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Computer Organisation and Architecture An
Introduction 2nd Edition B.S. Chalk Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): B.S. Chalk, A.T. Carter, R.W. Hind
ISBN(s): 9780230000605, 0230000606
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 1.28 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english

Computer
Organisation and
Architecture
An Introduction
Second Edition
B.S. Chalk, A.T. Carter and R.W. Hind
Palgrave
Macmillan

© B.S. Chalk, A.T. Carter and R.W. Hind 2004
First published 2004 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010
Companies and representatives throughout the world
ISBN 978-1-4039-0164-4 ISBN 978-0-230-00060-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-0-230-00060-5
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Contents
Preface to the second edition ix
Acknowledgements x
List of trademarks xi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Computer functionality 2
1.2 The von Neumann model 2
1.3 A personal computer system 3
1.4 Representing memory 5
1.5 High- and low-level languages 6
1.6 The operating system 7
1.7 Networked systems 7
Answers to in text questions 8
Exercises 8
Chapter 2 Data representation and computer arithmetic 10
2.1 Bits, bytes and words 10
2.2 Binary codes 11
2.3 Number systems 12
2.4 Negative numbers 15
2.5 Binary arithmetic 18
2.6 Binary coded decimal (BCD) 20
2.7 Floating point representation 20
2.8 Summary 23
Exercises 24
Chapter 3 Boolean logic 26
3.1 Logic gates 26
3.2 Combinational logic circuits 28

3.3 Sequential logic circuits 31
3.4 Flip-flop circuits 35
3.5 Summary 39
Exercises 41
Chapter 4 Central processor unit operation 42
4.1 CPU details 42
4.2 Processor–Memory interconnection 43
4.3 Improving performance 52
4.4 The use of microcode 61
4.5 Summary 64
Exercises 66
Chapter 5 The Intel 80x86 family of processors 68
5.1 The programmers model 68
5.2 Instruction types 71
5.3 Addressing modes 74
5.4 Instruction formats 77
5.5 Assembly code examples 80
5.6 Operating modes 83
5.7 Floating point arithmetic 83
5.8 Summary 86
Exercises 88
Chapter 6 Primary memory 89
6.1 Memory hierarchy 89
6.2 RAM and cache basics 90
6.3 Semiconductor memory chips 90
6.4 Data and address buses 98
6.5 Cache memory 101
6.6 Summary 106
Exercises 107
Chapter 7 Secondary memory 109
7.1 Magnetic surface technology 109
7.2 Magnetic disk storage 110
7.3 Optical disk storage systems 116
7.4 Summary 121
Exercises 121

Chapter 8 Input–Output 123
8.1 PC buses 123
8.2 Types of interface 124
8.3 I/O addressing 132
8.4 Modes of I/O transfer 132
8.5 I/O buses 137
8.6 I/O devices 142
8.7 Summary 151
Exercises 152
Chapter 9 Operating systems 154
9.1 Overview 154
9.2 Power-on self-test (POST) and system boot-up 155
9.3 Multiprogramming/multitasking 156
9.4 The process concept 156
9.5 Process management 157
9.6 Process scheduling 159
9.7 Inter-Process Communication (IPC) 160
9.8 Threads 163
9.9 Memory management 164
9.10 Operating system traps 170
9.11 File systems 171
9.12 Summary 174
Exercises 176
Chapter 10 Reduced instruction set computers 177
10.1 CISC characteristics 178
10.2 Instruction usage 178
10.3 RISC architectures 179
10.4 The control unit 183
10.5 Pipelining 184
10.6 Hybrids 184
10.7 Performance and benchmarking 184
10.8 Superscalar and superpipelined architectures 185
10.9 Summary 186
Exercises 187
Chapter 11 Networked systems 188
11.1 Introduction to networked systems 188
11.2 Local area networks 194

11.3 Wide area networks 205
11.4 Distributed systems 220
11.5 Security of networked systems 223
11.6 Summary 227
Exercises 229
Chapter 12 A look ahead 230
12.1 Processors 230
12.2 Primary memory 232
12.3 Secondary memory 232
12.4 Peripheral devices 233
12.5 Networks 235
12.6 Complete systems 236
12.7 Summary 237
Exercises 237
Appendix 1 Introduction to logic circuit minimisation using
Karnaugh map methods 238
Appendix 2 Introduction to debug 247
Appendix 3 ASCII and Extended ASCII tables 257
Appendix 4 The 80x86 family of processors 260
Appendix 5 IEEE 754 floating point format 265
Acronyms 267
References and further reading 271
Index 273

A great deal has happened in the world of computing since the publication of
the first edition of this book. Processors have become faster and the number
of transistors contained in the processor chip has greatly increased. The
amount of memory, both primary and secondary, in the standard personal
computer has increased and become faster. New peripheral devices have
come onto the scene and some of the old ones have almost disappeared.
Networked computers are the norm, as is connection to the Internet for
almost all home computers. Having said all the above, the basic von
Neumann architecture has not been superseded yet.
This second edition of Computer Organisation and Architecture, An
Introduction, builds on the first edition, bringing the material up to date and
adding new chapters on‘Networking and what’s next’. After considerable
thought, we have decided to use the Intel family of processors rather than the
Motorola 68000 for our examples. This is because the availability of Intel
based personal computers (PCs) tends to be greater than machines based on
the Motorola 68000, taking into account that many people, especially
students, have a PC at home. Our change must not be seen as a criticism of
the Motorola processors, but simply a matter of expedience for experiential
learning.
Many of our examples make reference to PCs, but all the basic principles
apply to all sizes and shapes of computers. There are still a large number of
powerful high-end computers being used in big organisations and it must be
remembered that the world of computing is not just PCs.
The target audience for this edition has not changed and with the addition
of the networking chapter, we hope that the area of appeal will have widened.
We have included Chapter 12 in order to look briefly at some
developments. Some are a few weeks away while others are experimental or
just proposals. With the rate of development we are seeing, it is difficult to
imagine where computing will be in say five years time. We live in exciting
times.
Suggested answers to a number of the end of chapter exercises are
available on the WEB site associated with this book.
A.T. Carter, R.W. Hind
Preface to the
second edition

Introduction
Not all that many years ago, the only places where one would be able to see
a computer would have been the central offices of large organisations. The
computer, costing at least £500000, would have been housed in a large,
temperature controlled room. The computer would have been run by a team
of people, called operators, working on a shift system which provided
24-hour operation. Users of the computer would have a terminal, consisting
of a TV screen and a keyboard, on their desk and they would use the facilities
of the computer by means of on-screen forms and menus. These computers
were called main frame computers and in fact there are still many of these in
operation today. Today, almost every home has a computer either in the
form of a Personal Computer (PC) or games console and the cost is well
under £1000.
There is a vast array of different types of computers between the two
types mentioned above, varying in size, cost and performance. However,
the majority of these computers are based on a model proposed by John
von Neumann and others in 1946. In Chapter 1, we describe the von
Neumann model and relate its logical units to the physical components
found in a typical PC. This will provide a foundation for a more detailed
discussion of computer organisation in subsequent chapters. There are two
approaches to investigating a complex system. One, known as the top-
down approach, looks at the system as a whole with particular attention
being applied to what it does, in other words, the functions the system
performs. Then each function is investigated in more detail with the
intention of gaining an understanding of how the system performs the
function. The level of detail considered increases until the individual
component level is reached, at which point the operation of the whole
system should be understood in minute detail. The alternative approach,
known as the bottom-up approach, considers individual components and
then looks at ways in which these can be connected together to provide the
functions required of a system.
In this book, we will start by using the top-down approach to get an
understanding of what basic functions a computer can perform, then we will
use the bottom-up approach to show how basic components can be
interconnected to provide the required functionality.
1

1.1 Computer functionality
The mighty computer can do little more than add two numbers together.
Everything else we see the computer being used for, be it playing a graphics
game, word processing a document or running a payroll, is a sequence of
operations that mainly involves adding numbers together.‘Wait a minute’
you say,‘computers can subtract, multiply, divide and do many other things
too’. We will deal with these simple functions here and the rest of the book
will cover many other aspects. Take subtraction, if we wish to subtract
20 from 30 all we need to do is change the sign of 20 and add the two
numbers to give 10. So we have done subtraction by using addition.
30 ⫹ (⫺20) ⫽ 10
Multiplication is successive addition so if we wish to multiply 25 by 3 we can
carry out the following calculation:
25 ⫹ 25 ⫹ 25 ⫽ 75
Division is successive subtraction, which is successive addition with a sign
change.
TQ 1.1 How would you use the above system to check if two numbers were equal?
Let us see how the addition function can be achieved.
1.2 The von Neumann model
A key feature of this model is the concept of a stored program. A program is a
set of instructions that describe the steps involved when carrying out a
computational task, such as carrying out a calculation or accessing a
database. The program is stored in memory together with any data upon
which the instructions operate, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
To run a program, the CPU or Central Processing Unit repeatedly fetches,
decodes and executes the instructions one after the other in a sequential
manner. This is carried out by a part of the CPU called the control unit. The
execution phase frequently involves fetching data, altering it in some way and
then writing it back to memory. For this to be possible, an instruction must
specify both the operation to be performed and the location or memory
address of any data involved. Operations such as addition and subtraction
are performed by a part of the CPU called the Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU). Input and Output devices are needed to transfer information to
and from memory. To sequence these transfers and to enforce the orderly
movement of instructions and data in the system, the control unit uses
various control lines.
Computer organisation and architecture
2

1.3 A personal computer system
Figure 1.2 shows some of the basic hardware of a ‘stand alone’ personal
computer (PC) system. The processor unit houses the bulk of the
electronics, including the CPU and memory. Attached to this are various
peripheral devices, such as a keyboard, a mouse, a monitor which can be a
TV type screen or a flat Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and a printer. These
devices provide the Input/Output (I/O) facility. If we open the processor
unit and take a look inside, we find a number of electronic components
mounted on a large printed circuit board known as a motherboard, as
shown in Figure 1.3. The components are connected together by
conducting tracks for carrying electrical signals between them. These
signals carry information in digitized or digital form and are therefore
referred to as digital signals.
Most of the electronic components are in the form of integrated circuits
(IC), which are circuits built from small slices or‘chips’ of the semiconductor
material, silicon. The chips are mounted in plastic packages to provide for
connecting them to the motherboard. One of the largest and most complex
ICs on the board is the microprocessor, normally referred to as the processor,
which is the CPU of the system. This chip contains millions of electronic
Introduction
3
Figure 1.1 The von Neumann model
ALU
Control Unit
CPU
Input
Device
Output
Device
Memory
(Program and data are
stored here)
control lines
instructions and
data flow
Figure 1.2 Basic PC system
monitor
keyboard
mouse
printer
processor unit
houses CPU
and Memory

switches called transistors organised in the form of logic gates, the basic
building blocks of digital circuits. These logic gates are used to implement
the control unit, the ALU and other components of the CPU such as its
register set. Logic gates are discussed in Chapter 3.
There are two basic types of semiconductor memory on the motherboard,
Random Access Memory (RAM) which is a read–write memory and Read
Only Memory (ROM). These form the fast primary or main memory of the
system and both store information in binary form (1s and 0s). RAM is often
provided in the form of memory modules, each module containing a number
of memory chips. The modules are plugged into sockets on the motherboard.
Because RAM can be read from and written to, it is suitable for storing
programs and data. Unfortunately RAM chips are normally volatile and
therefore lose their content when the computer’s power is switched off.
ROMs on the other hand, are non-volatile and are used for storing various
system programs and data that needs to be available when the computer is
switched on. Non-volatile means that the ROM does not lose its content even
when the power is removed.
4
Figure 1.3 A typical motherboard (reproduced with permission from EPOX Electronics)
JP14
J4
1
1
1
5
JP18
JP17
JP16
CPU Vio
Voltage Select
CPU
FAN
SYS
FAN
FDD1
DIMM3~1
IDE1
IDE2
POWER Loss
Recovery
JP3 1
JP1
JP2
J3
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
J2
1
1
1
USB2
J6
RESET
SPK
PWR_LED
IR CONN.
HD/LED
TB/LED
POWER_
ON/OFF
1
1
STR
Function
CHASSIS
FAN
Clear CMOS
1
CPU Host Clock
1
Power on and
DIMM Socket
remain powered
LED (DIP Type
Red) LED1
SOCKET462
CPU Socket A
ON
1
2
34
5
ON
1
2
34
5
Battery
VIA
VT8363
VIA
VT82c686A
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
BIOS
Keyboard
(Top)
Mouse
(Bottom)
USB 1
JP13
KBPO
COM1
COM2
CPU
Ratio
Select
PW1 ATX
Power Conn.
SW2
4X AGP Slat
PCI Slot # 1
PCI Slot # 2
PCI Slot # 3
PCI Slot # 4
PCI Slot # 5
PCI Slot # 6
SW1 CPU
Vcore Select
Parallel
Port
Speaker
Line-in Game Port
CD1
AUX
J7
ISA Slot
WOL
MODEM1
MIC
1

TQ 1.2 Why is ROM unsuitable for storing user programs?
In addition to a fast main memory, the PC also has a large but slower
secondary memory, usually in the form of a hard disk and one or two
floppy disk units and a CD or DVD read/write unit. Programs are stored
on disk as files and must be loaded into main memory before they can
be executed by the processor. Computer memory is discussed in
Chapters 6 and 7.
The processor is connected to memory and the other parts of the system
by a group of conducting tracks called a system bus, which provides a
pathway for the exchange of data and control information. Logically, a
system bus is divided into an address bus, a data bus and a control bus.
To co-ordinate activities taking place inside the processor with those taking
place on the system bus, some form of timing is required. This is provided
by a crystal controlled clock.
Input/Output (I/O) cards are plugged into the sockets shown in
Figure 1.3. The sockets are connected to the system bus. The cards are used
for connecting peripheral devices to the system. In general, peripheral
devices operate at much slower speeds than the CPU and so the I/O cards
will have special interface chips mounted on them for connecting the
peripheral devices to the system bus. Interfacing is discussed in Chapter 8.
It is worth mentioning that although PCs are very common and
there are many millions in use today, two other types of small computer
are becoming very popular, namely the small laptop or portable computer
and the even smaller, palmtop or personal data assistant (PDA) computer.
Both laptop and PDA computers are single unit devices with the monitor,
keyboard and mouse built into the single unit. Other than size and a
slightly higher price, there is little difference between a laptop and a PC.
PDAs have a restricted keyboard and sometimes a stylus is used to actuate
the keys rather than fingers. They also tend to have somewhat limited
capability.
1.4 Representing memory
We can visualise main memory as a series of storage boxes or locations, as
shown in Figure 1.4. Each location is identified by an address and can be
used to store an instruction or some data. For example, the instruction
move 4, is stored at address 0 and the datum, 2, is stored at address 5.
The first instruction, move 4, copies the‘contents of address 4’ or
number 1, into one of the processor’s registers. The second instruction,
add 5, adds the‘contents of address 5’ or number 2, to the first number
stored in the register. The third instruction, store 6, stores the‘contents of
this register’ or the sum of the two numbers, into address 6. Finally the
last instruction, stop, halts or prevents any further execution of the
program.
Introduction
5

1.5 High- and low-level languages
Instructions such as move and add are called machine instructions and are the
only instructions the processor can‘understand’ and execute. Writing
programs at this level requires a knowledge of the computer’s architecture,
which includes amongst other things, details of the processor’s registers, the
different instructions it can execute (instruction set) and the various ways
these instructions can address memory (addressing modes). Programming at
machine level is called low-level language programming and some examples
of this can be seen in Chapters 4 and 5.
When we wish to write programs to solve particular problems, it is often
easier to write them in English-like statements using a high-level language
(HLL), such as Java or C.
For example, the HLL statement:
Sum:⫽ A ⫹ B;
gives the same result as our previous program while being easier to follow.
The fact that the variables A, B and Sum refer to memory addresses 4, 5 and 6
or some other locations, is hidden from the programmer and allows him or
her to concentrate on the logic of the problem rather than the organisation
of the computer.
Because the machine cannot directly understand or execute HLL program
statements, these statements must be translated into machine instructions
before the program can be executed. Translating a HLL program into a
machine language program, often called machine code, is the responsibility of a
piece of system software. Two approaches to the process of translating HLL
into machine code are common. One is called Interpretation, where each HLL
statement is in turn converted into machine code statements which are then
executed. The other is called Compilation, where the whole HLL program is
converted into machine code statements and placed into a file called an
executable file.After the compilation process is completed the executable
file is then executed. Interpretation is ideal for the software development
stage. Compilation is best for a fully developed program as it runs faster.
6
Figure 1.4 A representation of memory
move 4
add 5
store 6
stop
1
2
Main Memory
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
address
Memory location 0
content is “move 4”

1.6 The operating system
As well as software for solving user problems (applications software),
software is needed for carrying out various system tasks, such as controlling
the monitor, reading the keyboard, loading files into memory from the hard
disk and so on. These programs are part of a powerful piece of systems
software called the operating system.
When we switch on a PC, we are presented with some form of user
interface. The interface might be graphical, as shown in Figure 1.5(a), or
command driven, as shown in Figure 1.5(b). In either case, the operating
system creates an environment for the user conveniently to examine files and
run programs. For a Graphical User Interface (GUI), this is done by‘clicking’
on icons using a pointing device such as a mouse, while for a Command
Driven Interface (CDI), it is done by entering special commands and file
names from the keyboard. The fact that we do not have to know where a file
is stored on disk or the main memory locations in which a program is
loaded, is simply due to the operating system.
Many operating system functions are either invisible to the user, or
become apparent only when things go wrong, such as when an error occurs.
The operating system is often referred to as a resource manager as part of its
job is to control the use of the processor, memory and file system. It is also
responsible for controlling access to the computer itself by providing a
security mechanism, which might involve user passwords. We will return to
the topic of operating systems in Chapter 9.
1.7 Networked systems
Very few office or college PCs are stand-alone systems. They are connected to
a network, which means that users of PCs can communicate using e-mail or
share resources such as printers, scanners and other PC’s disk systems.
There are two basic network configurations, peer-to-peer and server-based
networks. Peer-to-peer networks consist of a number of PCs connected
Introduction
7
Figure 1.5 Different user interfaces (a) graphical (b) command driven
Microsoft(R) Windows 95
(C)Copyright Microsoft Corp
1981–1996.
C:WINDOWS>
(a) (b)

together in such a way that each PC is of equal standing. Each PC can,
providing permission has been granted, access disks and peripheral devices
of any other PC directly. This is ideal if the number of PCs on the network is
small, say up to 10, but it is a difficult configuration to manage and keep
secure. Server-based networks consist of a number of PCs connected together
and also connected to a special PC called a server. The server provides a
central file store and a machine to control printing and network access. To
use the network, a PC user must‘log on’ to the server, which involves security
and access checking. The PC user can then access the server file system and
the peripherals connected to it. Each user is normally allocated his or her
own area of storage on the file system, which is only available for that user. A
common file area is often provided, available for all users, into which work to
be shared can be loaded. Server-based networks are ideal for larger networks.
Server-based networks are sometimes incorrectly referred to as client/server
networks. Client/server systems are more to do with distributed computer
systems than the Local Area Networks (LANs) commonly found. We will
cover networks in more detail in Chapter 11.
Answers to in text questions
TQ 1.1 Subtract one number from the other and see if the answer is zero. If the
answer is zero, the numbers are equal. The ALU can easily tell if a register
contains all zeros.
TQ 1.2 Because they can only be read from and not written to, they cannot be
loaded with user programs.
8
EXERCISES
1 Explain what the letters CPU, RAM, ROM and LAN stand for.
2 Write down the main features of a von Neumann style computer.
3 Explain why ROM is needed in a PC system.
4 Explain what is meant by the terms machine instruction and
instruction set.
5 State the parts of the CPU that are used for (a) fetching and
interpreting instructions (b) performing arithmetic operations
such as‘add’.
6 Briefly explain the benefits of programming in a HLL.
7 Software can be classified as either application software or systems
software. Give an example of each type.
8 When it is required to run a piece of software designed to run on
one type of machine on another type of machine, the software needs
to be recompiled. Explain why this is so.

Introduction
9
9 From the time you‘double click’ on an icon for a text document in a
GUI, to the time it appears on the screen and you are able to edit it,
the operating system must perform a number of tasks. Outline what
you think these might be.
10 Networks allow users to share peripherals and file stores. Explain the
security risks that this might involve.
11 Explain why a laptop computer may cost more than a PC with a
similar specification.
12 There is a growing trend for desktop PC users to want LCD displays
rather than TV type monitors. Explain why you think this is.
13 In a peer-to-peer network it is possible to send a message from one
PC to another PC directly but this is not possible in a server-based
network. Does this mean that server-based networks can not be
used for e-mail? Explain.
14 What is the effect if one PC in a peer-to-peer network fails or is
switched off?
15 What is the effect if the server machine in a server-based network
fails?

Data representation
and computer
arithmetic
Data is represented and stored in a computer using groups of binary digits
called words. This chapter begins by describing binary codes and how words
are used to represent characters. It then concentrates on the representation of
positive and negative integers and how binary arithmetic is performed
within the ALU. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the
representation of real numbers and floating point arithmetic.
2.1 Bits,bytes and words
Because of the two-state nature of logic gates, see Chapter 3 for more details
on logic gates, the natural way of representing information inside an
electronic computer is by using the digits 0 and 1 called binary digits. A
binary digit or bit is the basic unit from which all information is structured.
Computers store and process information using groups of bits called words,
as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
In principle, the number of bits in the word or word length can be any
size, but for practical reasons, modern computers currently standardise on
Figure 2.1 Words stored in memory
0
1
2
3
An n-bit word
e.g. 10110011
Information
e.g. a character ‘A’
e.g. an integer 5
e.g. a real number 3.4
word 0
word 1
word 3
word 2
address
Memory
2

Data representation and computer arithmetic
11
multiples of 8-bits, typical word lengths being 16, 32 or 64 bits. A group of
8 bits is called a byte so we can use this unit to express these word lengths as
2 bytes, 4 bytes and 8 bytes, respectively. Bytes are also used as the base unit
for describing memory storage capacity, the symbols K, M, G and T being
used to represent multiples of this unit as shown in the following table:
Thus K or KB represents 1024 bytes, M or MB represents 1048576 bytes,
G or GB represents 1073741824 bytes and T or TB represents 1099511627776
bytes.
In this book, we will use the lower case b to represent bits. Thus Kb means
Kbits and so on.
2.2 Binary codes
With an n-bit word there are 2n
different unique bit patterns that can be
used to represent information. For example, if n ⫽ 2, there are 22
or four
bit patterns 00, 01, 10 and 11. To each pattern we can assign some meaning,
such as:
00 ⫽ North, 01 ⫽ South, 10 ⫽ East, 11 ⫽ West
The process of assigning a meaning to a set of bit patterns defines a
particular binary code.
TQ 2.1 How many different‘things’ can we represent with 7 bits ?
(1) ASCII code
The ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), is a
7-bit character code originally adopted for representing a set of 128 different
symbols that were needed for exchanging information between computers.
These symbols include alphanumeric characters such as (A–Z, a–z, 0–9),
special symbols such as (⫹, ⫺, &, %, etc.), and control characters including
‘Line Feed’ and‘Carriage Return’. Table 2.1 illustrates some of the printable
ASCII codes such as‘A’ ⫽ 1000001 and‘%’ ⫽ 0100101. b6,b5, …, b0 are the
seven bit positions, numbered from left to right.
Multiple Pronounced Symbol
1024 kilo K
1024 ⫻ 1024 mega M
1024 ⫻ 1024 ⫻ 1024 giga G
1024 ⫻ 1024 ⫻ 1024 ⫻ 1024 tera T

12
Control codes, such as‘Carriage Return’ ⫽ 0001101 and‘Line Feed’ ⫽
0001010, are called non-printing characters. The full ASCII table is given in
Appendix 3.
In addition to providing a code for information exchange, the ASCII code
has also been adapted for representing characters inside a computer.
Normally characters occupy a single byte of memory: the lower 7 bits being
used to represent the ASCII code and the upper bit being set to 0 or 1,
depending upon the machine. The extra bit can also be used to provide
additional codes for storing graphic characters, or as a parity bit for checking
single bit errors.
TQ 2.2 By referring to the ASCII table in Appendix 3, write down the ASCII codes
for the characters –‘a’,‘Z’ and‘*’.
Binary codes can also be used to represent other entities, such as
instructions and numbers. To represent numeric data we require a set of
rules or numbering system for assigning values to the codes.
2.3 Number systems
(1) Decimal number system
We represent decimal numbers using strings of digits taken from the set
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Moving from left to right, each symbol represents
a linearly increasing value. To represent numbers greater than 9 we use
combinations of digits and apply a weighting to each digit according to its
position in the number. For example, the decimal integer 126 is assigned a
value of:
1 ⫻ 100 ⫹ 2 ⫻ 10 ⫹ 6 ⫻ 1 ⫽ 100 ⫹ 20 ⫹ 6
Table 2.1 ASCII codes for, ‘A’, ‘z’, ‘2’ and ‘%’
Character ASCII Codes
b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0
A 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
z 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
2 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
% 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

Data representation and computer arithmetic
13
The weighting applied to these digits is 10 raised to the power of the position
of the digit, as shown in Figure 2.2.
The position of a digit is found by counting from right to left starting at
position 0.
Fractional or real numbers use a decimal point to separate negative powers
of 10 from positive powers of ten. For example 52.6 represents:
5 ⫻ 101
⫹ 2 ⫻ 100
⫹ 6 ⫻ 10⫺1
The reason for using 10 is that there are ten different digits in this
representation, which we call the base or radix of the system. Other
positional number systems use different sets of digits and therefore have
different bases. To distinguish one number system from another, we often
subscript the number by its base, such as 12610.
(2) Binary number system
The binary number system uses just two digits { 0, 1} and therefore has a base
of 2. The positional weighting of the digits is based on powers of 2, giving the
number 10112, for example, a decimal value of:
1 ⫻ 23
⫹ 0 ⫻ 22
⫹ 1 ⫻ 21
⫹ 1 ⫻ 20
⫽ 8 ⫹ 0 ⫹ 2 ⫹ 1 ⫽ 1110
This system of weighting is called pure binary, the binary digit furthest to the
right being the least significant bit (lsb) and the one furthest to the left being
the most significant bit (msb).
TQ 2.3 What is the decimal value of the number 11.12?
(3) Hexadecimal number system
The hexadecimal (Hex) number system is a base-16 system and therefore has
16 different symbols to represent its digits. By convention the symbols
adopted are {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F}, where:
A ⫽ 1010, B ⫽ 1110, C ⫽ 1210, D ⫽ 1310, E ⫽ 1410 and F ⫽ 1510
In this system the weighting is 16 raised to the power of the position of the
digit. For example A1F16 has a decimal value of:
A ⫻ 162
⫹ 1 ⫻ 161
⫹ F ⫻ 160
⫽ 10 ⫻ 256 ⫹ 1 ⫻ 16 ⫹ 15 ⫻ 1 ⫽ 259110
Figure 2.2 Weightings used in the decimal number system
position
of digits
1× 102
+2×101
+6×100

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20 HISTOEiT OP THE COUNTY LONGFOED. own people, tLe
O'Connors of Connaught came to Roderick O'Connor, once King of
Ireland, to restore him to his kingdom and give him hostages, for
the hostages given to Connor Moinmoy were left in Lough Ree on
Inisclothrann. "1190. A meeting took place between Charles the
Bed-handed and Charles Carrach O'Connor to conclude a peace. The
Archbishops Connor MacDermott and Arteach O'Reddy were also
present. No agreement could be come to, and O'Connor and his clan
came that night to Clonmacnoise. Afterwards they sailed up the
Shannon to Lough Eee, where a great storm tossed their fleet.
O'Connor's ship became unmanageable and foundered, and but six
others and himself were saved. " 1183. Auliffe (Oliver) O'Farrell
assumed the Lordship of Annaly, and Hugh was expelled.' " 1196.
Hugh O'Farrell, Lord of Annaly, was treacherously slain by the sons
of Sitric O'Quinn. " 1207. Auliffe O'Farrell, Chief of Annaly, died. "
1209. Donogh O'Farrell, Chieftain of Annaly, died. "1210. The sons of
Roderic O'Connor, and Tiege, the son of Connor Moinmoy,
accompanied by some of the people of Annaly, crossed the Shannon,
and making an incursion into some of the territory east thereof
(Meath), carried a spoil with them into the wilderness of Kenel-
Dobhtha. Hugh, the son of Charles the Red-handed, pursued them,
and a battle was fought between them, in which the sons of Roderic
were defeated and driven again across the Shannon, leaving some
of their men and horses behind them. " 1232. Hugh, the son of
Auliffe, son of Connal O'Farrell, Chieftain of Annaly, was burned on
the island of Inislochacuile (Lough Owel), by the sons of Hugh
Cialach, son of Morogh O'Farrell, having been nine years chieftain of
Annaly, from the death of his predecessor, Moroch Carragh O'Farrell.
"1262. A great pillage was committed by the Enghsh of Meath on G-
ioUa-na-Naomh O'Farrell (the Just), Lord of Annaly. His own tribe

HISTORY OF THE OOUTSTTT LONGPOED. 21 also^ forsook
him and placed themselves under the protection of the English ;
afterwards they deposed him, and bestowed the lordship on the son
of Morogh Carragh O'Farrell. In consequence of this, GioUa
committed great devastations, depredations, spoliations, and pillages
upon the English, and fought several fierce battles upon them, in
which he slew vast numbers. He also defended vigorously the
lordship of Annaly, and expelled the son of Murrough Carrach
O'Farrell from the country. " 1274. Is recorded his death, having
achieved the victory of penance. He was son of Auliffe. " In the year
1271, it is related that Donall O'Flynn was slain by the son of Robin
Lawless at Shrewne. " 1282. Cathal, his son, who succeeded him in
the lordship, died in Iniscuan, and Jeffry O'Farrell, his brother,
succeeded him. " 1318. JefEry, the grandson of GioUa-na-naiomh
O'Farrell, Lord of Annaly, died. " 1322. Moragh, son of GrioUa and
Lord of Annaly, was treacherously slain by Seonnin (Little John)
O'Farrell at Cluainlisbeg. " 1328. Connor Mac Brennan was slain by
the inhabitants of Annaly. " 1345. Brian O'Farrell, worthy heir to the
lordship of Annaly, died. " 1347. GrioUa-na-Naomh, the son of Jeffry,
who was son of the other GioUa, died at Cluanlisbeg, having held for
a long time the lordship of Annaly. " 1348. Cathal O'Farrell, lord,
died. " 1353. Mahon, the son of Griolla, Lord of Annaly, died. " 1355.
Donall, the son of John O'Farrell, Lord of Annaly, died. " 1362.
Dermot, son of John, Lord of Annaly, died. " 1364. Melaghlin, son of
Morogh, son of Griolla, son of Hugh, son of Auliffe, Lord of Annaly,
died. " 1373. The English of Meath made an incursion into Annaly, in
the course of which they slew Eoderic, the son of Cathal O'Farrell,
his son, and numbers of his people. Donagh O'Farrell pursued them
with all his forces, and slew great numbers of them; but whilst
following

22 HISTORY OP IHE COUNTY LONGFORD. the Englisli he
was killed by the shot of an arrow, whereupon his people were
defeated. " 1374. MelaghHn, son of Dermot O'Farrell, went frOm
Annaly to Muntir Maolmordha, to wage war with the EngHsh. A
fierce and determined conflict ensued, in which O'Farrell and many
others were slain. " 1375. Geoffrey O'Farrell, a man of many
accomplishments, died. ** 1377. The Castle of Lios-ard-ablha (now
only marked by the moat of LisserdowHng) was erected by John
O'Farrell, Lord of Annaly. "1383. John died, and was interred at
Abbeylara. "1384. Cuconnaught, son of Hugh, and Jeffry O'Farrell,
died. " 1385. Cathal O'Farrell, worthy heir to the lordship of Annaly,
died. "1398. Morogii O'Farrell, a very renowned man, died a month
before Christmas, and was buried in Abbeylara; and Thomas, son of
Cathal, son of Morogh, also a renowned man, was slain at his
residence (at Killeeu in Legan), by the English df Meath and the
Baron of Delvin. He had been elected Lord of Annaly in preference to
John, his elder brother. John was then inaugurated as his successor.
" 1399. John O'Farrell, Lord of Annaly, died. " 1411. Murtogh
O'Farrell, son of the Lord of Caladh, in Annaly, died. " 1417. Mathew,
son of Cuconnaught, Lord of Magh Treagh, died. " 1430. Owen
O'Neill, accompanied by the chiefs of his province, marched with a
great army into Annaly. He went first to Sean (old) — Longphort
(now the town) — and from that to Coillsallach (Kilsallagh), where
he resided for some time. He went afterwards to Meath, and
returned home in triumph, bringing the son of Donall-boy O'Farrell
with him to Dungannon, as a hostage to ensure O'Farrell's
submission to him as his lord. " 1443. Brian, the son of Ever, who
was son of Thomas, son of Cathal O'Farrell, was slain as he was
endeavouring to make his escape by force from the island of Inis-
purt-an-gurtin, where he had been detained in confinement two
years by Donnall Boy O'Farrell.

HISTOET OP, THE COUNTY LONGFOHD. 23 " 1445. William,
the son of John, who was son of Donall O'Farrell, Lord of Annaly,
died after a long and virtuous life; and two chieftaincies were then
set up in Annaly. Eossa, the son of Murtough the Meathian, who was
son of Brian O'Farrell, was called The O'Farrell by all the descendants
of Morogh O'Farrell and the sons of the two Hughs — the sons of
John O'Farrell and all his other friends proclaimed Donall Boy, the
son of Donall, who was son of John, as chief of the tribe. The
territory was destroyed between the contests of both, until they
made peace and divided Annaly equally between them. (Here the
division of Annaly into Upper and Lower is clearly defined —
Grranard and Longford being the respective seats.) In this year also,
in which two chieftaincies were set up in Annaly, John, son of Brian,
son of Edmond O'Farrell, and eight others along with him, were slain
by John O'Farrell and the sons of Donnell Ballach O'Farrell, on the
mountain which is now called Slieve Galium Brigh Leith (Slieve
Galry), in Ardagh. " 1452. The Earl of Ormond and the Lord Chief
Justice of Ireland marched into the territory of Annaly, where
O'Farrell made submission to the Earl, and promised him beeves as
the price of obtaining peace from him. The Earl and Lord Chief
Justice then proceeded to Westmeath. " In 1461, The MacGheogan
of "Westmeath, committed great depredations on the Baron of
Delvin, and plundered the County Longford as far as Shrewle. "
1462. Thomas, the son of Cathal, who was son of Cathal O'Farrell,
Tanist of Annaly, was slain at Bail-atha-na-Pailse (now Palles,
Goldsmith's birthplace) at night, whilst in pursuit of plunder which a
party of the Dillons, the Clan Chonchabar, and the sons of Murta,gh,
were carrying off. They carried away his head and his spoils, having
found him with merely a few troops, a circumstance which seldom
happened to him. " 1467. Donnell Boy O'FarreU, Chieftain of Annaly,
and Lewis, the son of Ross, who was son of Cathal O'Farrell, died ;
Iriel O'Farrell was

24 HISTORY OF THE COUNTY LONGFOKD. elected to his
place, and John assumed Iriel's place as snb-cliief of Annaly. " 1474.
John O'Farrell was appointed to the chieftainship of Annaly in
preference to his brother, who was blind (and so incapacitated). "
1475. John O'Farrell, Chief of Annaly, died at Granard, after the feast
of his inauguration had been prepared, but before he had partaken
thereof ; he was interred at Lerrha. At the same time O'Donnell, son
of Niall G-arve, at the head of his forces, accompanied by the chiefs
of Lower Connaught, marched first to Ballyconnell, with intent to
liberate not only his friend and confederate, Brian O'Reilly, but also
to conclude peace between The O'Rorke and O'Reilly; O'Reilly
repaired at once to Ballyconnell, where a peace was ratified between
him and O'Rorke. After this he marched to Fenagh, and from thence
he directed his course to Annaly, in order to assist his friends, the
sons of Iriell O'Farrell. He burned and destroyed Annaly, except that
part of it which belonged to the sons of Iriell, whom he established
in full sway over the County of Annaly. "In 1476 the English of Meath
made an excursion into East Roscommon, during which they
demolished the village of the O'Quinns, occupied Pallas (then called
Baile-an-atha-Pailse), the scene of Goldsmith's boyhood days, and
burned the monastery of Shrewle and the fields of corn in that
country. " 1486. Teigue MacEgan, OUave of Annaly, was slain by the
descendants of Iriel O'Farrell — an abominable deed. " 1489. A great
intestine quarrel arose among the inhabitants of Annaly, during
which they committed great injuries against each other, and
continued to do so until the Lord Chief Justice piade peace among
them, and divided the chieftainship between the sons of John and
the sons of Cathal. " 1490, Bdmond Duff, the son of Ross, Lord of
Calahnah-Angaile, died, and Phelim, the son of GioUa, who was son
of Donnell, assumed his place. " 1494. Cormack O'Farrell, the son of
John, son of Donall, the second chieftain of Annaly of that day, died.

HISTOBT OP THE COUNTY LONGPOED. 25 " 1497. A great
battle was fought between the rival parties for the chieftaincy, in
which Donnell, son of Brian, Lord of Clan Auliffe, and Gerald, son of
Hugh Oge, Lord of Magh Treagh, were slain, and a great many
others. " 1516. Wilham, the son of Donogh OTarrell, Bishop of
Annaly, who assisted the Lord President to subdue The MacWilliam
Burke, and thus prevented him ruining The O'Kelly of Hy Maine, in
1504, died. " 1572. The sons of the Earl (of Eoscommon, I think)
next plundered the district lying between the Eiver Suck and
Shannon, and pillaged every person who was on friendly terms with
the English as far as the gates of Athlone. Afterwards, keeping the
Shannon on the right hand, they marched directly outwards to Slieve
Baghnad-tuath, crossed the ferry of Anghaile, and burned Athleague.
" 1576. Brian O'Rourke committed great predatory outrages this year
in Annaly "1595. Red Hugh O'Donnell marched an army into
Connaught, plundering the parts of the country that he passed
through. On his arrival in Leitrim, near Mohill, his enemies thought
he would return thence into Ulster, but this he did not do, but
privately despatched messengers to Hugh Maguire, of Eermanagh,
requesting that he would meet him in Annaly. He sent scouts before
him through that country, and ordered them to meet him at an
appointed place. He then marched onwards secretly and
expeditiously, and arrived with his troops at the dawn of day in the
Annalies, then the territories of the O'Parrells, though the Bnghsh
had some time previously obtained some power there. The brave
troops of O'Donnell and Maguire marched from Sliabh Oarbry to the
Eiver Inny, and as they passed along they set the country in a blaze,
which became shrouded under a black and dense cloud of smoke.
They took Longford, and set fire to every side and corner of it, so
that it was only by a rope that Christopher Browne, his brother, and
their wives, were conveyed in safety from the prison of which he
was marshal." This concludes the references in the Annals of the
Four Masters

26 HISTOEY OF THE COUNTY LONGTOED. relating to this
county. As the readers will see, Annaly was invaded by the Danes in
the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, during which many battles
were fought on both the Danish and Irish side, principally in Lough
Ree and Lough Gowna. The creation of the two chieftaincies in
1445, is dealt with so fully by the Annalists, that the extract given is
sufficient to . describe that eventful period which marked the
beginning of the end of native rule in Annaly. In the year 1553 the
goOd Queen Mary ascended the English throne, and appointed as
her principal lieutenant in Ireland the famous Sir Henry Sidney, who
first visited Annaly in 1553, and subsequently had the ancient
patrimony of the OTarrells styled the County of Longford. No one
who has read this history can find in any of the extracts quoted a
precedent for this action ; and, as we shall see, it was the opening
act of a drama, in which the unfortunate natives of Annaly were the
chief sufEerers. I presimie it is now clear to the people of Longford
that (1) it formed at one time portion of the ancient kingdom of
Ctenmacne, and (2) that it was subsequently called Anghaile, which
was in turn Anglicized Annaly, and was known by this title until the
advent of Sir Henry Sidney, as Queen Elizabeth's Lord Deputy, in
1570. I have discovered in the State Papers of the years 1540 to
1580 a number of very interesting extracts relating to his dealings
with what I may truly describe to be the unfortunate inhabitants of
Annaly. Sir Henry Sidney thus writes to the council at Dublin Castle,
under date 1553 : — "Between the Shannon and O'Eeilly's country is
the Annale, a strong country, where the Eerralls dwell, men of good
obedience, who pay yearly to the king 100 marks rent, and find 240
galloglas for a quarter of the year after the rate of 4d. sterling the
spear by the day. Lately, in the absence of my Lord Deputy, I being
there for the order of their contentions, they obeyed my letters." It
would seem from this extract that Annaly was subjected by the
Tuites, &c., early in the thirteenth or fourteenth century, and that at
this period the Enghsh were able to levy blackmail on the inhabitants

HISTOKT OF THE COUNTY L0NGFOED. 27 of ,Annaly, wticli
-was always open to the inroads of the enemy, not being protected
by any natural barriers, whose friendly aid the inhabitants could use
to advantage. In addition to this natural disadvantage under which
they laboured, we find them also labouring under a more unnatural
and decidedly more disastrous one, namely, that of disunion. For, m
1445 (that is one hundred years before), " two chieftaincies had
been set up in Annaly," as the Four Masters tell us, and the quarrels
and dissensions which arose out of this state of things, of course
largely helped the invader in his evil purposes. What a moral does
not the treatment of our forefathers contain for us. Irishmen ? Let us
examine any phase of Irish history — let us search up to its source
the true reason of the failure of any combination against the
progress of our enemies, and we will find invariably that Irishmen
themselves were either to blame from ambitious causes, or were
made the dupes of their more cunning and less scrupulous
opponents. The progress of Irish industry, even ia those days, did
not please the so-called Parliament sitting in Dulelin ; for according
to the State Papers for 1452, we find that it was passed as a law : —
"Cap 3 — That no BngHsh merchant carry any goods or merchandise
to any of the merchants of Cavan, Granard, or any other Irish county
out of the English pale, or bring any goods from the said marches,
upon pain to forfeit the same goods, and their bodies to be at the
king's pleasure. It shall be lawful to any of the king's subjects to
attack or arrest such as attempt to do the contrary, and to commit
them to gaol. One moiety of the goods forfeited to be the king's ;
the other his that makes the seizure ; wine, ale, and bread always
excepted." We now come to the time when the wholesale
confiscations begin. Sir Henry Sidney made a second tour of Ireland
in 1570, and visited , Annaly, which he erected into the County
Longford, According to the State Papers of Sir Henry Sidney's tour in
Annaly in 1670, we find it set forth : — " On February 11th, 1670,
the following indenture was made

28 HISTORY 01? THE COUNTY LONGFORD. between the
O'Farrells, of tlie County Longford, and Sir Henry Sidney, President of
the Council of Wales and Lord Deputy of Ireland, of the one part ;
and Faghne O'Farrell, otherwise called O'Farrell Bane, of TuUy, in the
County Longford, sometime called the Annale ; William Fitzdonnell
O'Farrall, of the Moat, John O'Farrell, of the Glane, captain of
WilHam's sept ; Donnell O'Farrell, of the Reen, now called McMorge,
in Tleeve ; Melaghhn O'Farrell, of Moneylogan ; Felyn Boye O'Coyne,
of the Brewne, called O'Coyne, and O'Donnell O'Farrell, of Kilgrease,
captain of Gillernow's sept in the said county, gentlemen, of the
other part. " 1. The said Faghne O'Farrell, and the rest above-
named, promise and bargain to surrender in the Court of Chancery
in Ireland to the use of the Queen, when they shall be required to
do so, all their possessions in the said country, sometimes called the
Annally, and now the County Longford ; and the Lord Deputy
promises that they shall receive the same by letters patent from the
Queen, to hold to them and their heirs for ever by Knight's service,
and that they shall be exonerated from the Bonaught accustomed to
be paid out of the said country to the Queen's Gallowglasses, and
from all other cesses and impositions. In consideration thereof, they
grant to the Lord Deputy and his heirs, for the use of the Queen,
and her successors, a yearly rent-charge of 200 marks, Irish,
payable at the feasts of Michaelmas and Easter, from Michaelmas
next. For lack of money to be paid in the Exchequer, the Treasurer or
Receiver Greneral is to receive kine to the value of the rent unpaid,
as kine shall be worth, and sold in the market of Athboye and
Navan. If the rent be behind unpaid in part or in all by the space of
six months next after any of the said feasts, it shall be lawful to the
Lord Deputy, or to the Treasurer, or Receiver- General to enter a
distrain on all the lands. " 2. They promise to answer to all general
hostings, roads, journeys, and risings out as they have been
accustomed, and to pay yearly for ever the ancient rent due to the
Queen's Majesty out of the said portion of the said country, now
being under the

HISTOET OP THE COUNTY LONGPOED. 29 ride of the said
Fahny Farrell, that is to say, 50 kine or 6s., Irish, for every cow. " 3.
That the captainship of that portion of the said county called
Annalye, which heretofore had been used by the said OTerrall Bane,
shall from henceforth be utterly destroyed, abolished, extinguished,
removed, and put back within the said county for ever ; and that the
said Fahny OTerrall shall receive and take up by letters patent from
the Queen's Majesty for the term of his life, an authority in the said
county called Blentane, in the said County Longford, by the name
and stiles of Seneschal, and not otherwise, together with all such
customs, duties, and charges as has been accustomed to be yielded
yearly, and paid into the said Tague OTarrell, as captain of the said
county, and indorsed on the back of said indentures, and the said
OTarrell not to be removed from his captaincy till such time as he
have in patent the Seneschalship. After his death, hke letters patent
to be made out to one of the OTarrells within the said county, such
as the governor for the time being shall choose. " 4. None shall be
sergeant nor petty sergeant within the said county but of the said
county birth. " 5. The said Seneschal shall apprehend all traitors,
felons and other malefactors, and commit them to the common shire
gaol of the said county, and prosecute them according to the laws.
For this (his travail) he shall have the moiety or half-hendel of the
lands of persons attainted, and of the goods and chattels of such
felons as shall be executed within his rule, the other moiety to
remain to the Queen. The Seneschal shall also have all frays,
batteries and bloodshed that shall happen within his rule, according
as his predecessors have used to have by the name of OTarrell. " 6.
The County of Longford shall henceforth pay yearly the subsidy of
13s. 4d. yearly upon a ploughland, granted of late by Parliament to
the Queen, when it shall be divided into ploughlands. For the first
three years next after the division into ploughlands, wastes shall be
allowed as in other places of shire ground. The lands of the
Geraldines

30 HISTOEY OF THE COUNTY LONGFOED. and Nugents
and others of the English Pale, shall all be contributors, and bear to
the said Seneschal all such lawful customs and duties as heretofore
they used to receive by the names of captain or tanist. If the same
be obstinately refused, the Sheriff of the said county will distrain. "
7. None of the gentlemen freeholders, or others of the same county,
shall take any goods or chattels, one from the other, on any account,
but only for rent service, rent charge or damage f esant, and none
of them to seek to revenge their private quarrels, one upon another,
for anything, but by order of the Queen's laws or arbitraments, with
consent of the parties, upon pain of double the thing received to
heirs quotiens, to him or to them who shall so offend. " 8. Neither
the Seneschal nor Sheriff shall levy or exact upon the said county
any money, cattle or other things for expenses in ■ coming to the
council and governor to Dublin or elsewhere in their own private
business, unless they be appointed by the said county for the
common profit thereof, and then such expenses as they shall have
shall be first condescended by the said county and afterwards
cessed indifferently. " 9. The said county shall be discharged of
soldier, horse, horseboy, and all other cesses and exactions, unless
when they shall have occasion to travel for the prince through that
country. " Sealed by the parties above-named, and signed and
delivered in the presence of Richard Tailor, Fergus OTerrall, Richard
Staine and William MacDonnell, 11th February, 1570." It would be
well for the reader to carefully study the nine articles under which
the O'Farrells surrendered their lands, and to observe how those
articles were subsequently upheld. It would be also well to remark
here, that in order to create disunion all the more readily amongst
the inhabitants of Annaly, Sir Henry Sidney elevated one family to
the chieftaincy, whilst, as will be seen, his successors elevated a
different family, and hence the creation of a clan feud which placed
the O'Farrells at the entire mercy of the invader.

HISTORY OF THE COUNTY LONOFORD. 31 , After having
carefully perused the foregoing articles, the reader will perceive that
the so-called Seneschalship was to be vested first in Faghney Farrell,
and afterwards to be elective amongst the other chieftains of the
name in the county. "We shall soon see how, after Sir Henry Sidney
had bargained thus with the chieftains, Sir John Perrot, whose name
is well known in the pages of Irish history, set this arrangement
aside, and in order still further to place the deluded owners at his
mercy, set up a chieftain, whose claim was forcibly disputed by the
rest of the name. In 1571 the following indenture was signed by all
the OTarrells : — " Indenture betwixt Sir Henry Sidney of the one
part, and Faghy O'Ferrall, otherwise called O'Ferrall Baye, of the
Pallise, in the County of Longford, sometime called the Annale,
Kedagh O'Ferrall of Eaharavey, Fergus O'Ferrall, of the Bawn,
Edmund O'Ferrall, of Criduffe, Irriel O'Ferrall, son to the said
O'Ferrall, of Mornin, Teige Duffe McCormicke O'Ferrall, of the Killyn
Crubock (Killeen Legan), O'Ferrall, of, the Camace, Bryan McRory
O'Ferrall, of Drumvinge, Shane M'Grarrot O'Farrall, of the Corrigeen,
Tirrelagh O'Barden of Drombishen, Wm. O'Bardan, of the same, Eory
Mackrose O'Farrell, of Kilmacshane, Teige Bay O'Ferrall, of Tyrlicken,
Iriell Mac William O'Farrell, of Ballyishaun, Bryan McHebbard
O'Ferrall, of Kilmacommoge, Murrough McDonnell O'Farrell, of
Athadonnell, Eosse MacDonnell O'Farrell, of Ballyringan, Moragh
McTeige O'Farrell, of Ballyclare, Cathal McHebbard Farrell, of
Devyclyne, Murcho McOonyck O'Ferrall, of Corrigglagain, Euran McG-
errot O'Ferrall, of Clonfower, Teige Duffe O'Ferrall, of the same,
Connell MacShane O'Ferrall, of Drommeded, Grillernewe MacFaghne
O'Farrell, of Eaclyne, Cowke McHebbard O'Ferrall, Bellallyng, Felem
MacDonnell O'Ferrall, of Keramkeyll, Connor MacEossa O'FarroU, of
Cashell, Beage Hebbard MacEossa O'FarroU, of Furkeyll;, Teige
McMoryarty O'FarroU, of Cornyll, Jeffry Oge O'FarroU, of Cornageurk,
Moyertagh O'FarroU, of Liveny, Hugh McDonogh O'FarroU, o'f the
Carygn, Shane McDonnell O'FarroU McDonnell, of the Curry, Felem
O'Ouyne, of the Arcwranake,

32 DISTORT OF THE COUNTY LONGPOED. Jeffry O'Cuyne,
of Rathcline, William M'Donkey O'Farroll, of Daremore, Donnell
McCoUe OTarroU, of Crulaghte, in tlie said county, gentlemen, of the
other part. " The said Faghna OTarrell and the rest above named
covenant to surrender in the Court of Chancery in Ireland to the use
of the Queen, ■when they thereunto shall be required, all their
possessions in this country, sometime called the Annally and now the
County of Longford, with the like covenants and conditions as in the
former indentures are mentioned." This is the consequent document
of the previous one, and, in my opinion, was framed so as to render
the articles therein contracted for open to suspicion, by subsequent
deputies, who could, of course, more easily question the validity of
two than one document. The reader will perceive by it that in this
case the surrender was made without any such stipulations as were
made in the first one. On April 27th, 1576, Lord Deputy Sidney wrote
: — " As to Annalye, or O'Ferrall's country, and East Brenye
(BrefEny), or O'Eeille's country, they all attended upon me during my
abode in the Counties of Roscommon and Westmeath. At my being
at Athlone I sent commissioners thither to hold sessions. This
country was made shire ground by me by the name of the County
Longford, and the chief lords are bound to pay 400 marks by the
year of increase of revenue, whereof albeit they were in arrear for
several years, yet immediately upon my demand they paid part, and
took short days for the payment of the rest." "1588, December 2.—
A grant made to Faghna O'Ferrall, of the Palace, County Longford,
alias O'Ferrall Bay, and his heirs, of divers la,nds, tenements and
hereditaments, in the townlands of Moybravain, Clanawly,
Clangillemewe, Mountirgelgan, Callon, and elsewhere, in the County
Longford." This grant was the beginning of the dispute between the
O'Ferralls, because here is given to another family that which Sir
Henry Sidney previously gave to the O'Ferralls, of TuUy, and was in
direct violation of one of the articles of the indenture.

HISTORY OF THE COUNTY LONGFOBD. 33 July 15, 1588.
— Lord Deputy Fitzwilliam wrote to the Privy Council that coiaplaints
"were made by the chiefest geutlemen of O'Farrell Boy's country, the
indenture made ia Sir Henry Sidney's deputation not to be infringed
by the patent which the present O'Faxrell Boy has sent his son Iriell
to have confirmed in England. Kedah O'Ferrall, Connell O'Ferrall and
others wrote to Queen Elizabeth against Faghna O'Farrell and Iriell,
his son, who seek the confirmation of a patent contrary to an
agreement made by Sir Henry Sidney between Faghna, Iriell and all
the other O'Farrells for the quiet government of the County
Longford. In 1588 it was " objected against Sir John Perrot " that —
" He hath lately within this twelvemonth passed a patent under the
great seal of Ireland to Faghnagh O'Farrell, Iriell OFarrell, his son,
and their heirs, of certain lands, as also the Seneschalship in the
County of Longford, which patent is very prejudicial to Kedagh
O'Farrell, and a number of others besides, and contrary to certain
indentures passed in the tenth year of Her Majesty between both the
septs of the O'Farrells and Sir Henry on Her Majesty's behalf, by
which indenture after the death of the said Faghna, the Senesclial is
to be nominated by the Lord Deputy from any of the name O'Farrell
during his Hfe only. This is likely to cause great disquietness in the
O'Ferrall's country." The cause of the dispute from this extract would
seem to be that the Seneschalship was at first vested in Faghne
O'Ferrall for his lifetime; and after his death the office was not to be
hereditary, but to be given to any other of the name O'Ferrall. The
wily Sir John Perrot, well knowing the fiery temperament and proud
disposition of the Irish chieftains, conferred the office on Faghne's
son, which immediately set the country aflame, and was the means
of giving the invader a stronger hand over it. This has always been
the invader's best card to play, because when he had set the Irish
against each other, he knew their enmity was enough to leave him,
nothing more to wish for. We now come to the advent of the
informer on the scene in the person of one Patrick Fox, who (like the
vulture that hovers over

34 HISTOET OP THE COUNTY lONGPOKD. the battlefield)
scenting the plunder, which by clever and artful lying might be his,
approaches the Lord Deputy and council with plausible tales of the
treachery and treason of the O'Perralls. From the context it appears
that this -Fox was either a lawyer or a scrivener of some description,
and that having no recourse with which to earn an honest living but
on the ruin of honest men, took to this method to build up for
himself and his successors a name and a fame in the country. A poor
name and fame, indeed, is such ! On January 28th, 1589, Patrick
Fox, of Dublin, wrote to Lord "Walshingham inter alia : — " One
Hubert O'Ferrall, son to Fergus O'Ferrall, him that withstands the
patent of Mr. O'Farrell, now in England, had been lately with Feagh
MacHugh O'Byrne, and had of him a chief horse, and is with a great
number of idle knaves ranging up and down the County of Longford,
and meaneth to do some mischief to some of Her Majesty's subjects
there." On February 4th, 1589, the sept of the O'Farrells wrote to
"Walshingham, praying " that in case it be not meant to refer the
determining of the controversy between them and Iriell O'Farrell for
the captaincy of Annally, they may have license to repair to England
with their evidences, Iriell O'Farrell not to be made sheriff," 1589. '
February 13th. — Sir Henry Harrington'wrote to Lord "Walshingham,
informing him that one of Fergus O'Farrell's sept is now at the court
a suitor for the captaincy of Annally. " Fergus O'Farrell has been
always ready and willing to serve Her Majesty, and has had the good
opinion of all governors. General report says the right is in Fergus
and in the rest of his sept according to the compositions made in the
time of Sir Henry Sidney." Memorandum. — The controversy
between the O'Farrells to be referred to the Lord Deputy with advice
for the division of Annaly. March 31, 1589.—" The matter of the
O'Farrells groweth daily worse and worse." April 29, 1589. —
Walshingham to Burghely — "Wishing the

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HJSTOET OF THE COUNTY LONGFORD. 37 O'Farrells to be
satisfied and contented lest the action of the governors and council
be discredited when people perceive that matters of this weight
having been, upon good deliberation, concluded and established by
one deputy for a public good, shall afterwards be dissolved and
disannulled by another for the benefit of any private family." June
24. — "The O'Farrells of Tenelike wrote to Burghely that their agent,
Edward Nagle, may be returned in safety with the despatch of their
suit." June 24. — " Petition of Bfiward Nangle to Burghely that the
patent lately granted of certain lands to O'Farrell Boy may be
speedily revoked." October 24th, 1589. — Patrick Fox, of Dublin,
wrote to Lord Walshingham a letter containing, the following "
articles of treason and disloyalties committed by Fergus O'Farrell and
his adherents to the prejudice of the state, as shall be sufficiently
proved" : — " ] . When O'Eorke received the Spaniards into his
protection, he sent Fergus O'Farrell a fair Spanish cloak of great
value, and a pair of gilt spurs, which were very thankfully received
by the said Fergus in the said dangerous time in which O'Eourke was
in rebellion. " 2. He sent letters and messages daily to O'Eourke, and
gave him intelligence of the movements of the Queen's troops whilst
O'Eorke was in rebellion. " 3. A priest named Connor O'Kenny often
took messages between O'Eourke and Fergus, and with a view to
join O'Eourke's daughter in marriage with Hubert, his son. " 4. He
advised and caused O'Eorke not to come ' to the Lord Deputy upon
the safe conduct which the Lord Deputy sent by Sir Henry
Harrington and Lord Thomas Lestrange. "6. He received a letter from
O'Eourke by the hands of Cahil Keogh, one of O'Eorke's footmen,
and a follower of Fergus's wife. " 6. He sent Bryan McMortagher, a
priest brought up in his house, to Spain for some bad purpose, and
afterwards he also sent his son, Brian O'Farrell, to Spain. D

38 HISTOEY OP THE COUNTY LONGPOED, " 7. He sent a
harp as a token to Feagh MacHugh, by one Eioliard O'Quinn, a
priest, well knowing MacHugli to be a bad member. " 8. The said
Fergus's son, called Hubert MacFergus, repaired to Feagh MacHugh,
and remained with him a week to establish friendship betwixt Feigh
and O'Eorke and his own father. At his deparure the received a dog
from Feigh MacHugh and a chief horse as a bond of his devotion,
which horse, with eight others, was forcibly and feloniously taken
with much goods and other cattle from Hugh Duffe, one of the Earl
of Ormonde's tenants, about 14 days before, at which time Feigh
MacHugh sought Hugh Duffe to kill him. " 9. The said Fergus being
High Sheriff of the County Longford, went to the house of Bryan
O'Reilly, and became his gossip, he knowing O'Eeilly to be a
notorious traitor, whose overthrow was sought for by the State, as
may appear by the £20 that was paid for cutting off his head. "10. It
is to be , remembered that in Ireland there is no greater proof of
friendship than to become the gossip of any man. "11. Fergus and
his sons were of great acquaintance and familiarity with the traitor,
Hugh Eoe O'Donnell, and while he was prisoner in the Castle of
Dublin they often visited him, and after his escape Fergus sent him
messages by his servant, Cormack O'Hanly. For this Cormack
received a large horse from the said Hugh, and he called it
O'Donnell, and having brought the said horse to the house of
Fergus, the Sheriff of Longford requested Fergus to keep Cormack
prisoner till the Lord Deputy did send for him, but Fergus would
neither deliver him to the said sheriff nor keep him in his castle ; but
thinking that he might escape from the sheriff, sent him out of his
castle with his sword and target, and willed him not to submit
himself to the said sheriff, but rather revenge his death, whereupon
the sheriff pursued him, and was shot by a bullet." October 29,
1589.— The sept of the O'Farrells— Kedagh Connell and Fergus —
wrote to Burghely for licence to prosecute their cause against Iriell
O'Farrell in England, or have a hearing in Ireland. , October 31,
1589. — The sept of the O'Farrells wrote to Walshing

HISTORY OF THE COUNTT LONGPOBD. 39 ham, asking
that the cause between them and Iriell Q'Farrell may be referred to
Lord Deputy and Council, or that they may be licensed to go over to
England to prosecute the same at court; but their agent was
intimidated and driven away by J. William Mostyn. December 15. —
In a docket of Irish suits that of the O'Farrells occurs. December 22.
— The Privy Council wrote to the Lord Deputy to license Fergus
O'Parrell to repair over to England about the difference between him
and Iriell. 1590. Letter from Sir Lucas Dillon to Sir John Perrott,
informing him that Fergus O'Parrell is Sheriff of Longford for this
year. Sir Lucas was Lord Chief Justice about this time. February 20.
— A letter from the Lord Deputy, informing the Council that Fergus
O'Parrell will repair over to England to answer Iriell O'Parrell in the
end of March. March 26. — The Baron of Delvin wrote to Burghely,
commending Fergus O'Parrell to him as one inclined to civility and
good life. April 10, 1589. — Letter from Queen Elizabeth ordering
O'Parrell Boy, and Iriell, his son, to be strengthened in their position
by a regrant on surrender. April 18. — Letter from Gerald Birn to Sir
John Perrot, informing him how Fergus O'Parrell's son and another
horseman, well furnished with armour, and a harper riding upon a
hackney with them, tarried certain days at the house of the traitor,
Feagh Mac Hugh 0' Byrne. About same date a petition was received
from Iriell O'Parrell, asking the Privy Council to forbear ordering
anything against the O'Farrells, his adversaries, till he be made privy
and heard. December. — Iriell O'Pai-rell, of Mornyne, asks that £40
per annum be settled on him for sixty years, as his estates have
reverted to Sir Nicholas Aylmer and Sir Patrick Barnewall, also a
letter from Sir J. Perrot, recommending the tanistries to be
abolished, and citing the O'Farrells' cases. In 1590 the cases
instituted by the O'Farrells against the jurisdiction

40 HTSTOBY 0"P THE COUNTY LONGFORD. bestowed by
Sir Henry Sidney on Fagbney OTarrell and Iriell, bis i son, against
wbicb tbey rebelled, baving been submitted to tbe Lord Delvin, he
reported on lOtb May, 1590, as follows :— " Tbe O'Farrells . never
enrolled tbe indenture between tbemselves and Sir Henry Sidney.
Tbey never surrendered tbeir lands according to tbe covenant made
20 years past, but beld them by the tanist and captaincy granted by
Sidney. As the indenture ties none but those that be living, I doubt
much whether the grant to Mr. Malby be good enough or not. It is
covenanted in Sir Henry's indenture that the Lord Deputy may grant
an estate to them and their heirs of such lands as tbey will
surrender. In the grant made by me I have performed that covenant,
so that all who allege that I have varied from that covenant are
much deceived, and I am greatly misused in the report of the
Deputy's letters. I see no reason why the rest of the O'Farrells now
living, and privy to the indenture, may not surrender their lands as
O'Farrell Bane and Faghny O'Farrell (Boy) have done,
notwithstanding anything in my patent to the Faghny. Where they
say that they saw O'Farrell Bane, who surrendered his lands at one
time with the said Faghny O'Farrell, being the greater lord of both,
against whom nothing is said, and the said Faghny, with the rest of
the O'Farrells, do pay £200 sterling yearly to her Majesty, they pay
the said £200 now to Malby ; but the same is gotten with great
difl&culty, for I made many warrants whilst I governed there to the
sheriffs to distrain them with force for the payment thereof, and they
got from her Majesty above 500 ' marks yearly when they granted to
pay her Majesty the said £200 ; for the O'Farrells were bound to find
her Majesty 200 galliglasses for a certain time, whereby her Majesty
gained nothing by that covenant, but lost. Faghny was appointed
captain by Sidney, and was afterwards to become seneschal of bis
county, but I never thought fit to perform that covenant. No captain
or seneschal should be appointed, because they have justices,
sheriffs, and other ofl&cers. Fergus has no reason to find himself
grieved, as Kedagh is before him ; nor either of them so long as
Faghny O'Farrell is alive. To find fault to my letters patent

HISTORY OF THE COUNTY LONGFORD. 41 to Faglmy would
be a dangerous example. When they were issued we could not get a
sight of the said indenture, which was consequently exempted from
their influence." Thus we see that whilst Fergus OTarrell was
supported by the Lord Delvin, Iriell, the son of Faghne, who was first
seneschal, was supported by the lying tales of Fox. This is a pretty
medley of affairs, to find two Irish chieftains fighting against each
other for a mere empty honour, and backed each by the deceitful
and pretended support of two Saxon adherents. Later on we shall
see how both Fox and Delvin had the spoil, in the shape of large
grants of land taken from the very men they encouraged to fight on
! 1591. September 21. — Sir Richard Bingham writes to the Privy
Council informing them that he " has been requested to give his
opinion of Eory O'Farrell and his brother, Iriell, who is now in
England. Their adversaries are Lisagh O'Farrell, the Bishop of
Ardagh, and Fergus O'FarreU. The former has always been dutiful in
her Majesty's service since Sir Nicholas Malby's time, whilst the latter
have been severally accused and touched both before and after his
banishment." In certain accusations made against Sir Robert DiUon,
Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in 1693, several references are
made to Longford. One of these is of Christopher Brown, who
escaped from Longford when it was burned by Red Hugh O'Donnell
in 1595. From informations dehvered to the Lord Deputy and Council
on 13th August, 1593, by an informer, named Shawn McCongawny,
the following references to the town and neighbourhood of Longford
appear : — " This is the service which I have opened against Sir
Robert Dillon, that O'Rourke sent the constable of Longford,
Christopher Brown, to Sir Robert Dillon and Sir Lucas DiUon, to know
what course they would advise him to hold, or whether they were
able to do him good, and to espy about the Lord Deputy and Council
what disposition they bare to him. And John Garland related to the
Lords of Delvin and Howth, in the Easter term, 1593, that 'when I
was sent from Sir John

42 HISTOEY OF THE COUNTY LONGFOED. Perrot witli
letters to O'Rourke, by the direction of lier Majesty's Privy Council in
England — within a month or two after my arrival here^I set
forward upon that service attended by my brother, Richard Garland,
and my horseboy, Eichard Neile; and being; come as far as Mr. Rory
O'Farrall's house in the Annally, he sent one with me to be my guide.
Having travelled so far as to the wood beyond Longford, we
overtook three men on foot, whereof one carried a bottle of aqua
Yitse, the other a small barrel of gunpowder, and the third, who
wore a hat (query, had the others no hats ?) bore in the skirt of his
mantle some heavy things which to our seeming should be lead. We
made no long tarrying with those fellows, misdoubting the danger of
the way by reason that O'Rourke was not long before fallen into
rebellion. This was on Tuesday, and we held our way towards
O'Rourke, to whom we came the morrow after upon Loughguire.
Upon Thursday the three men' arrived also ; and being at dinner,
O'Rourke called out for Christopher Browne's men, whereof he that
carried the gunpowder stood up and answered.' " ' Sir W. Russell's
Journal. — 1597. February 6th. — Fergus O'Farrell sent in the heads
of Farrell O'Bawne's son, and another rebel. 1597. June 20th. — The
Lord of Delvin sent in one of the O'Farrells, a notable rebel, who was
taken and wounded by the Nugents. He died of his wounds. 1597.
September 6th. — The Lord of Delvin sent in three of the O'Farrells'
heads. ******** In the year 1603 James I. ascended the English
throne. Bad as were the persecutions under which the Irish suffered
up to that, they were nothing to what followed during his rule. He
had not been long on the throne before that remorseless system of
confiscation for which his reign is famous in Irish history was
planned. The following extracts will show how it was carried out.
Nothing that plotting could devise was left undone to afford the
necessary excuse to the royal robber. He first ordered a survey of
the lands of Ireland to be made, in the report of which Longford
figures as follows : —

HISTOEY OF THE COUNTY LONGFOED. 43 July 6, 1606. —
Eeturn of chargeable and free lands in the County Longford. — "
Com. Longford. — I find as well by the view of some records as by
mine own experience and knowledge in part, as also by the
conference and consent of some of best antiquity and knowledge of
the county, that there are 700 cartrons and upwards of chargeable
lands in the County Longford, and near 200 cartrons of free land ;
and that the quantity of the land of these cartrons is very uncertain
— some of them containing 30 acres of arable land, some 25 acres,
some 15 and some 10 acres, and some less, besides bog and
mountain ; and that every one of the cartrons aforesaid are in
respect of the rents and services payable to the Manor of Granard,
and to Mr. Malby, who is charged with 10s. 6d. old money, besides
his Majesty's rent." — Datum at Dublin, 6th July, 1606. " Having
examined the complaint of Rosse and Brian O'Farrell, and others of
their kindred and name of the sept of O'Farrell Bane, against a grant
made unto the Baron of Delvin and the lady dowager, his mother, of
certain lands possessed by them before their attainders in the
County of Longford, they have now at last, after much debating of
the matter, prevailed with the Lord of Delvin and his mother
voluntarily to surrender all, one patent, which is cancelled,
containing not only the OTarrells' escheated lands in fee-simple
within the said county, but also certain divers other parcels of lands
in the 'Counties of Cavan and Longford, besides some 'of their own
ancient inheritance, and purchased lands in fee-simple within the
said counties, which they had since rendered up and taken again of
his Majesty, reserving thereon a small rent, the better to assure to
themselves a better protection against the O'Farrells and all others.
Some other parcels of the O'Farrells' lands which they had passed in
another patent, which parcels they have by deed surrendered, so
that all of the O'Farrells' lands granted unto them are now resumed
and revested to His Majesty. "Their lordships understand for what
consideration his Majesty was pleased to pass to the Lady Delvin and
the Baron, her son, in feefarm for ever, so much escheated and
concealed lands in Meath, West

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