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Chapter 07 - Pathways of Cellular Respiration
7-1
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07
Pathways of Cellular Respiration
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following are the end products for cellular respiration?
A. glucose and carbon dioxide
B. glucose and water
C. glucose and oxygen
D. oxygen and carbon dioxide
E. carbon dioxide and water
At the end of cellular respiration, glucose has been oxidize to carbon dioxide, and water has been produced as a result of
chemiosmosis.
Blooms Level: 1. Remember
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.01.01 Recognize that the overall breakdown of glucose is a redox equation.
Section: 07.01
Topic: Cellular Respiration
2. What are the reactants involved in cellular respiration?
A. glucose and water
B. carbon dioxide and water
C. oxygen and glucose
D. carbon dioxide and glucose
E. water and oxygen
In cellular respiration, the reactants are oxygen and glucose.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.01.01 Recognize that the overall breakdown of glucose is a redox equation.
Section: 07.01

7-2
3. Which of the following are coenzymes which assist in cellular respiration?
A. FAD and RuBP
B. NAD+
and FAD
C. NAD+
and RuBP
D. NAD+
and ATP synthase
E. FAD and ATP synthase
The two coenzymes most crucial for cellular respiration are NAD+
and FAD. These coenzymes are reduced as glucose as
oxidized, and they carry energy to the electron transport chain for ATP production.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.01.02 Explain the function of NAD and FAD during cellular respiration.
Section: 07.01
4. The order of the major pathways and reactions of cellular respiration is
A. glycolysis-preparatory reaction-Krebs cycle electron transport chain.
B. electron transport chain-glycolysis-preparatory reaction-Krebs cycle.
C. glycolysis-electron transport chain-preparatory reaction-Krebs cycle.
D. Krebs cycle-glycolysis-preparatory reaction-electron transport chain.
E. glycolysis-preparatory reaction-Krebs cycle-electron transport chain.
Cellular respiration begins with glycolysis. The end product of glycolysis is then prepared for the Krebs cycle. The final
pathway, which produces the most ATP, is the electron transport chain.
Blooms Level: 4. Analyze
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.01.03 Identify the four phases of cellular respiration and the location of each within the cell.
Section: 07.01

7-3
5. Which of the following phases takes place entirely outside the mitochondria and is
considered to be anaerobic?
A. electron transport chain
B. preparatory reaction
C. glycolysis
D. Krebs cycle
E. chemiosmosis
Glycolysis occurs entirely in the cytoplasm and does not require the presence of oxygen.
Blooms Level: 2. Understand
Gradable: automatic
Section: 07.01
6. The conversion of pyruvate into a 2-carbon acetyl group is carried out during which of the
following phases?
C. glycolysis
D. Krebs cycle
E. chemiosmosis
The conversion of pyruvate into a 2-carbon acetyl group is known as the preparatory reaction because it prepares the end
product of glycolysis for entry into the Krebs cycle.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.02.01 List the inputs and outputs of glycolysis.
Section: 07.01
Section: 07.02

7-4
7. As a result of glycolysis, one molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of
A. pyruvate.
B. NADH.
C. acetyl CoA.
D. FADH2.
E. ATP.
In glycolysis, the six-carbon sugar glucose is broken into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules.
Gradable: automatic
Section: 07.02
8. Which of the following is an input for glycolysis?
A. 2 pyruvate
B. 2 NADH
C. 2 FADH2
D. 2 ATP
E. 2 acetyl CoA
The input of two ATP molecules is necessary in order for the breakdown of glucose in glycolysis to begin. During glycolysis,
NADH and more ATP molecules are produced. The end product of glycolysis of one glucose molecule is two pyruvate
molecules.
Gradable: automatic
Section: 07.02

7-5
9. The molecule NAD+
is said to have an oxidative role in glycolysis because it accepts
A. phosphate atoms.
B. oxygen atoms.
C. carbon dioxide molecules.
D. electrons and hydrogen ions.
E. pyruvate molecules.
The role of NAD+
in glycolysis is to accept electrons and hydrogen ions as glucose as oxidized. Because oxidation and
reduction always occur together, glucose oxidation could not occur in the absence of NAD+
.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.02.03 Distinguish between the energy-investment steps and the energy-harvesting steps of glycolysis.
Section: 07.01
Section: 07.02
10. When an enzyme is used to convert ADP into ATP it is referred to as
A. enzyme ATP synthesis.
B. active site ATP synthesis.
C. substrate-level ATP synthesis.
D. enzyme ADP synthesis.
E. substrate-level ADP synthesis.
By definition, the binding of inorganic phosphate to ADP is called substrate-level ATP synthesis. This is an enzyme-
catalyzed process.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.02.02 Explain substrate-level ATP synthesis.
Section: 07.02

7-6
11. Pyruvate is converted to a two-carbon acetyl group attached to coenzyme A (CoA), and
carbon dioxide is given off during which phase of cellular respiration?
A. chemiosmosis
C. electron transport chain
D. anaerobic respiration
E. glycolysis
This reaction is called the preparatory reaction because it prepares the end product of glycolysis for entry to the Krebs cycle.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Determine the end products of the preparatory reaction and state which one enters the Krebs cycle.
Section: 07.03
12. Which of these is an inaccurate description of the preparatory reaction?
A. It connects glycolysis to the Krebs cycle.
B. Carbon dioxide is given off.
C. Pyruvate is converted to a two-carbon acetyl group.
D. NAD+
is converted to NADH.
E. The reaction occurs once per glucose molecule.
The preparatory reaction must occur twice per glucose molecule; one for each of the two pyruvate molecules that come out of
glycolysis.
Gradable: automatic
Section: 07.03

7-7
13. This figure shows the structure of the mitochondrion. What does "b" represent?
A. outer membrane
B. inner membrane
C. intermembrane space
D. matrix
E. cristae
The matrix is the semifluid substance enclosed within the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.05.01 Describe the organization of mitochondrial cristae and how mitochondria produce ATP with water as a side
product.
Section: 07.01
Section: 07.05

7-8
14. This figure shows the structure of the mitochondrion. What does "a" represent?
A. outer membrane
B. inner membrane
C. cristae
D. matrix
E. intermembrane space
The mitochondrion has two membranes, an inner membrane and an outer membrane. The outer membrane is smooth, but the
inner membrane has deep folds called cristae, like the one indicated by "a."
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.01
Section: 07.05
15. What material(s) are put into the Krebs Cycle?
A. acetyl groups
B. carbon dioxide
C. NADH
D. FADH2
E. ATP
The most important inputs for the Krebs cycle are the two acetyl groups, attached to coenzyme A, that are produced as each
glucose molecule passes through glycolysis and the preparatory reaction. All the other answer choices listed here are outputs
of the Krebs cycle.
Gradable: automatic
Section: 07.03

7-9
16. What role do NADH and FADH2 play in the process of cellular respiration?
A. They help break down glucose.
B. They carry electrons to the electron transport chain.
C. They oxidize pyruvate.
D. They produce ATP.
E. They assist in making acetyl groups.
During glycolysis, the preparatory reaction, and the Krebs cycle, the coenzymes NAD+
and FAD are converted to their
reduced forms, NADH and FADH2, which carry electrons to the electron transport chain.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.04.01 List and explain the outputs of the Krebs cycle.
Section: 07.04
17. Which part of cellular respiration produces the greatest amount of ATP?
A. glycolysis
B. fermentation
C. Krebs cycle
D. electron transport chain
E. preparatory reaction
Although small numbers of ATP are produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, most ATP molecules are produced due to
the workings of the electron transport chain. The preparatory reaction yields no ATP. Fermentation is a process separate from
cellular respiration, and generally yields no ATP beyond those produced by glycolysis.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.06.01 Calculate the total energy (ATP) yield per glucose molecule breakdown.
Learning Outcome: 07.07.01 Compare and contrast fermentation to glycolysis.
Section: 07.06
Section: 07.07

7-10
18. What is the significance of the cristae in the mitochondria?
A. increase surface area, therefore increasing glycolysis
B. increase surface area, therefore increasing the Krebs cycle
C. increase surface area, therefore increasing the preparatory reaction
D. increase surface area, therefore increasing fermentation
E. increase surface area, therefore increasing the electron transport chain
Since the cristae increase the surface area of the inner membrane, they increase the space available for electron transport
chain carriers.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05
19. Which of the following would be involved in a study of carriers in the electron transport
chain?
A. pyruvate molecules
B. acetyl groups
C. cytochrome molecules
D. NADH molecules
E. FADH2 molecules
Cytochromes are carriers of the electron transport chain. They are capable of being quickly and repeatedly reduced and
oxidized.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05

7-11
20. What role does oxygen play in cellular respiration?
A. It acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.
B. It acts as a coenzyme in the electron transport chain.
C. It acts as an input for the Krebs cycle.
D. It acts as an input for glycolysis.
E. It acts as an intermediate between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
The role of oxygen in cellular respiration is to serve as the ultimate electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport
chain.
Blooms Level: 3. Apply
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.04.01 List and explain the outputs of the Krebs cycle.
Section: 07.04
21. Which of the following is a product of a part of metabolism other than the electron
transport chain in cellular respiration?
A. NAD+
B. oxygen
C. ATP
D. FAD
E. water
Oxygen is not a product of the electron transport chain; rather, it is a reactant in the formation of the chain's final product:
water.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05

7-12
22. Once NADH and FADH2 have delivered their electrons and hydrogen ions to the electron
transport chain, they
A. pick up water molecules.
B. are shipped out of the mitochondria to be used by other organelles.
C. pick up carbon dioxide molecules.
D. pick up more hydrogen ions.
E. pick up oxygen molecules.
NADH and FADH2 become oxidized when they drop off their electrons and hydrogen ions at the electron transport chain.
They are then ready to be reduced again in earlier stages of cellular respiration.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.01
Section: 07.05
True / False Questions
23. During the electron transport chain ATP is made through the process of chemiosmosis.
TRUE
This ATP-producing process is called chemiosmosis because it is powered by the flow of hydrogen ions moving down their
concentration gradient through the ATP synthase complexes located in the mitochondrial cristae.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05
Multiple Choice Questions

7-13
24. In the electron transport chain, electrons are passed from one carrier to another, providing
energy to accomplish which of the following?
A. convert NAD+
to NADH
B. convert FAD to FADH2
C. convert ADP to ATP
D. pump hydrogen ions into the matrix
E. pump hydrogen ions out of the matrix
The energy from the electrons passing through the electron transport chain is used to pump hydrogen ions out of the matrix
and into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05
25. The ATP which is made during the electron transport chain is made at which site?
A. ATP reductase
B. ATP cytochrome complex
C. ATP cytochrome oxidase
D. ATP synthase complex
E. ATP coenzyme
As hydrogen ions flow down their concentration gradient through the ATP synthase complex, ADP is joined to inorganic
phosphate to produce ATP.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05

7-14
26. What would be the immediate result if the hydrogen ion concentration in the
intermembrane space and the matrix reached equilibrium?
A. The conversion of NAD+
to NADH would stop.
B. Most ATP production would stop.
C. The conversion of FAD to FADH2 would stop.
D. Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle would stop.
E. Most ATP production would increase.
The flow of hydrogen ions down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase is what accomplishes most ATP
production in the cell. Without a concentration gradient, most ATP production would cease.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05
27. What is the net yield of ATP from glycolysis of one glucose molecule?
A. 0 ATP
B. 4 ATP
C. 2 ATP
D. 6 ATP
E. 10 ATP
In glycolysis, 2 ATP are invested and 4 are harvested; thus, the net yield is 2 ATP.
Gradable: automatic
Section: 07.02

7-15
28. In which of the following events of cellular respiration is no ATP produced?
B. glycolysis
C. Krebs cycle
D. preparatory reaction
E. chemiosmosis
The preparatory reaction yields no ATP. Its only role is to link glycolysis with the Krebs cycle.
Gradable: automatic
product.
Section: 07.05
29. During the process of cellular respiration, what is the total number of ATP produced per
glucose molecule?
A. 36 or 38
B. 32 or 34
C. 28 or 30
D. 24 or 26
E. 20 or 24
The total number of ATP molecules produced by cellular respiration is 36 or 38.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.06.01 Calculate the total energy (ATP) yield per glucose molecule breakdown.
Section: 07.06
30. What would be the result if oxygen became unavailable to the cell?
A. Glycolysis would stop.
B. The Krebs cycle would stop.
C. The electron transport chain would stop.
D. The preparatory reaction would stop.
E. Substrate-level ATP synthesis would stop.
The electron transport chain would stop because it depends on oxygen to serve as the final electron acceptor.
Gradable: automatic
Learning Outcome: 07.07.01 Compare and contrast fermentation to glycolysis.
Section: 07.07

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Water-Supply Pipes
If there is a city supply of water, the small house should have a
main supply-line from the water-main in the street of at least ¾-inch
diameter, but this does not give the service that a larger pipe, say a
1¼-inch pipe, does, for often with the smaller pipe, if the water is
being drawn in the kitchen, none will be secured from the faucets in
the second-floor bathroom. The kitchen-sink should have a service
pipe of at least ¾ inch, the tubs the same, and the lavatory ½ inch.
All service-lines should be compact and as direct as possible, and
long horizontal runs under floors should be avoided. Hot-water
supply-lines should be kept at least 6 inches from cold-water lines.
There should be a shut-off at the entrance of the supply-line to the
house, at the base of all vertical risers, and under each fixture. To
avoid water hammer, it is best to take all faucets off the sides of the
termination of pipes, rather than from the ends, for in this way an
air-cushion can form, relieving the pounding action of the water in
the pipes.
Supply-lines should never be run in the corners of buildings
where they are in danger of freezing, and they should be kept out of
the exterior walls of houses as much as possible for the same
reasons. The packing of pipes where they pass through the floors
will often prevent freezing caused by cold drafts around them.
Hot-Water Supply
It is generally accepted to-day that the most convenient method
of securing hot water in the small house is with the instantaneous
type of gas-heater, connected with a boiler for storage purposes, but
capable of delivering water directly into the pipes without passage
through the boiler, when a sudden demand is made upon it. These
gas-heaters have a system of Bunsen-burners which heat the water
as it passes through a series of copper coils, and generally the water
is warmed to a temperature of 100 degrees in one passage. They

are automatically controlled, so that when
the temperature of the water goes below a
certain fixed standard the gas-burner is
lighted by a small pilot-light until the proper
temperature is reached, when it is shut off
again.
Although these heaters are arranged to
deliver hot water directly from the coils, yet
if they had no boiler to store up the water,
much larger heaters would be required than
necessary. For storage purposes, then, a
40-gallon boiler is satisfactory for a
residence with one bath and one kitchen,
and if there are two baths a 50-gallon boiler
is needed. The usual location of the boiler
and heater is in the cellar.
However, where there is no gas to be
used, the coal-heater must be employed—either the tank-heater or
the water-back in the kitchen-range. The latter was the usual old-
fashioned method of heating the water, and the boiler was located
alongside of the kitchen-range. The size of the water-back was
proportioned on the basis of 2 square inches of heating surface to
each gallon storage capacity in the boiler. The tank-heater is a
special coal-burning stove, designed to serve as an iron-warmer and
a water-heater, being usually placed in the laundry in the cellar.
Another method of securing hot water, which is not recommended, is
to place heating coils in the furnace; it obstructs the fire-pot, chills
the fire, overheats the water in cold weather and underheats it in
warm weather, and does not operate at all during the summer.
Fixtures
The modern bathroom fixture may be made of one of three
materials: true porcelain, earthenware, or enamelled-iron. The true

porcelain fixtures are the heaviest, the most durable, and the most
expensive. The material is non-absorbent and white in color, and the
surface presents a gloss which is in reality a form of glass. When it is
chipped the fracture shows the material below as white, and a drop
of ink will not be absorbed by it.
In imitation of the porcelain fixtures are made earthenware ones,
but which are in no way to be compared to the true porcelain,
although a casual glance at them would lead one to think that they
were porcelain fixtures. However, a chip from the surface will reveal
the yellow and porous texture of the earthenware below the glazed
surface. The glossy white surface in time stains and becomes
covered with small hair-cracks, unlike the porcelain fixtures, and for
this reason they are not as sanitary nor as durable. They are
cheaper than the true porcelain fixtures, but this material should be
avoided in water-closet bowls, but is admissible for use in tubs and
lavatories.
The enamelled-iron fixtures are considered by most to be
superior to the earthenware fixtures, since they do not craze, are
lighter, and generally more durable. The quality of this ware can be
judged by the absence of roughness, blisters, bubbles, and spots,
and freedom from hair-cracks and peeling. Bathtubs of the modern
type made of enamelled iron have the rich appearance of porcelain
fixtures, since the sides are rolled over and covered with enamel,
unlike the old-fashioned types, which had the interiors lined with the
enamel and the exteriors painted with white paint.
The mechanical operation of the various fixtures is so well
standardized that not much choice is given between the catalogue of
one firm and another. The best type of water-closets are the siphon,
the siphon-jet, and the converging jets, the latter being a more
modern development, which has eliminated the noise of the siphon
action and yet which accomplishes a quick and rapid flushing action.
The lavatories which are most commonly specified are of the
pedestal type, although the modern tendency in sanitary bathroom
design is to eliminate as far as possible all junction of fixtures with

the floor, for it is here that dirt and stains develop. Such
arrangements carried to the extreme would require a sunk bathtub,
a lavatory without legs, and special compartment for the water-
closet, but this would be absurd for the small house. However, the
built-in bathtub is far superior to the old-fashioned tub which stood
upon legs, and under which all manner of dirt could collect.
We often hear the remark that no wonder the cost of living to-
day is so much higher than it was with our ancestors, who knew
nothing about the clean, tile-lined bathrooms with porcelain tubs,
white and glistening lavatories with all the cold and hot water
needed, while in the old days the wooden tub, set up in the kitchen
near the range, was good enough for the Saturday-night bath, and
the tin pan, filled under the hand-pump outside on the back porch,
was good enough to wash the hands in each morning. But although
the modern bathroom and the modern plumbing system is an
economic burden to the small house, it is doubtful if we shall ever
see the day when it is abolished in order to cut down on the cost.

IX
METHODS OF HEATING
System Adapted to the Small House
The heating problem for the small house was for our ancestors a
very simple mechanical device, consisting, as we all know, of either
the fireplace or the stove. The former method still has a charm
which we are not willing to dispense with, although we do not
depend upon its efficiency to do the actual work of warming, but
install some more complicated system, such as a steam heating-
plant, to perform the practical work. A fireplace has a sentimental
and intellectual warmth that no radiator can supply.
Even the stove has a certain fascination for many, recalling cold
wintry nights when the family sat about the red-hot casting, the
women knitting and the men burning their shoe-leather and
smoking. Some advocates of the stove are so energetic in their
arguments concerning the efficiency of this method of heating that
one almost doubts the defects which lead inventors to manufacture
other devices. But the housewife knows the labor of shovelling coal
into three or four stoves, knows the great clouds of hot, fine ashes
which rise into the atmosphere and settle upon the shelves, the tops
of picture-frames, and the polished surface of the piano.

Warm-Air Furnace with Pipes Steam Heat—One-pipe
Steam Heat—Two-pipes Hot Water Heating
And the inventor saw the tired, worn look of the housewife,
removed the stove to the cellar and installed tin pipes from this
central heater to the various rooms, and then waited for applause
and purchasers. It seemed so simple, but it did not solve the
problem entirely, for when the wind blew from the north into the
windows, it pressed out the warm air from the exposed rooms,
forced it down the pipes up through which it was supposed to come,
and then rushed it up the flues on the south or warm side of the
house, overheating this part and leaving the cold rooms of the house
unheated. The drum of the furnace over which the air passed to
receive its warmth from the burning coal would leak every time fresh

fuel was added, for the odor of coal-gas became very evident
throughout the house. Moreover, the heat was very dry and
unpleasant, so that water-jars had to be set about to moisten the air.
Then came the inventor again with a new device, a steam-boiler,
pipes to distribute the steam, and radiators to give off the heat in
the steam to the room. Here at last was a method of heating which
would supply warmth in the cold parts of the house, even under the
windows, through which the chilliest air penetrated. But the sizes of
the radiators were calculated to heat the house to 70 degrees when
it was zero outside, although the average winter day was much
warmer than this. In this way the occupants of the house were
cooked with an excess of heat during moderate weather, for there
was no way to regulate the amount of heat given off from the
radiator; it either was filled with steam, giving off its maximum
quantity of heat, or else it was empty and cold.
To meet this difficulty presented by the steam-heated radiator,
the hot-water system was developed. Instead of distributing heat
with the medium of steam which under low pressure was fixed at
one temperature, heat was circulated by hot water from the central
boiler. The temperature of this water could be regulated for mild
weather by lowering the fire. However, since the hottest water was
cooler than steam, it required larger radiators and more piping, so
that the initial cost of a hot-water plant was more than that of a
steam system.
In order to overcome the disadvantages of the inflexible steam-
radiator, inventors finally developed the so-called “vapor-vacuum”
system of steam-heating. In this equipment the air was driven from
the entire length of pipes and from the radiators by the pressure of
the rising steam from the boiler, and forced through a special ejector
which closed when the steam came in contact with it, preventing the
return of air into the interior. Thus when the pipes and radiators
were filled with steam (there being no air left), no pressure was set
up to resist the circulation of the water vapor, and when the hot
steam condensed in a radiator to a thimbleful of water, more steam

Simplified diagram of
Vapor-vacuum system
Hot water radiator
heated by steam
was drawn in to take its place, for no air
could enter the pipes. In this way the
quantity of steam delivered to the radiators
could be regulated by a special valve with a
varying number of ports, and by turning the
valve to a certain position enough steam
would be permitted to enter the radiator to
keep it half full, or by shifting the valve to
another point enough steam would enter to
fill the radiator to three-quarters of its
capacity. In fact, the requisite amount of
steam could be admitted to the radiator to
balance the speed of condensation and retain whatever level of
steam in it was desirable. Thus the steam system became at once a
flexible system of heating, and could meet the changing
requirements of the weather.
A further development of the hot-water
system then came about. In this device the
radiators were made to contain water, but
the heat was circulated through the pipes
by means of steam. This steam was poured
over the surface of the water in the radiator
and transferred its heat to it. According to
the quantity of steam poured over the
water, the latter could be heated to various
temperatures. Of course the water in the
radiator was the medium for distributing the
heat outward from the radiator itself.
Still another improvement was made upon the hot-water system
by introducing the principle of the closed expansion tank. In the
ordinary system the water is allowed to expand at the top through
an expansion tank, so that the actual pressure on the water of the
system is atmospheric. Under this pressure the temperature of the
water cannot be raised to more than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, for
beyond this it boils and changes to steam. However, in the closed-

Pipeless Furnace
tank system a so-called heat-generator is added on the line leading
to the expansion tank, which, by means of a column of mercury, is
capable of adding 10 pounds more pressure than the atmosphere to
the water in the system, and thus raising the boiling-point to about
240 degrees. This generator is so designed, however, that, although
it adds this greater pressure to the water, yet the natural expansion
of the water in the system is permitted through it in case of
emergency. By permitting the raising of the temperature of the
water, the size of radiators can be cut down 50 per cent, which, of
course, reduces the quantity of water needed and permits a quicker
heating of the system when the fire is started. Thus a saving of fuel
is accomplished and the disadvantage of the ordinary hot-water
system is eliminated; namely, the long time required to get hot
water in the radiators after the fire is started in the morning from its
banked condition of the previous night.
However, the genius of the inventor was
not at rest on the problem of warm-air
heating, for he discovered that he could
abolish the flues, which he once thought
were essential, and use but one register
and one flue. This is called the pipeless
furnace. A register is employed which has
an outer and inner section. The outer
section permits the cold air from the house
to pass down through it and over the drum
of the furnace. The inner section of the
register permits this hot air to escape
upward and through the house by natural
distribution. Thus the hot air rises from, and
the cool air settles back into, the furnace
without utilizing flues. The circulation of this system was found to be
superior to the older method as ordinarily installed, and very much
cheaper to install. In fact, it is the cheapest of all systems of
heating. It is especially adapted to the small, low-cost house.

Hot Water Heating—Boiler
in Dining-Room
To reduce the cost of hot-water
heating and make it also available for
this class of small house, the
manufacturers produced another type of
water heating-plant. In this device the
water-heater was installed in one of the
rooms of the house, like a stove, but the
exterior was designed to serve as a hot-
water radiator for the room in which it
was placed. From this heater pipes were
taken off to distribute heat to other
radiators, located in adjoining rooms.
The principle remains the same as the
former system; the only difference lies in the reduction of cost by
eliminating the boiler from the cellar and utilizing it to heat the room
in which it was placed.
Other attempts to improve the mechanics of heating have been
more along the line of perfecting the operation of valves or the
utilization of other fuels than coal. Gas-radiators have been tried, but
they are so expensive to operate in most parts of the country that
they are not always suited to the needs of the small house. Electric
heaters, too, are not within the pocketbook of the average person
owning the small house. Fuel oil-burners also have been devised to
take the place of the coal-grate. Wherever oil is cheap enough to
permit their use they are great labor-savers, since they eliminate all
the shovelling of coal and handling of ashes. These will be discussed
later.
Briefly, then, the available systems for the heating of the small
house are:
Hot-air.—a. Furnace with flues.
b. Furnace without flues.
Steam.—a. Ordinary gravity system.
One-pipe.
Two-pipe.

b. Vapor-vacuum system.
Hot-water.—
a.
Ordinary open-tank system.
One-pipe.
Two-pipe.
b. Closed-tank system.
c. Special open-tank system with boiler used as radiator.
d.
Patent system using water in radiators but steam for
circulation.
Methods Employed in Calculating the
Required Size of Heater
The basis of calculating the required size of any one of the
systems previously mentioned is to assume that a certain
temperature of heat is to be maintained when the weather is zero,
and then by means of the laws of heat transmission estimate the
quantity of heat lost per hour from the house. The amount of heat
lost per hour is, of course, the quantity which the heating system
must supply. Knowing this, a system is installed which is capable of
supplying this heat loss.
In such devices as the warm-air furnace the required size can be
computed directly to meet the heat loss, but where radiators are
used the required sizes of these must first be determined to offset
the losses from the rooms in which they are installed, and then the
size of the heater must be estimated to supply sufficient heat to the
radiators and to make up for the losses of heat through the
distributing-pipes.
The usual temperature to which the small house is heated when
it is zero outside is 70 degrees Fahrenheit. It is then assumed that a
certain quantity of heat is lost through the walls of the house by
radiation and convection and conduction, and another quantity lost
by the leakage of warm air out through the window-cracks. (The

quantity of heat is measured in British thermal units, called B. T.
U.’s.)
To understand the manner by which heat is lost through the
exterior walls, it is necessary to know the meaning of radiation,
convection, and conduction.
By standing before an open fire the heat given off by radiation
can be observed by shutting it off with a piece of paper held
between the face and the fire. This is the transmission of the heat
through the ether, and is similar to the transmission of light, since
this heat will pass through glass, like light.
Convection of heat is illustrated by heating air in one place and
transferring that air to another place, where it will give up its heat to
surrounding bodies.
Conduction of heat is illustrated by heating the end of an iron rod
and noticing that the heat will eventually be transmitted along the
length of it to the other end.
The heat within a house escapes from the interior to the colder
atmosphere of the exterior through the walls, by radiation through
the glass windows and the substance of the walls, by the convection
action of the warm air of the interior giving up its heat to the interior
face of the wall and the cold air of the exterior extracting this heat
from the exterior face and carrying it off, and also by the action of
conduction of the materials of which the wall is composed.
The quantity of heat lost is measured by the number of B. T. U.’s
lost through one square foot of the wall each hour. As the window-
glass loses heat through it more quickly than the wall, it is necessary
to calculate this separately. The process, then, for estimating the
heat loss from a room is as follows:
1. Estimate the number of square feet of exposed wall surface in
the room, including windows.
2. Subtract from the above the area of the windows to find the
net wall area.

3. Multiply this net wall area by the number of B. T. U.’s which
the wall loses per square foot of surface for each hour.
These factors are given in the following table:
TYPE OF WALL
Zero outside and 70
degrees
inside—Number of B. T. U.’s
lost for each square foot of
Brick wall, furred and plastered: wall surface each hour
8" thick 21.0
12" thick 17.5
Frame wall, sheathed,
clapboarded,
21.7 (with building-paper
use
and plastered 20.3)
Hollow-tile wall and concrete and stone have
factors about the same as for the furred brick wall.

SIDE ELEVATION
4. Add to this the number of B. T. U.’s lost per hour through the
windows. This is determined by multiplying the area of the windows
by the heat loss in B. T. U.’s per hour for each square foot of
window, which is 78.8 for single windows, and where storm-windows
are added it is 31.5 B. T. U.’s.
5. This total sum is the number of B. T. U.’s lost through walls
and windows for each hour.

6. To this must be added the heat lost by leakage through the
window-cracks. This is secured by measuring the length of window-
cracks on the side which has the greatest length of crack and
multiplying this by 168, or the number of B. T. U.’s lost each hour for
each linear foot of window-crack. For very tight windows reduce
above to 84.
7. The total of all the above gives the number of B. T. U.’s lost
each hour from the room when the outside temperature is zero and
the inside is 70 degrees Fahrenheit.
Knowing the quantity of heat lost per hour, a radiator must be
installed which will supply this amount per hour. As the average
steam-radiator supplies about 250 B. T. U.’s per hour from each
square foot of its surface, the number of square feet required for a
radiator to be installed in the room can be found by dividing 250 into
the number of B. T. U.’s which were found to be lost from the room
each hour.
A hot-water radiator gives off about 150 B. T. U.’s per hour for
each square foot of surface, so that the radiator is generally about
one-third larger than the steam-radiator.
Knowing the required number of feet of radiation for the radiator,
the proper size can be selected from the manufacturer’s catalogue.
By lumping the total number of square feet of radiation for all the
radiators throughout the house together and adding 35 per cent to
this to make up for loss through pipes and under-rating of boilers,
the size of the boiler can be selected from the catalogue to fit this
need.
To estimate the size of a warm-air furnace, the total quantity of
heat lost from all the rooms of the house should be calculated in the
same way, and then 25 per cent added to allow for cold attics and
exposure. This quantity should then be multiplied by 2.4 and divided
by 8,000 to find the number of pounds of coal which will be required
to be burned per hour. By dividing this amount by 5, the grate area

of the required furnace can be found, and the correct size selected
from the manufacturer’s catalogue.

The modern
50-watt bulb
X
LIGHTING AND ELECTRIC WORK
Modern Developments
When we talk of lighting the modern home, there is generally but
one idea that enters our minds—electric lighting. Even those
dwellings remote from any power-house are installing small
generators in preference to the oil or gas lighting systems.
Then, too, when we refer to good lighting we no
longer think of glaring bulbs of light, exposing all the
harsh glow of the white, hot filaments, causing one’s
eyes to squint and strain to find things in the corners
of the room; but we picture a room flooded with
mellow illumination emitted from fixtures which shield
the direct rays of light from our vision.
Another change that has come about in our
conception of good illumination is the quantity and
intensity of the light we expect from the incandescent
bulb. It was only a few years ago that we marvelled
at the yellow light given off by the 16-candle-power
carbon-filament bulb. But to-day if a bulb gave off as
feeble an attempt at lighting as did these old ones we would think it
on its way to the graveyard of lightning-bugs. We cannot talk of 16-
candle-power lamps when the glow of a modern Mazda light is
around. We used to specify on the plans so many 16-candle-power
lights for the dining-room or living-room fixtures, and it is hard to
change our habits to refer to the modern 40 or 50 watt lamps which
have taken their place in the home.

Thus within a period of not more than ten years our whole
conception of illumination has been jolted out of a rut.
Indirect Lighting
Now we have reacted so far in the matter of protecting our eyes
from a direct view of the source of light that some enthusiasts
advocate a system of indirect illumination, concealing the lights so
completely from the eyes that their location is difficult to know. This
is carrying the problem too far beyond its rational limits. Such a
system of indirect illumination reduces shadow to a minimum;
consequently the forms and the beauty of objects in the room are
flattened. Moreover, the eye unconsciously is confused at not being
able to locate the source from which the illumination comes, and,
being puzzled, the mind naturally resents it. For the small house, at
least, the system of indirect illumination carried to this extreme is
not at all suitable.
Fig 1
A type of fixture which develops a partial indirect illumination,
and yet which allows a certain quantity of light to come through

direct to the eyes, so that the source of light is easily discernible is
the most satisfying and most suggestive of home comfort. Such a
fixture is shown on page 122.
Common-Sense Solution Needed
Moreover, the lighting of a small house must be studied with
common sense, and no rule of the thumb can be laid down. Certain
enthusiastic illuminating engineers offer typical plans and
suggestions for the wiring of houses, which plans are crowded so full
of outlets that they look like a map of the starry heavens. We have
in front of us now such a plan in which a small living-room is marked
to contain four wall outlets containing two lights each, two more
outlets on each side of the fireplace, a wall plug for attaching a
portable lamp or two lights, and a central ceiling outlet for four
lights. In addition to these is another base plug and floor plug. The
room is about 14 by 17 feet, and if all lights were turned on at once
and all base plugs attached to lamps there would be a possible
grand total of twenty 50-watt lamps in this medium-sized room.
Such brilliant illumination might please the jaded nerves of the tired
business man, but his wife would never consent to such a garish
display of wealth-eating current.
The problem of illumination for the small house can be sanely
considered from five different angles: (1) General illumination; (2)
local illumination; (3) ornamental illumination; (4) movable lamps;
and (5) light control.
By general illumination is meant the lighting required to flood the
room as a whole, and not locally in any one corner. The easiest and
commonest method of doing this is to provide a central fixture,
containing from two to four 50-watt lamps, or their equivalent, which
are hidden in some commercial type of semi-indirect lighting fixture.
The type of fixture shown on page 122 is one of the finest, and with
a silk shade around it the warm, cheerful effect of a home is greatly
enhanced by this method of lighting. When this fixture is hung in the

dining-room or living-room a single 200-watt Mazda lamp is
employed, while in the other rooms a single 100-watt lamp is used.
In the kitchen no shade is necessary. Usually in laying out the
electric outlets upon a plan the central dining-room and living-room
lights are shown to carry four 50-watt lamps, and those in the other
rooms, in the hall, and on the porch are marked to have two 50-watt
lamps or their equivalent.
But it is not absolutely essential to have a central light for general
illumination. Some architects prefer to have a certain number of wall
lights controlled by one switch, and obtain a general glow with these
lamps. By securing the right type of fixture which shields the raw
filament of light from the eyes, this method of general illumination
often produces a feeling of comfort and homelikeness unsurpassed
by the other system.
In those rooms where work is done under the central light, such
as the kitchen and pantry, and where opaque, indirect reflectors
have been used throughout the rest of the house, it is essential to
provide direct lighting-fixtures, so that the light can be thrown down
upon the working plane. Translucent reflectors or prismatic reflectors
are used, and a frosted bulb or a porcelain-tipped bulb is most
suitable with this reflector.
Local illumination is intended to give greater intensity of light
over certain portions of the room where work is carried on. Either a
wall light or a special drop light, protected by a reflector, is used.
Such lights are placed conveniently over the kitchen-sink and side
table, over the laundry-tubs and ironing-board, over the coal-bin,
near the boiler and over the work-bench in the cellar, by the side of
the lavatory in the bathroom, over at the side of the dresser in the
bedrooms, inside of closets and alongside of the serving-table in the
dining-room. These local outlets are generally planned to carry two
50-watt lamps or their equivalent.

Types of Direct Lighting Reflectors
Other wall lights than these are usually introduced for
ornamental purposes. The side lights for the fireplace in the living-
room, or the panel lights on the wall, or the bracket lights for the
bookcase cannot be considered more than ornamental features. Not
more than one 50-watt lamp is planned for these outlets.
In addition to the general, local, and ornamental illumination are
those portable lamps which have become more and more a
serviceable and decorative feature of the home. The reading-lamp in
the living-room, the light for the music on the piano, the table-lamp
in the bedroom, and the candle-lamps on the dining-room table are
the most used of this portable type. To properly attach these bulbs,
a base-board outlet must be installed at a convenient place in the
room, so that the electric cord to the light will not have to be too
long nor pass across any part of the floor where it may trip up the
feet of some absent-minded member of the family.
When the lighting of the small house has been considered from
these angles, the control is then the essential problem. The incoming
feeder, the meter, the house switch and service switch, and the
distributing panel must be located conveniently in the cellar. Often
the distributing panel with its fuses is placed on the first floor for
convenience of replacing a burned out fuse when some line has
been overcharged.
The next matter of control is the location of switches. All central
outlets and general illumination should be controlled by a switch at
the entrance-door to the room. The usual type of switch used is the
so-called three-way switch.

The 3-way Switch to control
light at two places
The hall light should be
controlled from up-stairs and
from down-stairs. The porch
lights and the front and rear
door lights should be switched
on and off either from the inside
or outside of the house. One
light in the cellar should be
governed by a switch at the top
of the cellar stairs. And this is
about all the complication of
control necessary.
Now, in addition to the
lighting of a house, certain floor
and base-board outlets must be provided for attaching various
electrical devices that have become rather common. In every cellar
there should be at least one special power-current outlet for any
household machinery that might be installed. In the laundry there
should be at least two special outlets to which a washing-machine, a
mangle, electric drier, or an electric iron can be connected.
There should be at least one special outlet in the kitchen to
which may be attached a motor for operating the coffee-grinder,
egg-beater, ice-cream freezer, dish-washer, etc. Sometimes an
electric refrigerator may be installed, in which case an outlet must
be provided for this motor.
Sometimes a special outlet is installed in pantry for a dish-
warmer or water-heater.
In the dining-room a floor outlet should be provided for operating
on the table such things as a toaster, chafing-dish, coffee-percolator,
egg-boiler, etc.
In the living-room a floor outlet will be found useful for such
electric apparatus as would be carried on a tea-table or for running a
home stereopticon.

In the bathroom and in the master’s bedroom a special outlet is
useful to connect up such devices as vibrators, hair-driers, curling-
irons, shaving-mugs, electric heaters, etc.
Base-board outlets of the ordinary type should be distributed
throughout the house to provide convenient connections for vacuum
cleaners and fans.
Most of these electric devices require not more than 600 watts.
Electric irons, toasters, chafing-dishes, coffee-percolators, and other
heating mechanisms use up to this maximum of watts, but motor-
operated machines, like fans and ice-cream freezers, require about
100 watts.
As to the kind of wiring which the architect should specify, he has
a limited choice. The knob-and-tube system is the cheapest, but not
the safest. The flexible cable (BX) is better, although slightly more
expensive. Rigid conduits or flexible steel conduits are not suited to
the economic needs of the small house and are not used, except in
special places. For example, an overhead feed wire may be brought
in from the street at the level of the cornice, and then carried down
to the cellar in a rigid conduit on the outside of the house.
Cleat
Knob Tube
Flexible Conduit (BX) Rigid Conduit

In addition to the wiring for lighting there must be an
independent system for bell service. The current for such a system
must be supplied by dry batteries when the local power company
gives a service of direct current, but when it supplies an alternating
current a transformer can be used and the bells operated upon this
energy. In the kitchen there should be a magnet-operated
annunciator, connected with the front and rear doors and the dining-
room push-button.
In laying out the lighting plans for a small house the standard
symbols shown here are used, but a key should always be given to
their meaning upon some part of the sheet, for it must be
appreciated that the contractor can easily forget.
As an aid to laying out the lighting system on the plans, the
following checking list is suggested, since it is simple.
SMALL HOUSE
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT LIST

Unless specified to the contrary, it is usual to assume that wall
outlets in the living-room are to be placed 5 feet 6 inches above the
floor, in bedrooms 5 feet 4 inches, and in halls 6 feet 3 inches. The
usual height at which switches are placed is 4 feet.
Thus, by using common sense and the phrase in the
specifications, “All work shall meet the requirements of the National
Electric Code,” and requiring the contractor to furnish a certificate of
approval for the entire installation as issued by the Board of Fire
Underwriters having jurisdiction in the community, the architect has

a reasonable surety of securing a good and safe system of wiring
and lighting.

XI
CONSTRUCTION OF THE TRIM
The wood trim, the doors and windows, and the built-in furniture
of the small house can make or mar its appearance more than any
other one factor. Indeed, in no other form of architecture is the
study of these details more important, and yet in no other type of
building is the limitation of cost more exactingly imposed upon the
architectural treatment of the trim.
The kind of stock trim which some mills
continue to keep on hand

A good Stock Trim
From “Curtis Co.”
By the very economy demanded in the
small house, the architect must make the
mouldings of his casing in the simplest
possible forms. The trim around doors and
windows on the exterior and interior can
boast of no special mouldings. In fact the
selection must be made from stock material
or else the cost will be too great. Most
planing mills have standard types of trim,
but generally they are very badly designed.
However, one cannot go wrong in using a
plain board casing ¾ inch by 3⅝ inches,
which has slightly rounded corners. The
tops of doors and windows which have this
simple casing should be capped with a fillet ⁷/₁₆ inch, a head casing
¾ inch by 5 inches, and a cap mould 1⅛ inches by 2 inches. This
eliminates the mitred corner, which is of such doubtful value in
cheap work, since most wood trim is not properly seasoned and will
quickly open all mitred joints.
To match this simple trim the window apron should be a plain
board ¾ inch by 3⅝ inches, and the stool 1⅛ inches by 3⅝ inches.
A plinth block at the base of the door trim in size 1⅛ inches by 3¾
inches by 7¼ inches will match up with a plain base-board, ¾ inch
by 7¼ inches, or one of similar size, with a cyma recta moulding on
top.
If the local mill from which the trim is purchased has stock
mouldings of pleasing design, the architect may safely specify them,
but he should not make the economic mistake of demanding
specially designed casing from full-size details of his own. The small
house cannot stand this additional cost.
In selecting the trim, it is always important to bear in mind that it
must harmonize with the walls and have no obtrusive appearance,
since it acts with the walls as a background for the furniture. In
Colonial work the painting of the trim white, pearl-gray, or cream is

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