierarchical listing of folders and files. Answer: directory tree structure Reference: Identifying the Operating System Difficulty: Moderate of a Target Hard Drive 20. The ________ folder is used by Internet sites to store information about the user. Answer: Cookies Reference: Cookies Folder Difficulty: Moderate 21. The ________ subfolder lists the files that the user has accessed over several time periods. Answer: History Reference: Local Settings Folder Difficulty: Moderate 22. The ________ folder generally contains information concerning the programs the user typically works with. Answer: Start Menu Reference: Start Menu Folder Difficulty: Moderate 23. One application of metadata used by Windows is an uncommon storage concept called ________. Answer: alternate data streams Reference: Metadata Difficulty: Difficult 24. Windows NT and higher changed the registry to a mixture of several files referred to as ________. Answer: hives Reference: Registry Difficulty: Moderate 25. The ________ tracks those actions deemed as events by the software application. Answer: application log Reference: Event Logs Difficulty: Easy 26. By default, the ________ is used as virtual memory. Answer: swap file (or page file) Reference: Swap File/Page File Difficulty: Moderate 27. The ________ command gives Linux users the ability to perform administrative duties, which require a separate password for each user. Answer: sudo Reference: Investigating Linux Systems Difficulty: Moderate
- 10. 28. In Linux, everything—including all devices, partitions, and folders—is seen as a unified ________. Answer: file system Reference: Investigating Linux Systems Difficulty: Moderate 29. ________ are used to determine where data starts and ends when graphic files are located in unallocated or slack space. Answer: File signatures Reference: Graphic File Forensics Difficulty: Moderate 30. The process of retrieving image data from unallocated or slack space is called ________. Answer: data carving (or salvaging) Reference: Data Carving Difficulty: Moderate Matching: 31. Match the following to their definitions. I. User profiles A. Internet history files II. Program files B. Installed applications III. Temp files C. Though used only briefly, they are not deleted IV. Application-level files D. Data created by a user Answer: D B C A Reference: Terms throughout the chapter Difficulty: Moderate 32. Match the following keys to their hive file. I. HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT A. Default II. HKEY_USERS.Default B. System III. HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESAM C. SAM IV. HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG D. Software Answer: D A C B Reference: Registry Difficulty: Difficult 33. Match the following to their data structures. I. Data block A. Contain metadata for each file II. Inodes B. Unit of allocation for storage III. Dentry object C. Created for every file system mounted IV. Superblock D. Contains information about the directory structure Answer: B A D C Reference: File Systems Difficulty: Moderate
- 11. 34. Match the following file types to their description. I. Sockets A. Unbuffered files used to exchange data II. Character devices B. Virtual connections between two processes III. Named pipes C. Provide a FIFO mechanism IV. Block devices D. Buffered files used to exchange data Answer: B A C D Reference: File Systems Difficulty: Difficult 35. Match the type of directory to its definition. I. /lib A. Where files with no names are placed II. /etc B. Contains information on printers, log files, and transient data III. /lost+found C. Could be a rich source of evidence if not recently cleaned IV. /var D. Library files V. /tmp E. Contains shadow password files Answer: D E A B C Reference: System Directories Difficulty: Difficult 36. Match the following GREP tokens with their related functions. I. * A. Used to match the ASCII hexadecimal representation of a single character II. xHH B. Implements an OR situation III. [] C. When placed after a character, matches any number of occurrences of that character IV. . D. Matches a single character Answer: C A B D Reference: Using Grep to Search File Contents Difficulty: Difficult 37. Match the hex signature with its file extension. I. 00 00 01 00 A. BMP II. FF D8 FF E1 xx xx 45 78 69 66 00 B. ICO III. 42 4D C. PNG IV. 89 50 4E 47 0D 0A 1A 0A D. JPEG Answer: B D A C Reference: File Signatures Difficulty: Difficult
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- 13. LESSON XV. Musical Instruments. Classification of Instruments.—The means for the production of musical sound are few in number, and of such universality and antiquity that we cannot say when, how, or by whom they were invented. Modern skill has not added one new means, but has simply improved the contrivances by which musical sound is produced. We can, however, trace the evolution and growth of the various instruments with considerable accuracy, and to this end it is of the utmost importance to have a clear understanding of the principles upon which musical instruments are constructed, in order to avoid bewilderment among the endless variety that have been and are yet made. All instruments may be divided into three general classes: Percussion Instruments, Wind Instruments, Stringed Instruments. The Percussion Instruments are the instruments of rhythm. In this class are included all instruments used for this purpose. It is universally admitted that rhythm is the very basis of music, without which it is vague and meaningless. Possibly the physical fact that lies behind rhythm is the tendency of all repeated muscular action to become regular; witness the blows of the hammer on the anvil, or the carpenter driving in a nail. The psychologic reason is that when the will has set a certain muscular action in motion, it leaves the carrying out of the command to some subordinate function, so long as it is continuous; but if the continuity is to be interrupted, the will must again exert itself; hence, drumbeating and rattle shaking must of necessity be rhythmic. Nearly all savages have dances of various
- 14. kinds. Varieties of drum rhythms arise from the almost universal custom of accompanying dances with drums and rattles. Varieties of Percussion Instruments.—Percussion instruments are almost endless in variety. The most primitive example is that of a hollow log beaten with a war-club by some prehistoric savage. The next step leads to the hollow gourd or other hollow body, across the open end of which is stretched the dried membrane of some wild animal. From these descend all the long line of drums of all sorts, ending with the modern orchestral kettle-drums (tympani) which, by means of a mechanism for changing the tension of their parchment heads, may be tuned in various keys. Percussion instruments of metal are of very ancient origin. In this category are included cymbals of various sizes and shapes, gongs of all sorts, and later, bells and triangles. Comparatively few of the percussion instruments emit sounds of any definite pitch. They were and are to a great extent noise-producing, used for the purpose of marking rhythms. Wind Instruments: Vibrating Column of Air in a Tube.— The next step in advance of noise-producing instruments is the discovery of means for the production of musical sound, which differs from noise in the possession of definite pitch. This leads to a consideration of the wind instruments that produce sound by means of a vibrating column of air enclosed in a tube. This is an important class and has several subdivisions, as will be seen. The simplest form of the wind instrument is the plain tube, producing a single sound when blown across the top. A series of such tubes fastened together side by side constitutes the Syrinx or Pan’s pipe, an instrument known over all the world from the remotest ages. This is thought to be the instrument mentioned in Genesis with the Hebrew name Ugab—translated organ, in the verse: “Jubal was the father of all such as handle the harp or the organ.” It is generally believed by scholars that the Pandean Pipe or Syrinx is the oldest of musical instruments; but long before a sufficient advance had been made to bind together several reeds giving different sounds, the discovery was made that sound might be produced in this way. Some
- 15. prehistoric man found it out, perhaps by blowing across the top of a hollow bone. A whistle of this kind, of prehistoric make, bored from one of the bones of a reindeer’s foot, was found in a bone cave in France. It may have been used as a signal, and we may imagine that it may have guided a troop of palæolithic hunters in the chase of the mammoth or rhinoceros, when these animals still roamed over the plains of Europe. A Tube Pierced with Holes.—The next advance was the discovery that one tube could be made to give several sounds by piercing holes in it. The effect of piercing is equivalent to shortening the tube; thus the Flute came into existence. There are three forms of the flute; the simplest is the old Japanese flute, blown at the end and pierced with a few holes. Next, the endless variety of flutes blown at a hole in the side, hence called the cross flute, or Flauto Traverso, in German, Querflöte. A perfect series of these flutes may be made. From the piece of bamboo with three or four holes, up to the exquisite workmanship and musical possibilities of the orchestral Boehm flute, all these flutes are identical in principle. The third kind of flute is blown at the end and is furnished with a diaphragm, which directs the air in a thin stream against the edge of the opening. Flutes of this kind were once used under the names of flageolet and recorder. Their chief interest lies in the fact that they have served as the model for the flue pipes of the organ, from the ponderous thirty-two foot Diapason to the half-inch extreme of the Mixture. The Tube with a Reed.—The next subdivision is: The tube in conjunction with a tongue or slip of cane, called a reed. Reed instruments are further divided into single and double reed instruments. The double reed instrument is of great antiquity and widely known. This is the instrument generally meant by the term “flute” in the ancient Greek authors. It is known in China and Thibet, and in its modern form as Hautboy (oboe), English Horn or Bassoon, is an important member of the modern orchestra. The beating or single reed is so-called because it is made a little larger than the orifice over which it is fixed, and therefore beats against
- 16. this orifice at every vibration, closing it and causing the air to be emitted in puffs. This form of reed instrument is also widely distributed. By the Greeks it was called the Berecynthian pipe; in modern Egypt Arghool, in early England the Shawm, which is a corruption of an older French name—Chalumeau. Under the name Clarinet it is another important member of the orchestra. The beating reed also furnishes the model after which the reed stops of the organ are constructed. The Tube with the Lips of the Player.—The last subdivision is the tube in conjunction with the lip of the performer, the lips assuming the rôle of the reed. Countless varieties of trumpets have been used from time immemorial, made at first from that natural tube that has given them their generic name, the “horn” of the ox or goat or antelope. The forms of the horn are endless, but from the conch shell of the Japanese or the ram’s horn Shofar of the Hebrews to the perfectly tuned and mechanically perfect instruments of our bands and orchestras the series is complete, and the acoustic principle in all respects identical. Stringed Instruments Played by Plucking.—The stringed instruments are those which depend for their sound upon the vibration of stretched strings. This class of instruments is of very ancient origin. As in the case of the wind instruments, the discovery of the principle of the vibration of a stretched string was probably accidental. The twanging of a bow-string suggests a possible clue, or the membranes of animals used for any purpose in which tension is required. Earliest among stringed instruments are the various forms of Harp or Lyre, in which each string gives a single sound, and is put in motion by being plucked by the finger or struck by a rod or flat strip of wood, ivory, etc., called a plectrum. In the next class are included those instruments that are furnished with a neck or fingerboard, with or without frets. In this class the strings are comparatively few in number, as many sounds may be obtained from each string by altering its length by the pressure of the fingers on the neck. These instruments are also played either with the fingers
- 17. or the plectrum; to this class belong the Guitar, Lute, Mandolin, etc. The Lute Family.—For many years, until displaced by instruments of the violin family, the Lute occupied the foremost position among instruments. It was a favorite instrument in the East, whence it reached Spain and lower Italy. During the 14th century, it spread over all Europe, retaining its popularity from the 15th to the 17th centuries. In shape it was similar to the mandolin of the present day. It had, however, a far greater number of strings. Five pairs of these and a single melody string lay over the keyboard, while the bass strings (finally five in number and used only as open strings) lay at the side. More elaborate forms of the lute, owing to improvements in the arrangement of the bass strings, were the Theorbo and the Archilute. For the various forms of the lute the ordinary measured notation was not used, but special letters or figures were given to indicate, not the pitch of the sound, but the proper fret on the fingerboard of the instrument to be used by the player. This method of notation was called Tablature; it differed somewhat in the various countries. Until displaced by the violin, the lute was in use as an orchestral instrument. In addition, transcriptions of all sorts of vocal and instrumental pieces were made for the lute, for home use, much in the same manner as they are at the present day made for the pianoforte. Stringed Instruments Played with a Bow.—The next and most important class resembles the last in being furnished with a neck or fingerboard, but with strings put in vibration by a bow, the familiar Violin family. A German writer on the stringed instruments played with a bow gives the following as the successive steps in the evolution of the violin: Rebec, Tromba Marina, Hurdy Gurdy, Fidel (Fidula), Chrotta, Viole, and Violin. The early history of instruments is shrouded in darkness, which existed up to the 16th century. Before that time, although writers on music made reference to the instruments in use, they did not give detailed descriptions. Virdung, who published a work in 1511; Agricola, in 1528; and Gerle, in 1546, were among the first writers. Yet much confusion has arisen from
- 18. the fact that these writers used different terms for the same instruments, a difficulty that confronts the student of musical history who consults German, French, or Italian works. 1. The Rebec was of Oriental origin and consisted of a wooden frame, which formed the side walls, the top and the bottom being spanned with skin, like a drum. The instrument had only two strings, and was used in accompanying singing. Later the number of strings was increased to three. In the 8th or 9th century an instrument called the Lyra (Lyre) was in use. Its shape shows a change toward the pear-shaped body and narrow neck of the lute.
- 19. 2. The Tromba Marina (Eng., literally, “Marine Trumpet”), which the Germans call Trumscheit, had a long, sonorous body, over which a strong string, like that of the ’cello D, was stretched. This string, when sounded with the bow, gave forth a harsh, somewhat nasal tone, similar to that of the 8-foot wooden organ reed-pipe. But the proper way to play it was by lightly touching the string with the finger, as in making harmonics on the violin. This gave a series of tones, according to the pitch of the open string, the same as the so- called overtones. If the string were tuned to low C, the sounds were middle C, then in succession E, G, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. This instrument was a favorite with choirs of nuns to accompany their singing. Another name given to this instrument from its single string is Monochord. 3. The Hurdy Gurdy, also called Vielle, Radleier (“wheel lyre”), Bettlerleier (“mendicants’ lyre”), Organistrum and Chiffonie, was a great favorite in the period from the 10th to the 12th century. This peculiar instrument consisted of a resonant body, over which four strings were stretched. It has analogies to bowed and keyed instruments. Its shape was somewhat like that of the lute or the
- 20. viola d’amore or guitar. Two of the strings were tuned in unison, were stopped by an arrangement of keys, directed by the player’s left hand shortening the string, thus making it possible to play melodies of a limited compass. The other two strings were usually tuned as Tonic and Dominant, thus giving a drone like the bagpipe. The strings are set in vibration by a wooden wheel, which, being well rosined, has the function of a violin bow; this wheel is turned by a handle at the tail end of the instrument, the player using his right hand for the purpose. 4. The Chrotta (Welsh Crwth—“crooth”) is one of the oldest of string instruments played with a bow. The original home was possibly India, but in its European use it was limited to England, and especially to Wales. It was a favorite instrument of the Welsh bards. The oldest form had three strings. In its later form it was mounted with six strings, four stretched over the fingerboard and played with the bow, and two lying at the side of the fingerboard, and pinched with the thumb of the left hand. 5. Fidula (Fidel, Fiddle), equivalent to “viol,” is the comprehensive term for the string instruments of the 8th to the 14th century. Its resonant body was arched and pear-shaped. The French flattened it more and called it Gigue, the Italians Giga, the Germans Geige, the latter term still being used. Two varieties were in use—the small and the large. The former had three strings tuned in fifths, the latter four to six, usually tuned in fourths and one third. The “large” species was made in four sizes for Discant (soprano), Alto, Tenor, and Bass. The “large” instrument had no bridge such as the violin of today has, and in its rounded form was difficult to play. Later it was cut out at the sides, thus approaching the shape of our violin. 6. The Viol, which first appears in the 15th century, had a resonant body which came almost to a point back of the neck, and the upper part of the body of the instrument was smaller than the lower; the fingerboard had frets like our guitar; the edges were higher, the f holes were sickle-shaped, the top was flat, and the number of strings was six. Viols were divided into two groups—those
- 21. held with the arm (like our violin), those played between the knees (like our ’cello). They were named the soprano or discant viol (violetta), the alto and tenor viols, and the bass viol (gamba). The contra-bass or double bass has the viol form in certain respects. From the viol family comes our violin through a diminution and beautifying of the form, through lessening the number of strings and doing away with the frets. References. Lavignac.—Music and Musicians. Section on Instruments. Grove.—Dictionary of Music and Musicians, articles on the various instruments. Questions and Suggestions. What are the general classes into which musical instruments are grouped? Name the percussion instruments. Name the principles of classification for wind instruments. Give examples of each class. What is a reed? How many kinds are in use? What methods of producing sound are used in playing stringed instruments? Give examples of each class. Give a description of the lute. Name the steps in the evolution of the violin. The catalogues of the instruments contained in the Metropolitan Museum (Crosby-Brown Collection), New York City, will be found very useful for reference. This collection is one of the most complete in the world, and is arranged so as to show the development of instruments of the various types. They can be secured at slight expense by addressing the Museum.
- 22. LESSON XVI. The Organ, Organ Playing and Organ Music. In the book of Genesis it is written: “Jubal, he was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ.” It is not to be understood that the word organ in this passage meant an instrument anything like that heard in our churches at the present day. In fact, as St. Augustine tells us, there was a time when all musical instruments were called organs. The Germ of the Organ.—The invention of the organ is veiled in deepest darkness. Its development from its earliest forms to its present state has occupied a period of almost two thousand years. Doubtless, the first idea of a wind instrument was suggested by the breeze blowing across the open ends of broken reeds, the discovery naturally following that reeds of different lengths gave forth sounds of varying pitch. In course of time, reeds or pipes, differing in length, began to be joined together, conveniently arranged so as to produce a succession of musical sounds, the players blowing them with the mouth. These instruments were called Pan’s Pipes, the Syrinx of the ancient Greeks. The First Stage of Development.—As the number of pipes was increased, the moving of the head back and forth in order to blow them became difficult. The pipes were then placed in a sort of box or wind chest, a tube being added through which the player could blow, the pipes not intended to sound being closed by the fingers. Furthermore, as the pipes were increased in number and in size, it became necessary to employ various mechanical accessories to furnish adequate wind supply, and to open and close the pipes at will, the breath and fingers of the player proving insufficient. A
- 23. device was invented in the form of a slide, rule or tongue of wood, which was placed beneath the aperture of the pipe, and perforated so as to shut off or admit wind to the pipe as it was drawn back or forth. The earliest form of bellows might be suggested by the leathern bag of the bagpipe. In this the wind pressure was unsteady and the tone necessarily disconnected. The Hydraulic Organ.—The first attempts to secure regular or steady wind pressure were made by Ctesibus, who lived at Alexandria, about 180 B. C. To him is ascribed the invention of the so-called “Hydraulic Organ.” This term seems somewhat of a misnomer, since the water was used merely to give the necessary pressure to the bellows, and to regulate the wind supply. This method was never developed, since the device did not seem applicable to instruments of any considerable size. The trend was rather toward a wind supply from a bellows operated on the same principle as that of the blacksmith’s. In the Hydraulic Organ the water was thus applied: An inverted air receiver, into which the wind was forced by a bellows, was immersed in a tank of water, the pressure of the water around and above the receiver forcing the air through an aperture at the top into the pipes, the pressure being regulated by the volume of water in the tank. The hydraulic organ
- 24. continued more or less in use up to the early part of the 14th century. The Earliest Organs.—The organ developed little as to size or mechanical improvements during the first ten centuries of the Christian Era, and it is difficult to trace the progressive stages in point of time, place or mechanical invention. The first organ known to the people of Western Europe was a present from the Byzantine emperor, Constantine, to Pepin the Short, Major-Domo of the Frankish Kingdom, in 742. It had brass pipes and the “keys” were struck by hands and feet. Eastern organs also came into France in the time of Charlemagne, son of Pepin. The first organ used in Germany was made in 812, modelled after the one just mentioned. In 880, the Pope ordered an organ and an organ builder from Germany, which seems to indicate that the art had found support there at an early date. Although not considered absolutely indispensable, the organ from that time on seems to have been generally adopted for use in churches. Its many imperfections gave ground for criticism, yet today it is considered, par excellence, the ecclesiastical instrument. Increase in the Size of Organs.—The organ builders of these early days were mostly monks, Pope Sylvester II (1003) being eminent, under the name of Gerbert, prior to his election to the papacy. They built small organs called “Portative,” and large organs called “Positive.” The old hydraulic organ, owing to its excessive weight, was called “Positive” to distinguish it from the “Portative” or portable organ, and these terms have been perpetuated to the present time. An organ built for the Cathedral at Winchester, England, had ten keys, four hundred pipes and twenty-six bellows, which were operated by seventy men, “in the sweat of their brows.” Since forty pipes were attached to a single key, it may be readily understood why its tone was compared to thunder. The keys were very large, having a deep fall, and required the whole force of the hand to press down a single one.
- 25. Mechanical Improvements.—The pipes in the early organs were made of copper, lead, tin, silver, glass, ivory and various woods, but experiments finally showed tin or wood to be best suited for the purpose. The earliest organs had about twelve pipes, and the larger instruments three octaves, but without the chromatic intervals. The pipes were arranged according to the sequence of tones in the old Church modes, the octave containing but three semitones: between E-F, A-B flat and B-C. The chromatic tones were added gradually, the breadth of the keys being correspondingly reduced as the increased number of keys occupied the same space as before. Heretofore, the wind had usually been forced from the bellows by the weight of men standing upon them, but in the 10th century use began to be made of a lever, the bellows presumably being weighted. The Keyboard is Adopted.—In the 11th century, the keyboard appeared, supplanting the levers and slides, previously in use. The first organ containing this marked improvement was made for the Cathedral at Magdeburg, Germany. It had sixteen keys. In 1350, a monk at Thorn built an organ with twenty-two keys, and in 1361 an organ was built for the Cathedral at Halberstadt with fourteen diatonic and eight chromatic tones in a compass extending from B, second line, bass staff, to A, second space, treble. This organ had three keyboards, now termed manuals. The Pedals.—The invention of pedals is variously ascribed to Albert Van Os (about 1120), to Van Valbeke, of Brabant, and to a German named Bernhard (1470), an organist of Venice. The latter probably improved, but did not invent the pedals. The pedals at first did not exceed the compass of an octave, and were used only for sustaining prolonged tones. They were fastened to the broad manual keys by stout cords, thus enabling the performer to draw down the desired key with the foot. About the year 1418 the pedals began to be attached to independent pedal-pipes, thus imparting to the organ a certain dignity and sonority, still a chief characteristic of the instrument. After 1475, all important organs were built with pedal keyboard.
- 26. The Introduction of Stops.—Up to the 14th century, the different registers (set of pipes with uniform tone quality) could not be sounded separately, that is to say: all the pipes belonging to any one key sounded when that key was depressed. At the close of the 14th century it was found possible to add valves to the pipes in such a manner as to cause the wind to pass through or be cut off from any series of pipes at will. The opening and closing was managed through a spring. The next improvement was to introduce a slide to open or close the passage of wind into the pipes. With these improvements it became possible for builders to set themselves to the improvement of the various “stops” or registers. Improvements in Stops.—In the 15th century, pipes of sixteen and thirty-two feet in length began to be used, necessitating a greatly enlarged bellows. Pipes were closed at the top, thereby lowering the pitch an octave. They were given smaller diameters, producing a softer tone quality. The shapes of the pipes were varied, giving additional variety in tone quality. Thus began the broad classifications of “Open” and “Stopped” pipes in all their varieties. The “Reeds” (pipes containing a vibrator or tongue to set the column of air in motion) were familiar to the earliest performers, but were not introduced into the organ until as late as the 14th century. Further improvements were made in the bellows at the beginning of the 16th century. St. Mary’s, Lübeck.—In 1561, a three-manual organ was in use in St. Mary’s, Lübeck, Germany. To this organ all the important improvements were successively added at various intervals until it had, at the beginning of the 18th century, in the three manuals, respectively, thirteen, fourteen and fifteen stops, and in the pedal, fifteen stops. It was to hear the famous Buxtehude play upon this organ that Sebastian Bach walked fifty miles in 1705. Design of Improvements.—Great improvements have been made in organ building since the time of Bach, all designed to give the player greater resources, and increased facility in the handling
- 27. and control of the resources, which in the present day are simply enormous. The Organ in the American Colonies.—Although the first organs heard in America were probably introduced by the Spaniards, of these there are no authentic records. According to reliable historic data, the famous old “Brattle” organ was “the first organ that ever pealed to the glory of God in this country.” It was imported from London, in 1713, by Mr. Thomas Brattle, who bequeathed it to the Brattle Street Church, Boston, directing that the parish “procure a sober person that can play skilfully thereon with a loud noise.” This organ became the property of King’s Chapel, Boston, and was used until 1756. No Art in Early Organ Playing.—The organs of the early Christian period were of such a character that playing, in the sense in which we now understand the word, was out of the question. For some time the span of the hand possible to players did not exceed the distance of a fifth. If an octave was to be struck, a second player was necessary. Only with the narrowing of the keys did artistic playing become possible. In fact, organ playing has invariably reflected the style and development of contemporary musical art. Early Organists.—The credit of being “father of organists” is given to Francesco Landino, of Florence (1325-1390), and after him to Bernhard, mentioned as the inventor of the organ pedals. The oldest organ compositions are some works by Konrad Paumann (1410-1473), who was born blind, yet, like many others since, became a thoroughly trained musician in spite of his affliction. He also played other instruments and was a fine contrapuntist. Another of the early organists is Benedictus Ducis (or Hertoghs), born at Bruges, about 1480. He was a pupil of Josquin des Pres. From Ducis, representing the second Flemish school, as founded by Okeghem, there is a chain almost of master and pupil, between the early masters of organ playing and polyphonic writing and Bach, who in these arts became the master of all. Paumann’s pieces show the style of composing for the instrument that was considered
- 28. appropriate. They are essentially transcribed, but elaborated, vocal works. The compositions of the next organists of fame, Willaert, of Venice (1490-1562), and Cyprian di Rore (1516-1565), pupil of the former, have distinct names. Ricercari, Intonationi, Contrapunti, Toccati, Praeambula, and Canzoni, but the character remains the same, vocal pieces, elaborated and freely embellished with runs and other passage work. Later the term Ricercari came to mean a sort of fantasia in fugal form, often on a popular air; Toccata became a free fantasia with brilliantly figurated passages, and a Praeambulo a prelude to a larger piece. Other famous organists of this period were Bernhard Schmidt (1520-?), German; Claudio Merulo (1532- 1604), organist at Venice, and his successors, the two Gabrieli’s. Frescobaldi and His Successors.—The greatest of all the organists of the earlier days, to whom the title of “Father of true organ playing” has been given, was Girolamo Frescobaldi, born in 1583 at Ferrara, in Italy, educated in Flanders, and from 1608 to his death in 1644 organist at St. Peter’s, Rome. His fame was so great that the spacious cathedral was often filled when he gave an organ recital. His compositions, many of which have been preserved, have a very decided contrapuntal character, whence some have called him the inventor of the organ fugue. Two prominent German organists, whose compositions were studied by Bach, were Caspar Kerl (1627-1693), and Jacob Froberger (———1667), both of whom lived in Vienna. The most eminent organist of the 17th century was Johann Peter Sweelinck (1562-1621), pupil of Zarlino, the famous Italian theorist, and of Andreas Gabrieli, organist of Venice. Sweelinck occupied the position of organist at the Cathedral in Amsterdam, and gave much attention to the development of the fugal style of composition. His compositions are of the highest importance historically, since they exhibit the first known examples of the independent use of the pedals in a real fugal part. He was the most eminent organist of his time (being called the organist maker), and was the teacher of the following noted players: Jacob Praetorius (died at Hamburg in 1651); Heinrich Scheidemann (1596-1663), also located at Hamburg; Jan Adams Reinken
- 29. (1623-1722), from 1663 organist and successor to Scheidemann at the Catherine Church, Hamburg (Bach came to Hamburg several times to hear Reinken play and to learn his style); Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654), organist at Halle. Some of their compositions are accessible. Johann Peter Sweelinck. Other famous organists of this period were Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), located at Nuremberg (Bach studied his works as a lad); Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707), organist at Lübeck for thirty-nine years. One of the most important names of this period of development is that of Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741). His “Gradus ad Parnassum,” published in 1725, a treatise on
- 30. counterpoint based on the practice of the great masters, played an important part in the training of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. English Organists.—In the history of English organ playing, the first great name to engage our attention is that of Thomas Tallys, born about 1520. He is called the “Father of English church music.” He served under Henry VIII, Edward VI, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, as organist of the Chapel Royal. English organists of distinction contemporary with and succeeding Tallys were John Merbecke, Richard Farrant, William Byrd, John Bull, Thomas Morley, Orlando Gibbons (a contemporary of Frescobaldi), Matthew Lock, John Blow and Henry Purcell. The last mentioned, born in 1658, became organist of Westminster Abbey in 1680. The name of Purcell is one of the strongest in the history of English music. It was his ambition to found a distinctive school of English composition. Although not successful in this, he made a lasting impression on English church music and produced many charming secular works. It is on record that he stood high in the estimation of his European contemporaries. Culmination in Bach and Handel.—The Polyphonic Period culminated in Bach and Handel, both born in 1685. These two, who never met, and who worked upon dissimilar lines, were the most famous organists of their day, in addition to their greatness in composition. The Organ and Polyphonic Music.—Bach must be regarded as the source of modern organ composition and playing. In him polyphonic composition attained its highest perfection and the organ stands as the centre of the Polyphonic school. The development of the Opera and its influence towards a freer style in vocal and instrumental composition and the tendency of instrumental music to develop along harmonic lines had the effect of relegating polyphonic music to the Church with the organ as its chief vehicle. It is only of comparatively recent years that the organ has become a concert instrument. Bach’s treatment of the instrument serves as a model for the composers of all time and the study of his works is indispensable
- 31. to the development of technical command of the organ and the cultivation of the true organ style. Handel’s permanent contribution to organ literature consists of sets of Concertos. These concertos, a number of which are still played and admired, excited the enthusiasm of Sir John Hawkins, who gives a glowing account of them in his history. Bach was appointed Cantor at the St. Thomas Schule, Leipzig, in 1723, and it was here that much of his greatest work was accomplished. In addition to his duties at the school, he directed the music in the Churches of St. Thomas and St. Nicholas. As to the relative superiority of Bach and Handel as organists, contemporary opinion seems to have differed widely. Each undoubtedly had a style of his own as shown in his published compositions. Each excelled in improvisation. The Chorale in Protestant Organ Music.—In addition to his incomparable preludes and fugues, toccatas, fantasias and pieces in the larger forms, Bach made the polyphonic treatment of the chorale an art peculiarly his own. In fact, the German style of organ playing may be said to have developed from the chorale and from the music of the Reformation. This furnished a fresher and very different source of inspiration from the Gregorian chant which had been handled so effectively by Frescobaldi and his Italian successors. Marchand.—One of the most renowned of early French organists was Louis Marchand (1671-1732). In 1717, while living under banishment in Dresden, he was to have entered into a trial of skill with Bach, but lost courage and departed on the morning of the appointed day. A certain triviality has at times characterized the French school of organ music, undoubtedly a reflection of the prevailing style and taste in other branches of musical composition. Of later years, however, a more serious and exalted style has developed. The German School.—To return to the German organists. A name familiar to all students of the organ is that of Rinck. Johann C. H. Rinck (1770-1846) was a pupil of Kittel, who in turn was a pupil of J. S. Bach. Rinck’s reputation is based largely on his
- 32. “Practical Organ School,” a work still in use. Another name of importance is that of Johann Gottlob Schneider (1789-1864). He has had the reputation of being one of the greatest German organists since the time of Bach. Of the great composers since Bach, Mendelssohn stands conspicuous as an organist and composer of organ music. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, although occasionally using the organ in their scores, did not compose for the instrument. Mendelssohn developed a decided fondness for the organ, which he played admirably. His six sonatas and three preludes and fugues are masterpieces. Among the representative German organists and composers should be mentioned: Adolph Hesse (1809-1863), author of the “Practical Organist” and a prolific composer; Karl August Haupt (1810-1891), a celebrated teacher, numbering among his many pupils from all countries such prominent American organists as Eugene Thayer, Clarence Eddy and J. K. Paine; Carl Ludwig Thiele (1816-1848) composer of some of the most difficult known works for the organ; Gustav Merkel (1827-1885), a prolific composer, whose sonatas are numbered among the standard works for the instrument; J. G. Rheinberger (1837-1901), one of the finest organists and best teachers of his time and a composer of great ability, whose twenty sonatas form a permanent addition to the best organ literature. A number of American organists were among his pupils. The French School.—Prominent among organists of the French school in the 19th century may be mentioned: L. J. A. Lefébure- Wély (1817-1869) and Antoine Eduard Batiste (1820-1876). The works of both these organists are still widely played and have won much popularity. Wely has been called the “Auber of the organ.” His works display fertility of melodic invention and a piquancy of harmonic treatment, but are entirely lacking in the polyphonic element. Much the same may be said of Batiste, who was a fine player and teacher, and who equalled Wely in tunefulness but not in musicianship. Nicholas Jacques Lemmens (1823-81), a great player (especially of Bach) and author of the celebrated “Ecole d’Orgue” may be said to have laid the foundation of the modern
- 33. French school. Conspicuous among his successors have been: Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-——), a most versatile musician and a noted organist; Théodore Dubois (1837-——), Théodore Salome (1834-——) and Felix Alexandre Guilmant (1837-——). Guilmant, one of the most noted organists and composers of the present day, was a favorite pupil of Lemmens. He has been one of the most prolific composers since the time of Bach, is a master of all the resources of the modern organ, and has a fertility of invention and a fluent command of contrapuntal resources. Another eminent French organist is C. M. Widor (1845- ——), also a composer of distinction. A powerful influence was exerted on modern organ music, as well as general composition, by the eminent organist and composer, César Franck, who was, for a number of years, in charge of the organ class at the Paris Conservatoire. The Italian School.—Among recent Italian organists Filippo Capocci (1840-——) and Enrico Bossi (1861-——) are worthy of mention. Both are splendid organists and prolific composers. They are leaders in the revival of good organ playing in Italy, where a determined effort is being made to restore the art to its former supremacy. The English School.—England has furnished a long line of 19th century organists of ability, prominent among whom are: Sir John Goss (1800-1880), Henry Smart (1813-1879), E. J. Hopkins (1818-1901), S. S. Wesley (1810-1876), Dr. Wm. Spark (1825- 1897). Foremost among English organists stands the name of Wm. T. Best (1826-1897). He was one of the most famous concert organists of his time, but is best known to organ students by his “Arrangements from the Scores of the Great Masters,” in which he demonstrated that the organ is in itself capable of reproducing certain orchestral effects without transcending its proper functions or descending to trickery. “The Organ,” by Sir John Stainer (1840- 1901), is one of the most widely used elementary works for instruction in organ playing. Dr. Stainer was the successor of Sir John Goss, at St. Paul’s, London, and was appointed Professor of Music at Oxford University in 1889. Frederic Archer (1838-1901)
- 34. has been considered one of the greatest of organ players. After a successful career in England, he came to America in 1880. He did much towards popularizing and elevating the art of organ playing in this country. Prominent among contemporary English organists stands Edwin H. Lemare (1865-——), who succeeded Frederic Archer as organist of Carnegie Hall, Pittsburg, in 1902. He is a skilful virtuoso, a composer of originality, and a leading representative of the modern English school. Modern Organ Music.—Organ playing and composition have kept pace with the mechanical and artistic evolution of the instrument, and the lines between the various schools are becoming less closely drawn. The tendency of builders to imitate orchestral tone and effects has had influence on composers and players alike. This tendency is less noticeable in the works of the German school, where a modified polyphony still flourishes, based on the principle of the classic treatment of the chorale and growing out of the music of the Lutheran Church. The organ compositions of the modern French school are characterized by grace, refinement and originality, coupled with a certain dignity and elegance. They combine free harmonic treatment and modern polyphony, together with certain ornate characteristics, growing out of the elaborate ceremonial music of the Latin Church, and bringing into play all the resources of tone color and expressive treatment of the modern instrument. Much the same may be said of the modern English school, which nevertheless still shows traces of the early English style, based on the dignity and purity of cathedral use and tradition. The orchestral tendency, both in composition for the organ and in the transcription of orchestral works for the instrument, shows itself more or less in all schools, and the organ, in addition to its position in the church, is becoming more and more a concert instrument. The compositions of the American organists reflect, in a measure, the characteristics of the schools in which they have been trained, and in particular show traces of the styles of the masters with whom they have chiefly studied.[9]
- 35. References. Grove.—Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Articles on the Organ, and Organists mentioned in this lesson. Williams.—Story of the Organ. Lahee.—The Organ and its Masters. Matthews.—Handbook of the Organ. Pirro.—J. S. Bach: The Organist and His Works. Audsley, G. A.—The Art of Organ Building, 2 vols. Questions. In what early instrument is the germ of the organ found? Describe its gradual development. Describe the general character of the early organs. Describe the various mechanical improvements. When and by whom were pedals introduced? Mention some of the early organists. In whom did the Polyphonic Period culminate? Who is the source of modern organ composition and playing? Mention some German organists since the time of Bach. Mention some prominent French and English organists of the 19th century. Describe the modern tendencies in organ composition. Suggestions for a Review of Lessons VIII to XVI. Get a clear idea of the period, which includes the years between 1100 and the death of Palestrina in 1594, almost 500 years. The lesson on the organ and organ playing belongs to this period, chronologically, in part only. The difference between the monophonic and polyphonic styles must be clearly appreciated in order to get a clear grasp of the two fundamental styles in music. Illustrations from the masters are to be
- 36. placed in contrast. Polyphony developed from melodic principles, the simultaneous sounding of several melodies. Monophony depends upon a harmonic basis. Indicate the steps in the growth of Polyphony. How did the Church contribute? What political and other conditions made Paris the centre of Europe in the 12th century? What is the force of Imitation as a principle to secure Unity in musical composition? How was it used by the composers of the Paris school? What advances in the use of Imitation did the men of the Gallo- Belgic school make? Indicate certain historical events and name prominent personages of the periods included in this section. Why did the early English school exercise so little influence on music? What noted musical composition is credited to the English school? What kind of work is it? What historical periods coincide with the English school as described in this section? Compare the Gallo-Belgic and the Netherlands schools. What did the former contribute to the latter? What is the musical value of the principle of the Canon? Why did the musical centre shift respectively from Paris to Belgium, to the Netherlands and then to Italy? Make a list of the composers of the different schools of this period and trace the connection between them. Give a sketch of Palestrina and show his contribution to church music.
- 37. Describe the madrigal. Compare a madrigal with a modern part- song and note the difference in style. Give the classification of musical instruments. Examples in each class. Give a sketch of the development of the viol. What is the germ of the principle of the organ? What is the necessity for the use of a bellows? What are the successive steps in improving the organ? Mention the important players in chronological order. Classify them in the proper schools. Compare the German, French and English schools.
- 38. LESSON XVII. The Beginning of the Opera. The Renaissance.—The Opera, in its inception, was literary rather than musical in nature. It was a result of what is known as the Renaissance, so-called because its most prominent manifestation in Italy was a revival of the learning of the ancients. This phase of the movement was initiated by Petrarch (1304-1370), who devoted his life to the study of the classical past of Italy. The Latin classics had never been entirely lost, but those of the Greeks had become practically extinct during the dark ages which followed the conquest of the Roman Empire by the barbarians of the North, in the 5th century. The arts had been kept alive only through the fostering care of the Church, and all had taken on a conventionally ecclesiastical character. Education had declined; it was practically confined to churchmen—even kings and rulers could barely sign their names, while the people at large were sunk in gross ignorance. The revival of Latin literature through the influence of Petrarch led to an interest in the Greek classics which soon became the engrossing study of the learned. Diligent search was made for lost and forgotten manuscripts; academies of learning were founded; lectures were given on Greek philosophy. In the enthusiasm thus created it was even thought that not only the arts and literature of the ancient world might be restored, but its governmental, social and political structure as well. Scope of the Renaissance.—The Renaissance, however, was not merely literary in nature. It was in reality the awakening of man from the spiritual and intellectual slumber which had bound him for nearly a thousand years. Long before it was defined it had been
- 39. perceptible in many ways. First, materially, in a spirit of exploration, of adventure and enterprise. Traders and travelers startled Europe with glowing accounts of the far East; missionaries took long and dangerous voyages in the hope of converting its heathen inhabitants. An eager desire for increased commercial facilities with these favored countries by means of a westward passage brought about the discovery of America, with which modern history may be said to have opened. With this extension of the world’s boundaries, the mind of man began to expand as well. As he looked forward with eager anticipation to the future, he studied the past with an eye newly alive to the treasures of its buried culture. Instead of his former acquiescence in being one of a dull, inert mass, serving without question those in authority over him, he began to feel and to assert his own individuality, to resist the crushing weight of feudalism which had hitherto oppressed him. Freedom of intellect, of conscience, of science, of art, was in the air. The effect of this transition from medievalism toward modern liberty of thought and action varied with different nationalities. In northern nations it took the direction of rebellion against prevailing religious and political conditions, for example, in Germany and England. Italy, however, remained steadfast in religion and government; the revolt was against traditions in matters of art and literature. Roman law and Greek philosophy were exhumed; the classics were zealously studied for standards of taste and culture. Music of the Ancients.—Notwithstanding this research, no trace was found of the music actually in use among the ancients. From the evanescent nature of the art and the total lack of examples, the elaborate descriptions of its complicated system of scales and modes given by Greek philosophers failed to yield a trustworthy clue to its real character. It was known, however, that the drama, owing to the enormous proportions of the amphitheatre in which it was performed, was musically declaimed, and that the voices of the actors and chorus
- 40. were sustained by lyres and flutes. Thus, in the Greek tragedy we find the principal features of the modern opera—scenery, dramatic action, solo and choral singing, the orchestra. It was also known that in the music of the Greeks the word was the governing principle; that there was no independent instrumental music—nor was there elsewhere for many centuries afterward. The tone was regarded only as a means of heightening the effect of the poetry; the succession of long and short syllables dictated both rhythm and melody. Of harmony in the modern sense of the term, there was none; instruments and voices alike were in unison. Music Chiefly Choral.—In the 16th century, Florence was the centre of the enthusiasm for Greek culture. She and her sister-cities in the north of Italy were the arbiters in matters of taste, of learning and erudition. There, toward the end of the century, a small group of scholars and musicians, known as the Camerata (Chamber), meeting at the house of Count Bardi, discussed the possibility of reproducing the musical declamation of Greek tragedy. The time was ripe for such an experiment. The polyphonic school had reached its climax in the intricate works of di Lasso (1520-1594) and Palestrina (1514-1594). Though admirably suited to the Church, the contrapuntal style of these great composers was manifestly unfit for dramatic purposes; it could voice the aspirations of a body of worshipers swayed by a common belief, but could not express individual feeling. No voice was more important than another, all progressed according to canonic law, their complex intertwining practically destroying the essentially secular elements of accent and rhythm. It was, in short, the embodiment in music of the medievalism which had so long controlled Church and State. Thus far the spirit of emancipation which had produced such great results in the other arts and in politics elsewhere had touched music but lightly. Attempts had been made to break the restraints of contrapuntalism, but there was a total ignorance as to what steps would prove most effective in reaching that end, and nothing definite had been accomplished. Aside from the Folk-song, which was ignored by musicians save only as it served as Cantus Firmus for
- 41. their counterpoint, there was no music for the solo voice; it was conceived solely from a choral standpoint. The Recitative.—Their dissatisfaction with the school of music then in vogue and the impossibility of adapting it to their purpose led to various experiments by this band of enthusiasts to discover the principles upon which the Greeks had founded the musical declamation employed in their tragedies. They argued that it must have followed as closely as possible the inflections of the voice in speaking; therefore they made this their study. Thus originated the Recitative, the distinguishing feature of the lyric drama, which, though using the definite pitches of the musical scale, reproduces in its progressions and cadences the characteristic but intensified effect of an oratorical delivery of the text. It was the exact contrary of the music of the age in which the word counted for almost nothing, the art of combining independent voices and of playing them off one against the other for everything. The Cantata.—The first result of their efforts was the Cantata (from cantare, to sing), meaning a composition for the voice in contradistinction to the Sonata (from sonare, to sound), which was applied to one for instruments. The Cantata had but little in common with what is now understood by the term. It was a recitation on musical intervals for a single voice accompanied by but one instrument. Anything like a formal melody was carefully avoided, and the accompaniment, generally played on the lute, was of the most unpretending character. The first of these cantatas was composed by Vincenzo Galilei, the father of the celebrated astronomer, on the tragic fate of Count Ugolino, as related by Dante in the Inferno. This, therefore, was the first art-song ever composed. Unfortunately, it has been lost; but contemporary accounts tell of the profound impression it created. Other cantatas were written and sung by Giulio Caccini (1550-1618), a skilled and an admirable lutist as well, and all awakened the utmost enthusiasm among the little company.
- 42. These works were known as Nuove Musiche (new music) and such as have survived are, in general, painfully thin and crude to modern ears. When compared with the rich polyphony of the prevailing Church style they seem at the first blush to indicate retrogression. Progress, however, seldom advances in a direct line; it generally moves by spirals which at times apparently retreat only to mount the higher at the succeeding curve. These dull recitatives bore the germ of emancipation from the scholastic laws which had heretofore prevented music from expressing individual emotion; they typify the spirit of the Renaissance and are the foundation of the art as we now know it. The First Opera.—Another of the number, Jacopo Peri (1561- 1633), also a musician, took the next step by composing music of the same style to a drama, the Dafne (Daphne) of the poet Rinuccini, who was the life and soul of this attempt to revive the lost declamation of the Greeks. This was performed privately in 1595 at the Corsi Palace, and produced so strong an impression that it was repeated a number of times at the Carnival seasons of the succeeding years. In 1600, Peri was invited to compose a similar work for the marriage festivities of Henry IV of France and Maria di Medici. This was Euridice, also written by Rinuccini, which bears the distinction of being the first opera to receive public performance, and thus introducing the new art-form to the world at large. The score of Dafne has been lost, but that of Euridice still exists. It was then known as a music drama (melo dramma or dramma per la musica); the term opera (abbreviation for opera in musica, that is, musical work) did not come into use until the middle of the century. The orchestra, which was played behind the scenes, consisted of a harpsichord, two lutes and a bass-viol. In addition, three lutes played a short ritornello (interlude) in one scene. With this exception, the instruments were used merely to support the voice; the tonality was almost exclusively minor, and the harmony of the simplest. It is thought that Peri sang the part of Orpheus and that Francesca Caccini, daughter of the composer and one of the most gifted singers of the day, sang Euridice.
- 43. Part of an Air by Caccini. [Listen.] Caccini claimed the new style as his invention, and it is certain that parts of Euridice were composed by him, though Peri’s name alone appears on the title page of the published work. Emulating the success of his colleague, the former soon set the same drama to music. Characteristics of the Early Opera.—The two settings are so similar that one might almost be taken for the other. Both display the same characteristics. Of dramatic feeling or characterization as understood at the present day there is no sign; development of musical thought, none whatever; a dreary waste of recitatives is but slightly relieved by the occasional flourishes (giri e gruppi, that is, runs and turns) allowed the singers by the taste of the times. The choruses, however, which are introduced freely, serve to vary the monotony somewhat. They exhibit a singular mingling of the old and new styles, natural under the circumstances. The voices sing either in a recitative-like unison, or begin in fugato, and later move in simple harmonic progression. Their distaste for the contrapuntal style led these reformers to reject it so far as they could. Its appearance at all is due to the fact that no other mode of writing for
- 44. a number of voices had as yet been devised—a strictly harmonic treatment had not been thought of. Since, then, they were at a loss as to the management of choral masses, they were obliged to have recourse in part to old methods. Another name associated with the Florentine school deserving mention is that of Marco da Gagliano, a priest who soon took the lead in the new movement. His first opera was Dafne (1607), composed to Rinuccini’s drama which had already served Peri; it was a common practice in those days for composers to use the same text. As a scholar and musician, Gagliano was superior to his predecessors. He shows a greater warmth of feeling and a tendency toward melody which they considered as a lowering of their ideals. The Florentine School.—One particular characteristic of the Florentine school was a sedulous avoidance of anything like extended melody or definite form. To the composers of this school, music was not an end in itself; it was subordinate to the distinct, impassioned declamation of the poet’s verses. They held that any independent development of musical thought was a weakness; that it tended to distract the attention of the hearer from the drama, and to interfere with its logical continuity. The predominant influence was that of the scholar, not of the musician. This was to be expected from the character of the little coterie interested in the new art-form. The majority were wealthy amateurs, zealous students of the classics and aflame with the desire for the actual revival of the Greek tragedy. Peri and Caccini were the only musicians and they were strongly averse to the contrapuntal music of the day. Its persistently ecclesiastical effect debarred it from expressing the personal feeling which was the object of their research. In the effort to escape its ban, they unwittingly emancipated their art from the control of the Church, and made it accessible to mankind in general. This, therefore, is the great service of the Florentine reformers: the establishment of a purely secular school of music susceptible of indefinite development.
- 45. Making allowance for the vast difference in means due to the practical creation of independent instrumental music since the 17th century, their practice was precisely the same as that of the modern composer who writes a music drama and uses the same term to define his work. When Dafne and Euridice first saw the light, however, there was neither knowledge nor experience to point the way; it was found only after a slow and laborious process of experimentation, involving the acceptance of much that was rejected after having served its turn. Though Peri and Caccini with their confrères did not succeed in the end they had in view, they accomplished far more by originating the Opera, the point of departure for the whole modern art of music. References. Symonds.—The Renaissance in Italy. Apthorp.—Opera Past and Present. Grove.—Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Articles on subjects mentioned in this and following lessons. Streatfeild.—The Opera. These general works serve for other lessons on the opera. Questions and Suggestions. What was the Renaissance? What was the effect of this idea on music? What was the origin of Recitative? What was understood by Nuove Musiche? Who wrote the first opera? What term was applied to this kind of musical work? Give a description of the early opera. Give an account of the Florentine school and their fundamental ideas.
- 46. Since the beginning of the Opera is practically the beginning of a century, the 17th, it should not be a difficult matter to keep this date in mind. It therefore antedates the settlement at Jamestown, Va., by a few years, making the beginning of American history under English auspices and the Opera coincide.
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