Constructivism a Methodical Learning Approach

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Constructivism: A Methodical Learning Approach
Research and Prepared by
Rajeev Ranjan
Principal
B.Ed(English)
Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching English (PGDTE),
English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad
&
BA & MA (English),
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Email .Id: rajeevbhuvns@gmail.com
Constructivism is a valid
teaching strategy that employs five basic “Es” that is ‘engagement’, ‘exploration’,
‘explanation’, ‘elaboration’, and ‘evaluation’. Educators prime duty to facilitate
learning opportunities for students. In fact, a great facilitator who handles the 21st
century global learners should be wise enough to facilitates learning in the class
considering the pressure of 21st century learner’s smartness, who operates very
sophisticated software and apps but least interested in classroom learning.

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Constructivism: A Methodical Learning Approach
Constructivism is a learning strategy that builds upon students' existing
knowledge, beliefs, and skills (Brooks and Brooks, 1993). Learners are considered
to be active organisms seeking meaning. It is believed that when student
encounter new information, s/he works to amalgamate new understanding based
on their previous knowledge and current understanding. Even Eisenkraft(2003)
states that “learners of all ages build new ideas on top of their personal
conceptual understandings. Learners construct meaning while continually
assessing their understandings of concepts”. It is well known fact that students
learn best when they gain knowledge through exploration and active learning. It
is common phenomenon that students and adults are enabled to construct a
deeper and more comprehensive understanding through activities that match
their cognitive capabilities. In fact, each individual is unique. S/he builds a new
concept on previous learning and to apply new learning in a meaningful context.
The constructivist teacher sets up problems and monitors student exploration,
guides student inquiry, and promotes critical thinking. According to Tennyson
& Schott in this theory, knowledge does not exist outside of the person but is
constructed based on how a person interacts with the environment and
experiences the world. This theory became popular in 1980s. It would be better
to discuss that constructivism explains following key concepts:-
I. How we know what we know
II. Students' active participation in problem-solving and critical thinking
III. Students learn best by interacting with the presence of others
IV. Activity that encourage the learning
V. All learning is context dependent.
VI. Emphasizes the synthesis and integration of knowledge and skills into an
individual's experiences
Pioneers of Constructivism and their contribution to strengthen this philosophy
of learning are well –noted and it ensures outcomes of holistic learning at school
or college. They ensure accountability of an individual, previous learning, and his
/her current knowledge play pivotal role in learning a new concept. Role of
facilitator is to shape learner to become an independent thinker, who can see the
world in his own eyes. Russian psychologist Piaget believes that all knowledge is
a human construction. Further, he added a learner starts learning with a blank
slate. Even Dewey smartly emphasises that education’s connection with society,
outside world and life so what we learn should have meaningful relevancy as well
as it revolves around the children’s experiences. In fact, other educationist
Bruner states that pupil constructs new ideas and concepts based upon their
current as well as past knowledge. Learning should be promoted through
instilling discovery zeal in students’ mind. He believes that learning should be

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reflected at each stage of child’s development, by proper interaction with
environment. Every great thinker of constructivism learning shared his views
that knowledge is constructed from experience. Learner’s own perception and
personal interpretation of the world constitutes the learning. Learning is an
active process so conceptual growth of a learner originates on the basis of
experience and negotiation of meaning with multiple perspectives and
collaborative approach. He was in favour to set realistic target and emphasized
that learning should be situated in realistic setting; testing should be integrated
with the task and not a separate activity. Vygotsky proposes three learning
theory which supports the concept of constructivism. First he assumes that the
community plays great role and people around the pupil affect the way s/he sees
the world, second culture, language determines the pattern and rate of
development and last the concept of proximal development or problem solving
task that can be performed independently by the learner and also with other.
Another constructivist, Seymour Papert proposes that the building of knowledge
is our prime goal. We should decrease amount of teaching in the class because it
makes a classroom teaching one way so teacher should introduce project based
learning where learners get time to express his own with the help of
surrounding factors. Seymour prime concern was mathematics. He developed art
of learning for mathematics. He designed a guideline for the art of learning and
focuses that ‘give yourself time’, second ‘discuss it properly’, and third ‘look for
connections’. Undoubtedly this concept gives ample space for the learner to
discover the learning.
Guiding principles of constructivism
The Physics Education Research Group at University of Massachusetts defines
the premises of constructivism as epistemology as follows:
1. Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted.
2. Prior knowledge impacts the learning process.
3. Initial understanding is local, not global.
4. Building useful knowledge structures requires effortful and purposeful
activity
One of the major educationists (Tobin and Tippin, 1993) discusses some of
common and special features of Constructivism Pedagogical theory. These codes
of belief demonstrate basic nature of learning. We should learn the way pupil
learn the things, i.e. ‘how they learn’ ,‘thinking process’ and other stake holders
that effects and maximize the probability of learning in real life situation.
According to Tobin and Tippin illustrate following essential points of learning:
1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the
issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.

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2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must
be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process
focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.
3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that
students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to
support those models.
4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own
meaning, not just memorize the "right" answers and regurgitate someone
else's meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only
valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment part of the
learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the
quality of their learning.
In fact, if a facilitator develops the essential facts of learning and its
stakeholder surely he facilitates learning without creating threatening
environment among learners. Constructivism defines learning in terms of
constructing meaningful context for the learners so that they build
knowledge on basis of existing knowledge and constructing a new belief to
design a new learning with the effect of surrounding.
Types of Constructivism:
Theory is an outline perspective of a thinker who develops a philosophy which
benefits the society and universal forever however course of time. Different
thinker added or deleted something and contributed to strengthen the
constructive approach of learning. More or less they reflect the beauty of
constructivism. Basically, two types of learning belong to constructivism theory.
1. Cognitive Constructivism: It focuses on the individual characteristics or
attributes of the learner and their impact of learning. Piaget (1985)
proposed that knowledge cannot be simply transmitted to a person but
must be constructed through experience. He believes that learning is
based on interaction with surroundings, so real world practice is
important to encourage learning.
2. Social Constructivism: It focuses on how meaning and understanding are
created through social interaction. It emphasizes the social nature of
learning. Lev. Vygtosky (1978) proposed that learning could not be
separated from the social context in which it occurs, nor could
accommodation and assimilation occur without the active integration of
the learner in a community of practice. He saw learning as a collaborative
process, and he developed a theory called the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) to explain the collaborative nature of learning
(Vygotsky, 1978). He argues that with the help of peers or facilitators
learners can understand concepts and ideas in a better way which they
could not understand with their own.

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More people more interpretation of a theory or philosophy, however (Bybee,
2006) developed an approach of learning and characterized ‘Constructivism’
learning approach as the 5Es phases. These are as follows:
1. The Engagement Phase
2. The Exploration Phase
3. The Explanation Phase
4. The Elaboration Phase
5. The Evaluation Phase
The Engagement Phase
One of the famous educationists of 21st
century had proposed the idea that
students learn by doing and that learning is the responsibility of the learner
(Dewey, 1902). Basic concept of Constructivism usually begins with the
engagement phase. First we motivate or prepare learner to receive the given
information. An activity of engagement should help the learner to make
connections between past and present learning experiences. Constructivism may
be defined as an active process of learning in which learners construct new ideas
or concepts based upon their current and past knowledge (Bruner, 1960). In
addition to support constructivist education, Dewey believes that experience has
great values in learning, it will be better to quote him “the development of
experience and into experience that is really wanted" (Dewey, 1902, p. 24).
Whereas, Yager emphasizes that constructivism builds on prior knowledge and
gives students and instructors an opportunity to make sense of the world by
engaging them in exploratory investigations (Yager, 1991). Therefore, Duffy’s
proposal has great meaning that the engagement phase should activate the
critical thinking processes by integrating authentic activities that involve real
world topics (Duffy and Jonassen, 1992). Facilitator can use this phase by
introducing, role model, elicitation, anecdote in the classroom.
The Exploration Phase
The exploration phase provides students with a common base of experiences.
The purpose of this approach is to allow the students to explore meaningful
science topics set in the context of something they enjoy doing. As students
explore concepts, they develop a broader understanding of those concepts. In
fact, sharing within cooperative groups is a fundamental strategy in
constructivism as it allows the teacher to facilitate the learning process. The
learners identify and develop concepts, processes, and skills based on an open-
ended approach in which students actively explore their environment or
manipulate materials. In the classroom, constructivist curriculum must be
designed so that it reflects real life situations (Bentley, 1995). Jerome Bruner
further emphasizes this point by writing, "Students should know what it feels
like to be completely absorbed in a problem. They seldom experience this feeling
in school" (Bruner, 1960. p.50).

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Students exploring a concept should be given opportunities to work with
materials so that they can have experiences that are real and primary. Hands-on
learning plays a valuable role in the constructivist paradigm, as it is the process of
experiencing learning. It is important to engage students in learning situations
that effectively integrate their own experiences and familiar materials that they
can use to understand specific concepts better.
For example:
Students who enjoy skate boarding can be given opportunities to explore the
concepts of velocity, acceleration, centre of gravity, and centrifugal and
centripetal forces.
As students explore concepts, they develop a broader understanding of those
concepts. When they relate what they are learning, seeing or doing to others,
they can begin to see similarities in their understandings with others, as well as
to self-identify misconceptions they may have about content material. “Problem-
solving strategies depend on conceptual understandings, and hands-on
exploration of simple topics combined with collaborative interaction among
students helps to build an understanding of processes and concepts” (Apple,
1993).
The Explanation Phase
The explanation phase helps students to analyze and synthesize the content in
its full length. Students become active learners channelize their conceptual
understanding to demonstrate new skills.
Teachers introduce formal terms, definitions, and other content information to
explain the subject. The implementation of this phase provides the learner with
opportunities to identify skills and behaviour in order to both experience and
discover content that may be useful in context. In constructivist terms, content
delivery should focus on primary sources and materials in which content
knowledge is applied and integrated. Sources can include textbooks, the
Internet, mentors, film, lectures, or publications. Students should be directed to
utilize the information they gather and encounter in ways that encourage them
to analyze and synthesize.
Students encounter and interaction with the content, promote higher order
thinking skills, including problem solving. In fact, Meaning is a human
construction interacting with a social situation; we are defining it for ourselves.
Yet, one must beware of regarding the learner’s point of view "as something
finally significant in themselves" (Dewey, 1902, p.20). Each learner understands
content and concepts differently based on their previous experiences. Learning
requires students to arrive at new ways of understanding. Rutherford and
Alhgren rightly stated that “Students come to school with their own ideas, some
correct and some not, about almost every topic they are likely to encounter"
(Rutherford and Alhgren, 1990, p. 198). Students need to develop new views and
make better sense of their world. If learning is the responsibility of the learner, it

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is also critical that the teacher guide the learning process with content materials
and classroom experiences. In describing and explaining ideas to others, the
learner synthesizes material in a way that requires higher-order thinking. In
constructivist terms, He explained content in context after His students had
previously searched for meaning within it themselves.
The Elaboration Phase
The learning should move from insight to action, from content to concept, from a
static situation to intense problem-solving, cooperative learning and critical
thinking. Learners should be given opportunities to practice and refine their
skills and behaviour in authentic contexts. Students gets multiple opportunities
in order to deepen and broaden their knowledge base and integrate that
knowledge into their conceptual understandings and actions, both inside and
outside of the classroom. Issues can be looked from multiple perspectives and
cultural viewpoints. The essence of constructivism theory is to build on previous
learning and to apply new learning in a meaningful context. Bossert quotes “the
teacher should actively promote and encourage positive group interactions and
cooperative behaviours that foster the types of thinking interactions that
enhance the learning process (Bossert, 1989).
The Evaluation Phase
Evaluation process helps a facilitator to clarify and understand the level of
knowledge that a learner has obtained. Evaluation process ranges from the
simple to the complex, from a teacher's observations of students in class to an all
types of standardized test. The evaluation phase provides opportunities for
teacher and requires learners to assess their:-
 Own understanding and abilities based on projects, discussions and
interactions with others (peers, teachers, parents) them and feedback
from the teacher and integrate feedback from colleagues and others in
order to identify the areas that needed to be strengthened and refined
within their knowledge base.
 Provides opportunities for the teacher to evaluate students’ performance
of new knowledge integration through presentations or demonstrations.
 Allows the teacher to evaluate students' understanding of key concepts
and skill development.

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Comparative Study
This comparative study of two different approach of learning designed by
famous educationist Coghlan gives us concrete insight of teaching-learning
process and the changes of approach taken since 1970s. For example, Coghlan
(2002) differentiates two approaches as follows:
Traditional (Instructivist) Constructivist
Teacher driven Student driven
Solo Collaborative
Summative assessment Formative assessment
Teachers ‘give’ knowledge Students build (construct) knowledge
Teacher is expert Students’ knowledge is valid starting point
‘Regurgitation’ of
information; memorization
Analysis, exploration, synthesis of
information (higher order thinking skills)
Content based Process based
Passive Active
Clear end point Ongoing
 Work by Michael Coghlan (WebCT Asia Pacific Conference, March 25 –
27 2002).
We can find out that constructivist is a student centered approach. It focuses on
collaborative learning. School and facilitators designs formative assessment to
check the authenticity of learning process and provides opportunity for the
learners to learn from their mistakes and construct knowledge that will be valid
from starting point. Traditional approach emphasises on momerorization of
information but constructivist believes in developing higher order thinking skill
through analysis, exploration and synthesizing information. Learners are active
stakeholder of this process of learning.
Role of Constructivist Facilitator
Teaching learning process has felt a great change and it started shifting the
approach from teacher centered to learner centered. Behaviourist was least
bothered about individual’s thinking process. Behaviourist gave importance of
repetition and drilling things rather developing method “how and why”. The
Cognitive educationists were starting bothering that human should be treated
like human being. Human beings differ to other stakeholders of the universe on
only and only by “thinking process and uniqueness of an individual”. Therefore,

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Bybee states that teacher should set up problems and monitors student
exploration, guides student inquiry, and promotes critical thinking inside and
outside the classroom. Constructivist teachers ask students to explore concepts
with their own data and to learn to direct their own explanations (Bybee, 2006).
If we go 15 years back to Bybee from 2006 to 1982 when Hofstein and Yager
designed a belief that “in the constructivist classroom, the teacher utilizes
questions in response to student ideas in order to uncover their fundamental
understandings of topics”. This instructional strategy forms the foundation for
an inquiry-based classroom, one that is built on open-ended questions that
reflect the learner's reality (Hofstein and Yager, 1982). It is the student’s
inquisitive nature that needs to be activated and enhanced. Yet, without a
process model with which to show and lead the learner, this may not be
achieved. In this way, learning is not prescribed, but explored, and the learner
has an active participation in the learning process.
No learning theory is complete enough that correction will not be possible. With
the time reference moderation of a theory is a part of growth and understanding
of concepts. So I would like to restates the concept of constructivism learning by
stating some of great educational philosophers, psychologists’ ways of learning.
1. Meanings are assigned by students when they learn something, and in order
to be effective, "any curriculum of a new education would have to be centered
on question asking" (Postman and Weingartner, 1969, p. 81). Students are
meaning makers, and classroom facilitators have to contribute to developing
understanding in a conceptually correct manner for the learner.
2. Currently, an instructor who facilitates through questioning impacts learning
best within a structured discussion that raises basic issues, probes beneath
surface meanings and pursues problematic areas of thought (Paul and Binker,
1990). This technique aids students in discovering their own thought
structure and helps them develop clarity, accuracy, and relevance in their
thinking.
3. Learners search for evidence and reason, recognize and reflect upon
assumptions, discover implications and consequences, and extrapolate from
what is really known versus merely believed (Roth, 1989).
4. The teacher is not only a communicator, but a model. “To communicate
knowledge and to provide a model of competence, the teacher must be free to
teach and to learn" (Bruner, 1960, p. 90).

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Conclusion
A basic understanding of learning theory is an important foundation to teaching.
Learning is a complex process involving mental processes that are influenced by
emotional and environmental factors that can support or hinder learning.
Learning theories have evolved that take into consideration these complexes
factors in an effort to explain how learning occurs and prescribe instructional
strategies to facilitate learning. First and foremost, constructivism is a valid
teaching strategy that employs five basics that is ‘engagement’, ‘exploration’,
‘explanation’, ‘elaboration’, and ‘evaluation’. Educators prime duty to facilitate
learning opportunities for students. The main premise of this approach is that
learners need to take responsibility for their learning and that they learn by being
involved in active strategies that require them to solve problem and think
critically. In order to guide learners to advancement in critical thinking
concerning given concepts or topics, the educator facilitates the learning process,
and the constructivist method with its 5Es becomes an organizational pathway
for curriculum development and delivery.
1. The tasks that learners perform need to be organized from:-
A. To the most fundamental to the most complex concepts
B. To create new schemas for understanding
C. To tie directly to real world circumstances.
So a great facilitator who handles the 21st
century global learners should be wise
enough to facilitates learning in the class considering the pressure of 21st
century
learner’s smartness who operates very sophisticated software and apps but least
interested in classroom. Educationists need to take care of global learners
smartly. In fact, the learning emphasizes the need to question the answers, not
answer the questions. We should show our respect towards learning habits of
our learners. As facilitator of learning we should keep the quotes of Gould that
“teachers who effectively model questioning strategies in a constructivist
framework show that students’ ideas are respected and valued (Gould, 2000).”
By: Rajeev Ranjan

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References:
Robertson: The Greatest Constructivist Educator Ever
Greatest Constructivist Educator 2 Christian Perspectives in Education, Vol. 1, No. 2, Spring 2008,
Published by DigitalCommons@Liberty University, 2008
Apple, M.W. (1993). Official knowledge. New York: Routledge.
Christian Perspectives in Education, Vol. 1, Iss. 2 [2008], Art. 5
http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cpe/vol1/iss2/5
(Learning Theory in the book, Effective Online Teaching: Foundations and Strategies for Student
Success, by Tina Stavredes. Published by Jossey-Bass, A Wiley Imprint. 989 Market Street).
Bybee, R. W. et al (2006). The BSCS 5e instructional model: Origins, effectiveness, and
applications (Executive Summary). Online:
http://www.bscs.org/pdf/bscs5eexecsummary.pdf
Hoehn, R. G. (1990). Encouraging your students to think, Science Activities, 27(2): 8-11.
Hofstein, A. and Yager, R. (1982). Societal issues as organizers for science education in the
80s,
Postman, N. and Weingartner, C. (1969). Teaching as a Subversive Activity, New York: Delta
Press.
Bossert, S. (1989). Cooperative Activities in the Classroom, Review of research in education, 15:
225- 250.
Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Dewey, J. (1902). The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Duffy, T.M. and Jonassen, D.H. (1992). Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A
conversation, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Eisenkraft, A. (2003). Expanding the 5E model. The science teacher, 70(6): 57-59.
Gould, S. J. (2000). Deconstructing the "science wars" by reconstructing an old mold. Science,
287: 253-261.
Huitt, W. (1998). Critical thinking.
http://www.valdosta.peachnet.edu/~whuitt/psy702/cogsys/critthnk.html
Marx, R. W. and Walsh J. (1988). Learning from academic tasks, The Elementary School
Journal, 88(3): 207-219.
Yager, R. E. (1991). The constructivist learning model: Towards real reform in science
education, The Science Teacher, 58(6): 52-57.
National Science Teacher Association (NSTA), Arlington, VA. Enhancing Education
Website: http://enhancinged.wgbh.org/research/eeeee.html.
Paul, R., and Binker, A. J. A. (1990). What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing
world. Center for critical thinking and moral critique, Sonoma State University, Rohnert
Park, CA.
Rutherford, J. and Ahlgren, A. (1990). Science for all Americans, New York: Oxford University
Press.
Web links:
http://dougiamas.com/writing/constructivism.html
http://www.csus.edu/indiv/m/masuyama/technology/sensei_online/01_twotheories.htm
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc/constructivism.html
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Constructivismhttp://www.worc.ac.uk/LTMain/LTC/StaffD
ev/Constructivism/.

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http://www.ed.sc.edu/caw/webbarton.htm
Professor Cheryl A. Wissick’s site introduces teachers, briefly, to example philosophies and
opinions regarding constructivism vs Instructivism
Title: Principle of Instructional Technology: Theories/Models of Learning
http://susanlucas.com/it/ail601/learning.html
Description: Dr. Susan Lucas’s site that describe major theories on instructional technology.
Excellent summaries.
“Cognitive Versus Behavioural Psychology http://www.udel.edu/fth/pbs/webmodel.htm
Description: Professor Fred T. Hofstetter’s article that presents a chat to contrast two
approaches

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