Essential teaching skills_

Incorporates the new
QTS standards for 2007

Essential
Teaching Skills

Chris Kyriacou

Third
Edition

Essential

Teaching Skills
Third Edition

Chris Kyriacou

Text © Chris Kyriacou 2007
Illustrations © Nelson Thornes Ltd 1991, 1998, 2007
The right of Chris Kyriacou to be identiﬁed as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,
recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency
Limited, of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who commits any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be
liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
First published in 1991 by Basil Blackwell Ltd
Reprinted in 1992 by Simon and Schuster Education
Reprinted in 1995 by Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd
Second edition 1998
Reprinted in 2001 by Nelson Thornes Ltd
Third edition published in 2007 by:
Nelson Thornes Ltd
Delta Place
27 Bath Road
CHELTENHAM
GL53 7TH
United Kingdom
09 10 11 / 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 0 7487 8161 4
Illustrations by Clinton Banbury
Page make-up by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon
Printed and bound in China by 1010 Printing International Ltd.

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Contents
Preface

v

1

Developing your teaching skills
The nature of teaching skills 1 • Studies of teaching skills 2 •
Deﬁning essential teaching skills 4 • The development of teaching
skills 11 • Further reading 17

1

2

Planning and preparation
The elements of planning and preparation 19 • The purposes and
functions of planning 21 • Lesson planning 24 • Lesson preparation 29
• Further reading 33 • Key questions about your planning and
preparation 34

19

3

Lesson presentation
The teacher’s manner 35 • Teacher talk activities 36 • Academic
tasks 41 • Teaching styles and learning styles 45 • Matching work to
pupil ability and needs 47 • Using resources and materials 51 • Further
reading 53 • Key questions about your lesson presentation 53

35

4

Lesson management
Beginnings, transitions and endings 54 • Maintaining pupils’
involvement 57 • Handling the logistics of classroom life 62
• Managing pupil movement and noise 64 • Further reading 67
• Key questions about your lesson management 67

54

5

Classroom climate
Establishing a positive classroom climate 68 • Motivating pupils 72
• Your relationships with pupils 74 • Enhancing pupils’ self-esteem 76
• Classroom appearance and composition 79 • Further reading 82
• Key questions about your classroom climate 82

68

6

Discipline
The nature of pupil misbehaviour 83 • Establishing your authority 86
• Pre-empting pupil misbehaviour 90 • Investigating and counselling 92
• Using reprimands 93 • Using punishments 96 • Dealing with
confrontations 100 • Other strategies 101 • Further reading 103
• Key questions about your use of discipline 104

83

7

Assessing pupils’ progress
The purposes of assessment 105 • Types of assessment 107 • Assessment
activities in the classroom 111 • Carrying out assessment activities 114
• Marking, recording and reporting 116 • Further reading 120 • Key
questions about your assessment of pupils’ progress 120

105

IV

CONTENTS

8

Reﬂection and evaluation
Self-evaluation 122 • Collecting data about your current practice 126
• Teacher appraisal 130 • Managing your time 132 • Dealing with
stress 134 • Further reading 138 • Key questions about your reﬂection
and evaluation 138

121

Bibliography
Author index
Subject index

140
146
149

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Preface
In this book I outline the teaching skills which are involved in effective teaching. The
book is designed to meet the needs of student teachers and experienced teachers wishing
to explore and develop their own practice. It will also be of use to those involved in
helping others to develop teaching skills or with an interest in this topic generally.
I have been very gratiﬁed by the immense popularity of this book since it ﬁrst appeared.
This new (third) edition has been revised to take account of important developments
in education policy classroom practice, the introduction of new professional standards
for beginning and experienced teachers, and the move towards evidence-based teaching.
This revised text incorporates developments in personalised learning, assessment for
learning, whole-class interactive teaching, ICT, inclusion, initial teacher training,
continuing professional development, and the Every Child Matters agenda.

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1 Developing your
teaching skills
The essence of being an effective teacher lies in knowing what to do to foster pupils’
learning and being able to do it. Effective teaching is primarily concerned with setting
up a learning activity for each pupil which is successful in bringing about the type of
learning the teacher intends. The difference between knowing what to do and being
able to do it can be well illustrated by making an analogy with playing tennis. A player
may know that in a particular situation a lob over the opponent’s head is required, but
whether that shot can be played successfully may be an entirely different matter! The
player’s skills involve three elements. First, the knowledge about possible types of shots;
second, the decision-making involved in deciding that a lob is in fact the most
appropriate shot required; and third, the action involved in executing that shot.

The nature of teaching skills
Successful teaching skills thus crucially involve knowledge, decision-making and action.
This distinction between these three elements underpinning skills is extremely
important, because skilful teaching is as much a thinking activity as it is observable
actions. Developing your skills as a teacher therefore is as much about developing and
extending your knowledge about the decision you may take in a particular situation as
it is about the successful execution of the observable action.

You must develop your action skills

2 ESSENTIAL TEACHING SKILLS

Almost all teachers during their initial training will spend some time observing
experienced teachers, and increasing numbers of experienced teachers now spend some
time observing colleagues as part of their own or their colleagues’ programme of
professional development. Such observation can be immensely valuable; seeing how
another teacher performs can stimulate your own ideas about your teaching. It may
do this simply by acting as a model, either good or bad (seeing a colleague use an
exceptionally well-prepared worksheet or one containing some obvious shortcomings
may both stimulate your thinking about your own use of worksheets). Equally well,
and more frequently, observation is stimulating because of the creative tension caused
by trying to match your own decision-making about teaching with the decisions you
infer your colleague has made. For example, you may normally go over some key points
regarding why an experimental design used might be suspect, with the class as a whole,
only to see a colleague using small group discussion instead. As a result, you may be
stimulated to think about the reasons for this. Indeed, the benefits of classroom
observation are greatly enhanced by having some time available before and after the
lesson for discussion about the teaching.

The features of teaching skills
Over the years, much has been written about classroom teaching skills. The impetus
for this has included those concerned with the initial training and the in-service training
of teachers, those concerned to monitor the standard and quality of teaching
performance, those involved in schemes of teacher appraisal, and those concerned with
understanding, as a research endeavour, what constitutes successful teaching. As such,
there is now a massive literature available for study. Overall, it appears that teaching
skills can usefully be considered in terms of three key features:
●
●

●

They involve purposeful and goal-directed behaviour.
Their level of expertise is evidenced by the display of precision, smoothness and
sensitivity to context.
They can be improved by training and practice.

Studies of teaching skills
Studies of teaching skills have typically focused on how such skills are developed and
displayed by beginning teachers and how beginning teachers differ from experienced
teachers (Wragg, 2005). Wragg sees teaching skills as strategies that teachers use which
facilitate pupils’ learning and which are acknowledged by those competent to judge as
being skills. Wragg also argues that the skill should be capable of being repeated. He
further points out that focusing on particular skills in isolation can be unhelpful because
they can become less meaningful out of context. Wragg believes that it is better to
analyse particular skills in relation to broad areas of activity, such as class management,
questioning and explaining.

Teachers’ thinking
As well as studies focusing on developing skills amongst student teachers, a number
of writers have focused on studying what experienced teachers think about the skills

DEVELOPING YOUR TEACHING SKILLS

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they use in teaching (Day, 2004; Pollard et al., 2005). Such studies have viewed teaching
as a complex cognitive skill, based on knowledge about how to construct and conduct
a lesson, and knowledge about the content to be taught. This skill enables the teacher
to construct lesson plans and make rapid decisions in the light of changing
circumstances. The difference between novice teachers and experienced teachers is that
the latter have developed sets of well-organised actions that they can apply ﬂexibly and
adapt with little mental effort to suit the situation.
A useful analogy here is that of going to a restaurant. Once you have been to several
types of restaurant, you develop knowledge about the procedure that generally operates:
whether you ﬁnd a table or are shown to one; how to order from a menu; and when
and how you pay. Such experience enables you to go to a new restaurant and cope with
getting what you want reasonably skilfully. For someone who has never been to a
restaurant, few sets of organised actions have been built up. For all the person may
know, you may have to go to the kitchen, select some meat, and cook it yourself!
Similarly, experienced teachers have built up a repertoire of many sets of behaviours
from which to select that behaviour most appropriate to the immediate demands of
the situation, whether it is dealing with a pupil who is unable to answer a question, or
noticing a pupil looking out of a window. Indeed, the reason why teaching is so
demanding in the early years is because new teachers have to build up their expertise
of knowing what to do and being able to do it.
A number of writers have pointed out that a particular feature of teaching skills is their
interactive nature. A teacher’s actions during a lesson continuously need to take account
of changing circumstances, many of which may be unexpected. Indeed, a teacher’s
effectiveness in the classroom is very dependent on how well they can modify and adapt
their actions in the light of how well the lesson is going. In this sense, teaching is more
like driving which involves negotiating a series of busy roundabouts than it is like
driving along a quiet motorway. With experience, much of this interactive decisionmaking gradually becomes routine so that the teacher is hardly aware at a conscious
level of the many decisions they are making during a lesson. In contrast, for a novice
teacher, each new demand seems to require careful attention and thought.

Teachers’ knowledge about teaching
Another important feature of teaching skills is that they clearly draw upon the teachers’
knowledge about effective teaching (Campbell et al., 2004; Muijs and Reynolds, 2005).
Shulman (1987) famously argued that at the very least this knowledge base includes:
●
●

●
●
●
●

●

knowledge about content
knowledge about broad principles and strategies of classroom management and
organisation
knowledge about curriculum materials and programmes
knowledge about the teaching of particular content topics
knowledge about pupils
knowledge about educational contexts, ranging from the classroom group to aspects
of the community
knowledge about educational aims and values.


For Shulman, teaching skills are bound up with teachers’ thinking which draws upon
their knowledge base as a basis for judgement and action.
This notion that as much emphasis in considering teaching skills must be given to the
knowledge base as to the decision-making process, may seem odd, since clearly all
decision-making must draw on teachers’ knowledge about teaching. The basic point
here is that such knowledge is largely implicit and taken for granted. However, if one
is concerned with how teachers develop their teaching skills, this knowledge base needs
to be made more explicit. A very effective way of doing this is to show teachers a video
of their teaching and probe their thinking about what they did and why through this
‘stimulated recall’ method. This approach essentially tries to re-create the teacher’s
thinking in progress while they were actually teaching (often referred to as ‘reflectionin-action’).
A number of researchers have argued that in order to explore the teacher’s knowledge
base it is important to use a range of methods, such as in-depth interview, classroom
observation, stimulated recall, and task analysis, in order to probe as clearly as possible
the teacher’s thinking that underpins their classroom decision-making.

Mentoring
Writings and studies looking at school mentors and their role in the professional
development of student teachers and newly qualified teachers have also served to
highlight the key skills that need to be developed in the early years of teaching (Robins,
2006; Stephens, 1996). Indeed, the increasingly important role played by mentors in
schools during initial teacher training has indicated how turning effective teachers into
effective trainers of new teachers is not unproblematic. A teacher may know how to
teach well, but that may not translate easily into the role of how best to guide and help
student teachers develop their own expertise. Writings and studies looking at effective
mentoring have thus attempted to highlight the key skills involved in teaching and to
explore how mentors can best foster such skills amongst beginning teachers.

Defining essential teaching skills
Teaching skills can be defined as discrete and coherent activities by teachers which foster
pupil learning. In the light of our consideration of teaching skills so far in this chapter,
three important elements of skills are discernible:
●

●

●

Knowledge, comprising the teacher’s knowledge about the subject, pupils, curriculum,
teaching methods, the influence on teaching and learning of other factors, and
knowledge about one’s own teaching skills.
Decision-making, comprising the thinking and decision-making that occurs before,
during and after a lesson, concerning how best to achieve the educational outcomes
intended.
Action, comprising the overt behaviour by teachers undertaken to foster pupil learning.


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An over-riding feature of teaching skills is that they are purposeful and goal-directed
activities which are essentially problem-solving. At its broadest, the problem is how best
to deliver effectively the educational outcomes, in terms of pupil learning, required. More
specifically, teaching skills are concerned with all the short-term and immediate problems
faced before, during and after the lesson, such as ‘How can I lay out the key points of
this topic in a PowerPoint presentation?’, ‘How can I signal to a pupil to stop talking
without interrupting what I am explaining to the whole class?’, ‘What can I write when
assessing a piece of work by a pupil to highlight a flaw in the pupil’s argument?’.
Teaching skills are also concerned with the long-term problems of effective teaching,
such as ‘Which textbook series best meets the needs of my pupils?’, ‘How best can I
update my subject knowledge?’, ‘How do I best prepare pupils for the work they will
be doing in future years?’.

Identifying essential teaching skills
One of the major problems in trying to identify a list of essential teaching skills is that
teaching skills vary from very broad and general skills, such as the planning of lessons,
to very specific skills, such as the appropriate length of time to wait for a pupil to answer
a question in a particular type of situation. Overall, in considering teaching skills, it
seems to be most useful to focus on fairly broad and general skills which are meaningful
to teachers and relate to how they think about their teaching. More specific skills can
then be discussed as and when they help illustrate and illuminate how these general
skills operate. Nevertheless, given the nature of teaching, it is clear that whatever set
of general skills is chosen to focus on, the overlap and interplay between them will be
marked, and a good case can always be made by others for focusing on a different set.
For example, Hay McBer (2000) identified the following list of teaching skills:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

high expectations
planning
methods and strategies
pupil management/discipline
time and resource management
assessment
homework.

Over the years there has been a wealth of writing about and use of lists of teaching skills,
both by those involved in teacher education and by educational researchers. There is
no definitively agreed list. A consideration of the various writings, however, indicates
that a fairly typical list of teaching skills can be identified. Such lists of teaching skills
have proved to be very useful in helping both beginning and experienced teachers to
think about and develop their classroom practice.

The effective teacher
Writings on the notion of the effective teacher have also yielded a mass of material on
the skills displayed by teachers considered to be effective (Campbell et al., 2004; Kerry


and Wilding, 2004; Kyriacou, 1997; Muijs and Reynolds, 2005). Teachers judged to
be effective appear to display the following skills in their teaching:
●
●

●

●
●
●

establishing an orderly and attractive learning environment
concentrating on teaching and learning by maximising learning time and maintaining an
academic emphasis
purposeful teaching through the use of well-organised and well-structured lessons
coupled with clarity of purpose
conveying high expectations and providing intellectual challenge
monitoring progress and providing quick corrective feedback
establishing clear and fair discipline.

Teacher appraisal and performance review
Another important source of information about teaching skills can be found in the
wealth of material dealing with the appraisal and performance review of established
teachers (Jones et al., 2006; Middlewood and Cardno, 2001). These include a whole
host of lesson observation schedules and rating scales used to identify and comment
on the extent to which teaching skills are displayed in the lessons observed. Such
writings and schedules typically focus on areas such as:
●

●

●
●

●

●

●

Preparation and planning: e.g. selects short-term objectives related to the school’s
curriculum guidelines, and is aware of and uses, as and when appropriate, a variety
of equipment and resources.
Classroom organisation and management: e.g. uses time and space to maximum
advantage and ensures smooth transitions from one activity to another.
Communication skills: e.g. uses questioning and explaining effectively.
The setting of work for pupils: e.g. work is appropriate for age and ability, is of sound
quality, and displays ﬁtness for purpose.
Assessment of pupils’ work and record keeping: e.g. provides feedback to pupils that helps
them improve their work in future.
Knowledge of relevant subject matter: e.g. uses a knowledge of the topic to develop and
guide pupils towards a secure base of understanding.
Relationships with pupils: e.g. shows a genuine interest in and respect for children’s
words and thoughts and focuses on children’s behaviour rather than personality.

Skills identiﬁed by the DfES
The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) has increasingly been involved in
drawing attention to the teaching skills underpinning good classroom practice in both
primary and secondary schools, and these have featured heavily in support materials
and training to help teachers to adopt the type of classroom practice advocated by the
DfES in delivering various national strategies (e.g. DfES, 2003a, 2003b, 2004a). The
DfES (2004a) in its consideration of teaching in secondary schools produced a training
pack dealing with teaching skills in the following areas:


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7

Designing lessons
– structured learning
– teaching models
– lesson design for lower attainers
– lesson design for inclusion
– starters and plenaries
Teaching repertoire
– modelling
– questioning
– explaining
– guided learning
– group work
– active engagement techniques
Creating effective learners
– assessment for learning
– developing reading
– developing writing
– using ICT to enhance learning
– leading in learning
– developing effective learning
Creating conditions for learning
– improving the climate for learning
– learning styles.

Packs dealing with teaching skills, such as these, can be downloaded free of charge from
the DfES website (www.dfes.gov.uk).

Qualities looked for by Ofsted
For many years Her Majesty’s Inspectorate (HMI) and the Office for Standards in
Education (Ofsted) have published reports dealing with the quality of teaching observed
during their inspections of schools. This includes an annual report on standards in
education, the publication of handbooks and other support materials used by inspectors
in their inspection of schools, and also the findings of reports focusing on specific
subjects, levels and topics, and on specific aspects of teaching, such as the quality of
teaching displayed by newly qualiﬁed teachers and the quality of teaching experienced
by particular groups of pupils (e.g. Ofsted, 2002, 2006). From these reports one is able
to build up a clear picture of the types of skills school inspectors expect to see displayed
when good teaching is taking place. These can be inferred from the following
descriptions commonly used by Ofsted:
●
●

Lessons should be purposeful with high expectations conveyed.
Pupils should be given some opportunities to organise their own work (over-direction
by teachers needs to be guarded against).

●

●
●

●
●

Lessons should elicit and sustain pupils’ interest and be perceived by pupils as relevant
and challenging.
The work should be well matched to pupils’ abilities and learning needs.
Pupils’ language should be developed and extended (teachers’ questioning skills play
a part here).
A variety of learning activities should be employed.
Good order and control should be largely based on skilful management of pupils’
involvement in the lesson, and mutual respect.

The teaching skills looked for by Ofsted are modified from time to time to take account
of new DfES policies. For example, the introduction by the DfES (2004b) of the Every
Child Matters agenda led to a revision of Ofsted’s lesson observation schedule so that
it was ‘aligned’ with those teaching skills which related to this agenda (Cheminais,
2006). This agenda views pupil performance and pupil well-being as going hand in
hand, and identifies five outcomes for children:
●

●
●

●

●

Being healthy: helping pupils to adopt healthy lifestyles, build their self-esteem, eat and
drink well and lead active lives.
Staying safe: keeping pupils safe from bullying, harassment and other dangers.
Enjoying and achieving: enabling pupils to make good progress in their work and
personal development and to enjoy their education.
Making a positive contribution: ensuring that pupils understand their rights and
responsibilities, are listened to, and participate in the life of the community.
Achieving social and economic well-being: helping pupils to gain the skills and knowledge
needed for future employment.

In the revised form, a lesson graded as outstanding included the following characteristics:
●
●
●

Excellent relationships are most conducive to pupils’ personal development.
All pupils are challenged and stretched whatever standard they are working at.
Assessment of pupils’ work successfully underpins the teaching and pupils have a clear
idea of how to improve.

Skills to be developed during initial training and beyond
A further source of information relating to teaching skills comes from writings and
materials concerned with the teaching skills that student teachers are expected to
develop during their initial teacher training (Stephens and Crawley, 1994; Training and
Development Agency for Schools (TDA), 2007). These include a variety of profiling
documents developed by teacher training institutions to help foster and record student
teachers’ progress in developing teaching skills over the course of their training. A study
by Hobson et al. (2006) asked student teachers to rate the importance of eight different
types of knowledge and skills that beginning teachers needed to develop. The student
teachers’ ratings of these in order of importance were:
●
●

ability to bring about pupil learning
ability to maintain discipline in the classroom


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●
●
●
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9

ability to use a range of teaching methods
knowledge about their teaching subject(s)
ability to deal with pastoral issues
staff supervision/management skills
knowledge/understanding of education policy
awareness of research findings about effective teaching methods.

Of particular significance in this respect is the attempt by government agencies to specify
the list of skills to be developed. For example, the TDA (2007) published a list of
professional standards that primary and secondary school student teachers in England
and Wales need to have acquired in order to be awarded Qualified Teacher Status
(QTS) from September 2007. The QTS standards are grouped into three areas:
●

●

●

Professional attributes
– relationships with children and young people
– frameworks
– communicating and working with others
– personal professional development
Professional knowledge and understanding
– teaching and learning
– assessment and monitoring
– subjects and curriculum
– literacy, numeracy and ICT
– achievement and diversity
– health and well-being
Professional skills
– planning
– teaching
– assessing, monitoring and giving feedback
– reviewing teaching and learning
– learning environment
– team working and collaboration.

The QTS standards are used by the TDA and Ofsted to monitor the quality and
effectiveness of initial teacher training courses. This list will undoubtedly be modified
from time to time. Indeed, the above list superseded lists drawn up earlier. Parts of the
specific criteria within each area are worded the same for both primary and secondary
teachers, whilst some parts are worded differently. Overall, however, an attempt has
been made to use, as far as possible, the same form of words to describe the standards
expected of both primary and secondary school teachers.
A similar list of standards has also been drawn up to set out the teaching skills that newly
qualified teachers are expected to display during their first year (the induction year).
Newly qualified teachers are required to achieve these induction standards in order to
have their QTS ratified. The induction standards require newly qualified teachers to
continue to meet the QTS standards, but to add to these some areas of enhancement.


Three further lists of standards have been drawn up by the DfES to cover the teaching
skills (and other work) expected of more experienced teachers. These are:
●
●
●

the threshold standards
the advanced skills teacher standards
the excellent teacher standards.

Looking at the description of the teaching skills associated with these three sets of
standards (compared with the QTS standards and the induction standards) there is
much greater emphasis here on evidence that their teaching produces higher pupil
attainment, on their awareness of what constitutes best classroom practice, and on their
ability to develop the practice of colleagues.

Evidence-based classroom practice
Another set of increasing literature on teaching skills comes from the attempts to provide
an evidence base to inform developments in policy and practice in education (Thomas
and Pring, 2004; Petty, 2006). This approach includes both original research studies (such
as DfES research reports) and systematic reviews which look at the existing research
literature on a particular topic; they also synthesise the research evidence in order to assess
what impact different types of teaching approaches and intervention strategies have on
pupils’ learning. Such research often highlights particular aspects of teaching skills that
are crucial in determining the extent to which a particular approach has had a positive
impact on pupils’ learning. For example, a systematic review looking at the impact of
daily mathematics lessons (the numeracy hour), introduced as part of the National
Numeracy Strategy in primary schools, highlighted the need for many teachers to develop
the skills necessary to sustain the ‘interactive’ aspect of whole-class ‘interactive’ teaching
that was advocated in the National Numeracy Strategy (Kyriacou, 2005).
In the USA, a number of authors have a used synthesis of the evidence-base for ‘what
works’ to identify the key sets of teaching skills. For example, an analysis by Stronge
(2002) identified five sets of key teaching skills:
●
●
●
●
●

the teacher as a person
the teacher as classroom manager and organiser
organising for instruction
implementing instruction
the teacher teaching: monitoring pupil progress and potential.

In contrast, another analysis in the USA, by Marzano (2003), identified three sets of key
skills:
●
●
●

instructional strategies
classroom management
classroom curriculum design.

Both Stronge (2002) and Marzano (2003), however, illustrate how the expert teacher
differs from the beginning (novice) teacher in the extent to which they display a high
level of these skills.


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A list of essential teaching skills
Overall, the essential teaching skills involved in contributing to successful classroom
practice can be identified and described as follows:
●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Planning and preparation: the skills involved in selecting the educational aims and
learning outcomes intended for a lesson and how best to achieve these.
Lesson presentation: the skills involved in successfully engaging pupils in the learning
experience, particularly in relation to the quality of instruction.
Lesson management: the skills involved in managing and organising the learning activities
taking place during the lesson to maintain pupils’ attention, interest and involvement.
Classroom climate: the skills involved in establishing and maintaining positive attitudes
and motivation by pupils towards the lesson.
Discipline: the skills involved in maintaining good order and dealing with any pupil
misbehaviour that occurs.
Assessing pupils’ progress: the skills involved in assessing pupils’ progress, covering both
formative (i.e. intended to aid pupils’ further development) and summative (i.e.
providing a record of attainment) purposes of assessment.
Reflection and evaluation: the skills involved in evaluating one’s own current teaching
practice in order to improve future practice.

These seven sets of essential teaching skills are further developed in Table 1, and form
the basis for each of the following chapters of this book.
Two important points, however, need to be borne in mind when considering these skills.
First, there is clearly an interplay between these seven areas, so that the skills exercised
in one area may simultaneously contribute to another area. For example, smooth
transition between activities is included within lesson management, but at the same
time will also contribute to maintaining discipline. Second, all the skills involved in
lesson presentation, lesson management, classroom climate and discipline, are
interactive skills. In other words, exercising these skills involves monitoring, adjusting
and responding to what pupils are doing. Unlike acting on a stage, where one can
perform without an audience, these skills cannot be displayed in isolation from their
interaction with pupils’ behaviour. Even when giving an explanation, for example, a
teacher would, at the very least, be attentive to the faces of pupils to judge whether it
was being pitched appropriately for their needs, and might elaborate, alter the pace of
delivery, tone of voice, content, or even stop and ask a question, in the light of what
the facial expressions indicated.

The development of teaching skills
In defining teaching skills earlier, three elements were highlighted: knowledge,
decision-making and action. Almost all beginning teachers will have had much
experience of being taught as pupils themselves in a school. Without doubt, this will be
the single most important influence on their knowledge about teaching and the models

Table 1 Essential teaching skills
Planning and preparation
●
The lesson plan has clear and suitable aims and objectives.
●
The content, methods and structure of the lesson selected are appropriate for the
pupil learning intended.
●
The lesson is planned to link up appropriately with past and future lessons.
●
Materials, resources and aids are well prepared and checked in good time.
●
All planning decisions take account of the pupils and the context.
●
The lesson is designed to elicit and sustain pupils’ attention, interest and involvement.
Lesson presentation
●
The teacher’s manner is confident, relaxed, self-assured and purposeful, and generates
interest in the lesson.
●
The teacher’s instructions and explanations are clear and matched to pupils’ needs.
●
The teacher’s questions include a variety of types and range and are distributed
widely.
●
A variety of appropriate learning activities are used to foster pupil learning.
●
Pupils are actively involved in the lesson and are given opportunities to organise their
own work.
●
The teacher shows respect and encouragement for pupils’ ideas and contributions, and
fosters their development.
●
The work undertaken by pupils is well matched to their needs.
●
Materials, resources and aids are used to good effect.
Lesson management
●
The beginning of the lesson is smooth and prompt, and sets up a positive mental set for
what is to follow.
●
Pupils’ attention, interest and involvement in the lesson are maintained.
●
Pupils’ progress during the lesson is carefully monitored.
●
Constructive and helpful feedback is given to pupils to encourage further progress.
●
Transitions between activities are smooth.
●
The time spent on different activities is well managed.
●
The pace and flow of the lesson is adjusted and maintained at an appropriate level
throughout the lesson.
●
Adjustments to the lesson plan are made whenever appropriate.
●
The ending of the lesson is used to good effect.
Classroom climate
●
The climate is purposeful, task-oriented, relaxed, and with an established sense of
order.
●
Pupils are supported and encouraged to learn, with high expectations conveyed by the
teacher.
●
Teacher–pupil relationships are largely based on mutual respect and rapport.
●
Feedback from the teacher contributes to fostering pupil self-confidence and
self-esteem.
●
The appearance and layout of the class are conducive to positive pupil attitudes towards
the lesson and facilitate the activities taking place.


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Discipline
●
Good order is largely based on the positive classroom climate established and on good
lesson presentation and management.
●
The teacher’s authority is established and accepted by pupils.
●
Clear rules and expectations regarding pupil behaviour are conveyed by the teacher at
appropriate times.
●
Pupil behaviour is carefully monitored and appropriate actions by the teacher are taken to
pre-empt misbehaviour.
●
Pupil misbehaviour is dealt with by an appropriate use of investigation, counselling,
academic help, reprimands and punishments.
●
Confrontations are avoided, and skilfully defused.
Assessing pupils’ progress
●
The marking of pupils’ work during and after lessons is thorough and constructive, and
work is returned in good time.
●
Feedback on assessments aims not only to be diagnostic and corrective, but also to
encourage further effort and maintain self-confidence, which involves follow-up comments,
help or work with particular pupils as appropriate.
●
A variety of assessment tasks are used, covering both formative and summative
purposes.
●
A variety of records of progress are kept.
●
Some opportunities are given to foster pupils’ own assessments of their work and
progress.
●
Assessment of pupils’ work is used to identify areas of common difficulties, the
effectiveness of the teaching, and whether a firm basis for further progress has been
established.
●
Assessment is made of the study skills and learning strategies employed by pupils in order
to foster their further development.
Reflection and evaluation
●
Lessons are evaluated to inform future planning and practice.
●
Current practice is regularly considered with a view to identifying aspects for useful
development.
●
Use is made of a variety of ways to reflect upon and evaluate current practice.
●
The teacher regularly reviews whether his or her time and effort can be organised to
better effect.
●
The teacher regularly reviews the strategies and techniques he or she uses to deal with
sources of stress.


they have of how to conduct a lesson. Numerous studies, however, have indicated just
how inadequate a base this is for attempting to teach one’s first few lessons. Long
experience of being taught certainly provides a broad framework for thinking about how
to teach, but once the teacher’s role is taken on, it becomes very evident that a whole
range of teaching skills needs to be developed. For example, common problems
experienced by beginning teachers include not knowing what to do when, having given
an explanation, the pupil does not understand, other than repeating the same
explanation; not knowing how to cope with pupils working at different rates, ranging
from those who finish early to those making little progress; not knowing which
curriculum elements require more attention and emphasis in teaching; and not
knowing what to do with pupils they cannot control.
Some studies have explicitly compared beginning teachers (either student teachers or
newly qualified teachers) with experienced teachers to highlight the development of
teaching skills. These indicate that beginning teachers more often became engrossed in
private exchanges with pupils so as to lose overall perception of what was going on
elsewhere. Experienced teachers, on the other hand, are more able to split their attention
between the pupil and the rest of the class, and can break off and comment on what is
happening elsewhere, as and when appropriate. When it comes to planning lessons,
experienced teachers are more selective in using the information provided by others,
and prefer to rely on their knowledge of what they could typically expect from pupils
of the age and class size given. In effect, the experienced teachers are able to use their
repertoire of how to set up and deliver learning activities, which is largely denied or
non-existent for beginning teachers.

Monitoring your own teaching
Another source of information about how teaching skills develop concerns the efforts
of experienced teachers to monitor and develop their own skills or to assist with
developing those of colleagues. Such work has taken place either as part of formal
schemes of teacher appraisal and staff development or simply as part of the teacher’s
own concern to monitor and develop their own practice.
Of particular interest as an example of the latter, has been the growth of teacher action
research (Costello, 2003; Koshy, 2005). This involves a systematic procedure in which
teachers look at some aspect of their own or the school’s practice that is giving rise to
some concern, identify the precise nature of the problem, collect some data on the
problem, and then devise, implement and evaluate a solution. Many teachers have used
this approach to develop some aspect of their teaching skills, ranging from dealing with
new approaches to teaching and learning (such as the use of more small group work)
to simply improving skills that are already well developed (such as the quality of giving
individual help). Studies reporting the efforts of experienced teachers to develop their
teaching skills well illustrate that all teachers, not just beginning teachers, are
continually involved in such development. Indeed, it is the sense that teaching skills
continually need development to improve one’s own practice and to meet new demands
that makes teaching such a challenging profession.


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Stages of development
Perrott (1982), in her analysis of how teaching skills are acquired and developed, focuses
on three stages. The first stage is cognitive and involves developing an awareness, by
study and observation, of what the skill is, identifying the various elements of the skill
and their sequencing, knowing the purpose of using the skill, and knowing how it will
benefit your teaching. She identifies the second stage as practice, normally in the
classroom but occasionally in a controlled setting as part of a training course in which
there is a short practice of a specific skill. The third stage is feedback, which enables the
teacher to improve the performance of the skill by evaluating the relative success of its
performance. Such feedback can range from simply an impressionistic sense of its
successful performance to detailed feedback given by an observer, the use of audio-visual
recording, or systematic data collected from pupils about their work, behaviour or
opinions. Perrott sees this three-stage process as a cycle, in which the third stage feeds
back into the first stage as part of an on-going development of the skill.

Having the ability to develop your skills
While it is clear that teachers are continually reflecting upon and developing their skills,
it is also evident that this does not automatically lead to skilled performance. There
are many teachers who, after years of experience, still have evident shortcomings in some
teaching skills. In part, this reflects the fact that skilled performance also depends on
ability and motivation. The teacher needs the ability to profit from reflection and
practice, and the motivation to do so. If we consider questioning skills as an example,
clearly all teachers need to develop such skills. However, while some teachers have built
up great skills in the variety and range of question types they use and the skill with
which they target pupils and elicit and elaborate pupils’ responses, other experienced
teachers may still show shortcomings in these respects. Why should this be so?
Earlier, I argued that skills involve knowledge, decision-making and action. All three
of these elements are subject to the various general abilities of teachers. The teacher
may simply not have built up the knowledge about the effective use of questioning skills,
or have difficulty in making the appropriate decisions which use that knowledge, or
have difficulties in carrying out the actions required in a skilled manner.
If we extend the example of questioning skills further, an example where the fault lies
with inadequate knowledge would be a teacher who is simply unaware of the
educational importance and benefits of using ‘open’ questions (questions where a
number of correct answers are possible) as well as ‘closed’ questions (questions where
only one correct answer is acceptable). An example where the fault lies with decisionmaking would be an inappropriate decision to simply repeat the same question to a
pupil having a difficulty answering, rather than to phrase the question in a different
way or perhaps provide a hint. An example where the fault lies in action would be a
teacher who is unable to ask a question in a clear and unambiguous way. The relevant
general abilities of the teacher involved here may not simply be intellectual ones, since
much skilled performance depends on aspects of the teacher’s personality or even acting
ability. Some teachers find it easier than others to continually ask questions sounding


Practise your exposition

as though they are genuinely curious and interested in the replies, and comfortable with
the longer pauses of silence required to give pupils time to think when being asked a
more complex question.

Being motivated to develop your skills
Developing teaching skills also depends on the teacher’s motivation. Teachers vary
immensely in the extent to which they are prepared to invest time, energy and effort
to reflect upon, evaluate and improve their teaching skills. This is particularly a problem
once a teacher has developed a sufficiently adequate range of teaching skills to give
satisfactory lessons. Teaching often then becomes a matter of routine. This can become
even more confirmed once various materials, examples and strategies have been
prepared and practised.
In addition, to some extent teachers’ approaches to lessons tend to play to their own
strengths. Thus, for example, a teacher who finds lessons generally work well if based
on worksheets, close monitoring of progress, and one-to-one help, but in contrast finds
lessons involving group work and class discussion tend to become noisy and chaotic,
is more likely to design lessons based on the former than to develop and extend the skills
involved in making the latter type of lessons successful. Indeed, one of the main reasons
underlying the hostility against a particular curriculum innovation that may be felt by
some teachers relates to the changes in their general approach and teaching skills
required by the innovation. It says much for the professional commitment and sense
of vocation of teachers, that the vast majority do spend much time and effort in
continuing to develop their teaching skills and to develop new approaches to their
teaching in the educational interests of their pupils.


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Your professional development
It is also important to note that the responsibility to develop and extend your teaching
skills is not simply your personal responsibility. Rather, it is also the responsibility of
those within the school and agencies outside the school to ensure that such development
is facilitated as part of your professional development, and as part of staff development
at the school as a whole.
Mention has already been made of teacher appraisal and of the impetus that comes from
curriculum innovation. Equally important, however, is the climate that exists within
the school to facilitate the development of teaching skills as an ongoing process. An
important part of school improvement and the capacity of the school for self-renewal
is the ability of the school to create a positive climate which facilitates staff developing
their teaching skills. The characteristics of schools that are particularly good at creating
this type of positive climate tend to include the following:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

a sense of common ownership amongst staff for the educational aims to be achieved
a constant generation of ideas
sharing problems
mutual support
respect for each other’s opinions
an open and co-operative approach to dealing with conflicts and crises
allowing styles to vary according to situations and needs
encouraging anyone, not just leaders, to propose improvements
an ‘organic’ rather than ‘bureaucratic’ management style (the former being more
informal and flexible, with decision-making shared rather than directed from
the top through a hierarchy, and with less emphasis on reports and record keeping).

Finally, it is worth bearing in mind that, despite the immense importance of developing
sound teaching skills and seeing this as on ongoing process throughout your teaching
career, teaching also involves a whole host of other important demands, both inside and
outside the classroom. The reality of life as a teacher requires a prioritising and
monitoring of the whole range of skills in doing your job effectively, and it will be both
normal and sensible to find that skills other than those considered here will occasionally
need attention. Perhaps it is best to view the development of your teaching skills as a
process that is always in operation, but which varies in intensity depending on the
situation and context you find yourself in. If your teaching is to retain the sharpness,
freshness and cutting edge that characterises the most effective teaching, it is crucial
that your skills are never allowed to rest for too long on the back burner.

Further reading
Campbell, J., Kyriakides, L., Muijs, D. and Robinson, W. (2004) Assessing Teacher Effectiveness:
Developing a Differentiated Model. London: RoutledgeFalmer. This book looks at the research
evidence on the nature of teacher effectiveness and how teaching skills need to take account of
different contexts.

Day, C. (2004) A Passion for Teaching. London: RoutledgeFalmer. An insightful analysis of the
work involved in being a successful teacher, which informs our understanding of teaching skills.
Kerry, T. and Wilding, M. (2004) Effective Classroom Teacher: Developing the Skills You Need
in Today’s Classroom. London: Pearson. An excellent overview of the facets involved in being
an effective teacher and the teaching skills that underpin these.
Petty, G. (2006) Evidence-Based Teaching: A Practical Approach. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
An excellent analysis of effective teaching which draws upon research evidence concerning the
effectiveness of different teaching methods.

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2 Planning and preparation
The key task facing teachers is to set up a learning activity which effectively achieves
the learning outcomes intended for each pupil. At the start of a lesson, all teachers need
to have some idea of what learning they wish to take place and how the lesson will
facilitate that learning. While student teachers on teaching practice are usually required
to make explicit lesson plans, experienced teachers more often rely on their extensive
experience to form a mental framework of how they want the lesson to proceed. This
does not necessarily mean that the lesson plans of established teachers are any less
detailed than those of beginning teachers, simply that the lesson plans have become
internalised through repetition.

The elements of planning and preparation
Much has been written over the years about the planning and preparation of lessons
(Butt, 2006; Skowron, 2006; Tileston, 2004). This has identiﬁed four major elements
involved in planning a lesson:
●
●

●

●

A decision about the educational objectives that the lesson will be designed to foster.
A selection and scripting of a lesson, which involves deciding on the type and nature of
the activities to be used (e.g. exposition, group work, reading), the order and timing
of each of these activities, and the content and materials to be used.
A preparation of all the props to be used, including materials, worked examples, checking
that apparatus is ordered, delivered and in working order, arranging the layout of the
classroom and, on occasion, even a rehearsal (such as when a new experiment or
demonstration is involved).
A decision regarding how you will monitor and assess pupils’ progress and attainment during
and after the lesson to evaluate whether the intended learning has taken place.

Meeting the needs of learners
Ofsted (1995, 2006), in their evaluation of lessons, typically focus on two crucial aspects
in relation to planning and preparation. First, is it clear what the purpose of the lesson
is? Second, has the lesson taken adequate account of the learners’ needs? The former
question addresses the question of how clearly speciﬁed the educational objectives of
the lesson were. The latter question addresses the extent to which the educational
objectives take adequate account of the range and type of pupils’ abilities, their previous
learning, and their progress towards future educational attainment.
It is perhaps the teacher’s sensitivity to pupils’ needs that is the most important of all
the skills involved in effective teaching. This refers to the ability of the teacher to plan
lessons and adapt and modify their delivery by taking account of how the lesson will


be experienced by different pupils and foster their learning. It is impossible and
meaningless to attempt to evaluate the quality of a lesson plan without taking into
account how well it meets the needs of the pupils in the context in which it will take
place.

Skills in planning
As noted in the previous chapter, an additional source of information concerning
essential teaching skills comes from an examination of the attempt to list the skills that
should be developed during a course of initial teaching training. For example, the TDA
(2007) QTS standards include a number of elements on planning. These focus on:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

planning for progression across the age and ability range
designing effective learning sequences within lessons and across a series of lessons
designing opportunities for pupils to develop literacy, numeracy and ICT skills
planning homework and other out-of-class work to sustain pupils’ progress
incorporating a range a teaching strategies and resources, including e-learning
taking practical account of diversity and promoting equality and inclusion
building upon pupils’ prior knowledge.

Educational objectives
Selecting the educational objectives for a lesson is no mean task (Gronlund and
Nivaldo, 2004). At the very least, they must contribute to broad educationally
worthwhile aims. However, fashions change, and what is regarded as worthwhile at one
time (e.g. rote memorisation of the ports around the British coastline) may now be
considered inappropriate. Many schools list a number of educational aims in their
prospectuses. The aims of the school’s curriculum, as speciﬁed in the 1988 Education
Reform Act, lay down an important framework. This states that the school’s curriculum
should:
●

●

promote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at
the school and of society
prepare such pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life.

The Education Reform Act established a National Curriculum which specified the
subjects that should be offered in the school curriculum, together with particular
Attainment Targets that should be addressed during the pupils’ school careers. Despite
the great detail specified by the National Curriculum, this only provided a broad
framework within which teachers still needed to plan individual lessons.
In selecting educational objectives, the teacher is obliged to specify clear learning
outcomes which can usefully be analysed in terms of the development of pupils’
knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes. This planning is extremely complex,
because a teacher inevitably has a range of outcomes in mind for a particular lesson,
and indeed, the outcomes intended may differ markedly between the pupils in the class.
In addition, all lessons involve an interplay between intellectual development (deﬁned

PLANNING AND PREPARATION

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primarily in terms of a growth in pupils’ knowledge, understanding and skills) and
social development (deﬁned primarily in terms of a growth in pupils’ self-esteem and
self-confidence in themselves as learners, an increased positive attitude towards the
subject, and a greater maturity in their behaviour and interactions with others in the
class). A teacher may thus have the development of an understanding of the concept
of area as a major educational objective for a particular lesson. At the same time, there
may be an overlay of other objectives in operation, such as the intention to give a
particular able pupil the opportunity to do some extended work on this topic, the
intention to help and encourage a pupil who has been showing a lack of interest, and
the intention to use this topic to show that doing mathematics is fun and relates to
important real-life applications. Only by being aware of such differing intentions can
an observer make sense of the teacher’s behaviour in the lesson.

Teachers’ use of objectives in planning
While the notion of setting educational objectives is widely agreed to be an essential
aspect of planning, some research on teachers’ planning appears to indicate that many
teachers do not start their planning of lessons by identifying educational objectives and
then designing a lesson to deliver these objectives. Rather, they approach the task of
planning in a more problem-solving manner by addressing the problem of how best
to structure the time and experience of pupils during the lesson. This would suggest
that many teachers may plan lessons without having clear learning outcomes in mind.
I think, however, this is a misinterpretation based on the fact that if you ask a teacher
to talk about their planning of a lesson, the educational objectives for the lesson are
often left implicit, and greater attention is devoted to their description of the activities
to be employed. Indeed, there is clear research evidence that teachers do think about
educational objectives in planning their lessons, and that this is often made explicit by
teachers when they talk about the thinking that occurs during and after the lesson.
Overall, it appears that part of the problem in identifying how and when teachers specify
the educational objectives for a lesson simply concerns how they articulate their
thoughts to others.

The purposes and functions of planning
There are a number of important purposes and functions to the planning of lessons
which are worth noting. First and foremost, it enables you to think clearly and
speciﬁcally about the type of learning you wish to occur in a particular lesson, and to
relate the educational objectives to what you know about the pupils and the place of the
lesson in the general programme of study.
Second, it enables you to think about the structure and content of the lesson. This
includes, most importantly, thinking about how long to devote to each activity. Indeed,
one of the most important skills in teaching is that of judging how much time should
be spent on each activity in a lesson and the best pace of progress through the activities.
Third, planning quite considerably reduces how much thinking you will have to do
during the lesson. Once the lesson is in progress, there will be much to think about in


order to maintain its effectiveness. The fact that the lesson as a whole has been well
planned means that you can normally focus your attention on the fine-tuning of the
lesson, rather than trying to make critical decisions on the hop. Indeed, many decisions
about a lesson can only adequately be taken in advance. For example, if it becomes
evident that a map is needed during a lesson, there may be little you can do about it if
you had not realised this during your planning and had one available in case the need
arose. A related point to this is that being under pressure is not a good state to be in
when trying to make sensible decisions about teaching. You can all too easily find that
trying to direct or alter the course of a lesson while teaching can lead to difficulties, until
you have developed with experience a good sense of what will work and how, in the
circumstances you face.
Fourth, planning leads on to the preparation of all the materials and resources in general
that will be needed. For example, having some work already prepared for any pupils
who might finish the intended work for the lesson well ahead of the majority, or a
summary of some key points you wish to review between two activities, all enable the
lesson to progress more smoothly and effectively.
A fifth important purpose of planning is that keeping your notes will provide a useful
record for your future planning, particularly in relation to giving a similar lesson to
another group of pupils and in your planning of future work with the pupils which will
extend what they have done in that particular lesson. Indeed, it is very useful,
particularly in the early years of teaching, to make a brief note at the end of each lesson
of any point you want to draw to your attention at some future time when you need to
refer to the lesson notes again.

Time spent planning
The amount of time spent planning also varies immensely between teachers and for the
same teacher between lessons. While beginning teachers will certainly need to spend
more time planning, some of the differences between teachers at the same level of
experience seem to relate to their general style or approach to planning. In essence, some
teachers feel more secure and relaxed about the tasks of teaching if a lesson has been
well planned. Others, to some extent, need the pressure generated by the close onset
of a lesson to concentrate their minds to the task at hand. Certainly, the ideal approach
will be one in which the teacher is able to devote some time, well in advance, to the
planning of each lesson. The reality of life as a teacher, however, is that there are many
competing demands on your time. The amount of time for planning is thus somewhat
constrained. As a result, more extensive and formal planning is likely to focus on those
lessons where something new or more demanding will take place.

Flexibility
Another very important aspect of planning is the need to be flexible about the
implementation of your plans. Effective teaching depends on the ability to monitor,
adapt and develop what goes on in the classroom in the light of how pupils behave
during the lesson. No matter how careful and well thought out the planning of the


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Be flexible in your lesson planning

lesson was, once it starts, the immediate demands of how things are going, take
complete precedence.
It may become apparent that some of the ideas you intended to introduce and discuss
at length appear to be well understood by pupils already or are much more difficult to
understand than you envisaged; or you may notice that a large number of pupils are
having difficulties in carrying out a task you had set and which you had planned to
allow them to undertake largely uninterrupted for most of the lesson. In such
circumstances, a change in your original plan would be appropriate to ensure that the
pupils’ needs were being met.
Unfortunately, beginning teachers are occasionally in the position of reaping the worst
of both worlds. They invest a great deal of time and energy in preparing their plan for
a lesson and at the same time have a greater need to be flexible and adapt their plan in
the light of ongoing feedback. Thus, for example, a worksheet may have been carefully
prepared only to find the tasks set are too difficult, and a swift change to whole class
teaching may be required. For experienced teachers, such a situation is less likely to
occur, but if it did, changing to another activity would pose little problem. For the
beginning teacher, this situation is more likely, and the difficulty of switching to an
unprepared activity is more demanding. Indeed, because of this, student teachers are
particularly likely to persist with their original plan unless the problems arising are
much more acute and, until they build up experience, are more often than not wise to
do so. In contrast, changing horses in mid-stream, to switch from one activity to a more
appropriate one, is almost a skill of delight for the experienced teacher, in the extent
to which it calls upon their professional knowledge and experience to be able to do so
successfully.


Developing lesson planning skills
A major difference between beginning teachers and experienced teachers is the latter’s
ability to take a longer view of how a whole sequence of lessons will fit together. Indeed,
experienced teachers tend to be much more aware of the end point of learning that they
want pupils to have reached after dealing with a topic over several weeks, whereas
beginning teachers tend to focus much more on the short-term learning outcomes for
a particular lesson. This is well illustrated in a detailed case study of a secondary school
English teacher reported by McCutcheon and Milner (2002); it shows the way the
teacher was able to draw upon his rich content knowledge in planning lessons, and
the way he viewed the planning of individual lessons and his thinking about
interconnected themes, and which curriculum materials and activities to employ, as
being very much subordinate to his overall long-term perspective on planning.
Another major difference is the degree of pedagogical content knowledge (knowledge
about how to teach particular topics) that experienced teachers are able to draw upon
when planning lessons. Having taught a particular topic several times, experienced
teachers are very much aware of the difficulties involved in teaching that topic, and the
areas where the pupils’ understanding may need to be developed and strengthened. They
are also more aware of what aspects of the topic are the key elements that need to be
grasped, and how much time needs to be devoted to doing this. It is sometimes claimed
that an experienced teacher should be able ‘at the drop of a hat’ to teach an acceptable
lesson on any topic in their area. They would probably first of all want to know
something about the pupils’ age, general ability and motivation; they would then want
information on what the pupils already knew about the topic (this would probably also
be checked at the start of the lesson by having a question and answer session). After that,
the teacher’s experience of having taught this topic before with different groups of pupils
would be enough to provide the teacher with a clear idea of how to organise the lesson.
Beginning teachers lack this wealth of pedagogical content knowledge. A study by Van
Der Valk and Broekman (1999) explored student teachers’ pedagogical content
knowledge by asking student teachers to prepare a lesson plan about a topic as if they
had to teach it, and then interviewed the student teachers about their lesson plans. These
interviews provided a very useful way of exploring their pedagogical content knowledge.
Indeed, feedback from tutors and mentors on lesson plans provides a very important
learning experience for beginning teachers in developing their lesson planning skills.

Lesson planning
As noted earlier, there are four major elements involved in lesson planning:
●
●
●
●

deciding on educational objectives
selecting and scripting a lesson
preparing the materials and resources to be used
deciding how to monitor and assess pupils’ progress.

The preparation of materials and resources will be considered in the final section of this
chapter. The other three elements will be the focus of our attention in this section.


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Deciding on educational objectives
The most important aspect of an educational objective is that it is a description of an
aspect of pupil learning. To gain knowledge about prime numbers, to understand the
nature of causality in History, to acquire the skill of drawing a river’s path to the sea
through contour lines, or to feel empathy for the victims of the slave trade, would all
be examples of educational objectives for a lesson contributing to pupils’ intellectual
development.
To develop the skills involved in co-operating with other pupils, to become more able
to listen attentively to other pupils’ statements during class discussion, and to feel more
confident about one’s own capabilities in the subject, would be examples of educational
objectives for a lesson contributing to pupils’ social development.
Educational objectives cannot be stated in terms of what pupils will be doing, such as
working through an exercise, drawing a map or small group discussion. These are
activities used to promote learning. The educational objectives must describe what is
to constitute the learning. One of the major pitfalls in teaching is to neglect thinking
precisely about educational objectives and to see planning as simply organising activities.
While the two go hand in hand, it is all too easy to think that a lesson that went well
logistically was effective (i.e. the pupils did what you intended), until you ask yourself
what the pupils actually learned.
In selecting your objectives, a great deal of thought needs to be given to how these
objectives relate to previous and future work the pupils are involved in, and how
appropriate they are to extending their current abilities, attitudes and interests. For
example, in deciding to introduce the notion of prime numbers, do the pupils already
have an adequate grasp of what it means for numbers to have factors? Indeed, linking
new learning to previous learning is immensely important, and particularly effective if
the new learning can be seen to grow out of the previous learning. Thus a lesson on
prime numbers may first of all utilise an activity in which pupils can apply their previous
knowledge and understanding of factors (this will check that all is well on that front).
They may then identify numbers only divisible by one and itself, which are then given
a special name (prime numbers). This would combine a linking of previous learning
with a sense of discovery and growth, and also extend the previous learning.

Selecting content
Selecting the content for a lesson involves a number of considerations. Even working
within the framework of the National Curriculum still leaves a great deal of choice to
teachers. The selection of content will clearly need to relate to the overall programme
of study for pupils, but the decision on how much emphasis to give to particular topics
will depend on the teacher’s view of its importance and difficulty.
Indeed, a very important teaching skill is that of separating a topic into distinct elements
or aspects, and designing a sequence or progression through these elements that makes
coherent and intellectual sense and effectively facilitates learning. One of the most
demanding aspects for beginning teachers is trying to decide how best to do this in a
way that satisfactorily meets the pupils’ needs. This demands good subject knowledge
by the teacher, an awareness of how to separate and sequence the elements of the topic,


and an awareness of pupils’ needs. Beginning teachers tend to rely somewhat on
established practice in the school, particularly if a scheme of work is in use (such as that
based on a textbook or worksheets). With experience, however, teachers become much
more confident and authoritative in deciding on the nature and structure of the content
they wish to use, and also better able to judge the pace of progress to expect through the
content elements and the likely areas of difficulty or misunderstanding that may arise.
The problem for experienced teachers becomes that of keeping abreast of developments
in the teaching of their subject and topics in line with changes in required educational
attainment.

Selecting learning activities
The selection of learning activities offers much scope and choice for teachers. The
decision about which activity or combination of activities to use within a lesson depends
on the teacher’s beliefs about the relative effectiveness of the different activities for the
type of learning intended. This decision, however, also needs to take account of a range
of factors relating to the context of the lesson.
First, will the activities selected meet the needs of this particular group of pupils, taking
account of their abilities, interests and motivation, and the way they are likely to respond
to these activities? You may feel that because a particular class seems to work well when
group work tasks are used, you will incorporate group work into their lesson. Equally
well, you may decide to incorporate group work into the lesson because the class has
not worked well with this activity, and you feel more practice and experience with this
activity will be of value to them in developing associated skills and benefits. Indeed, the
fact that an activity has not worked well may suggest a need to use it more often rather
than to avoid using it.
A second important factor concerns when the lesson occurs. The type of activities that
might be effective on a Friday afternoon, or following morning assembly, or extending
work done in a previous lesson when a number of learning difficulties were
encountered, may be influenced by this context.
Third, such planning decisions are also influenced by logistics, other demands and time
pressures facing the teacher. A lesson that requires a lot of planning effort and
preparation is perhaps best avoided in the middle of a week in which you have to mark
a heavy load of examination scripts, or when you know that the particular equipment
needed is in great demand for other activities.

The variety and appropriateness of activities
When thinking about the learning activities to be used, you also need to think of the
lesson as a coherent whole, such that the total package of experience provided for pupils
achieves your intended learning outcomes. As such, not only must the activities deliver
the appropriate intellectual experience for this learning to occur, but also facilitate the
ease with which pupils can engage and remain engaged in this experience.
The activities must thus elicit and sustain pupils’ attention, interest and motivation.
Even when interest and motivation are high, pupils will find it difficult to listen to a


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teacher’s exposition for a long period; doubly so if they are young or the exposition is
difficult or unclear, or if it is a hot day. As such, most lessons will involve some variety
of activities. The initial phase of the lesson may be designed to set the scene and elicit
interest, the major part of the lesson may involve the main learning experiences, and
the ending may involve some review or general comments about the importance,
relevance or quality of the learning that took place.
While a variety of activities is important, each activity must be appropriate to the
learning at hand. Thus, for example, developing pupils’ ability to articulate and
communicate their ideas orally is much more likely to be achieved through practice,
feedback and critiquing others, rather than by extensive reading about how to do it
(although this may play a useful part). A variety of activities also provides pupils with
an opportunity to learn in different ways, and thereby to build up and develop the skills
to do so effectively. At the same time, however, this does not mean that every lesson
must involve a variety of activities. It is just as important to provide extended periods
of work based on one type of task in order to allow pupils to develop the skills of
organising and sustaining their concentration and effort, particularly in relation to a
task where the quality of what is produced depends on the marshalling and
development of the work undertaken (in contrast to a simply repetitive task).

Using ICT
When using information and communication technology (ICT), you need to take extra
care to check the educational purpose for its use. Is it to help develop pupils’ ICT skills?
Is it to illustrate to pupils how ICT can be used to explore the topic in hand? Is it to
motivate the pupils? Is it to encourage pupils to work in a particular way, e.g.
individualised work, small group work? Is it to develop a deeper understanding of the
topic? All these different purposes are valid, but you need to be sure what you intend
for the use of ICT in this particular lesson.
The type of ICT and the way you use it might need to be quite different if you are
primarily using it to motivate pupils compared with when you are trying to foster a higher
quality of understanding of the topic. Research on the impact of ICT on pupils and their
learning indicates that teachers need to develop two sets of skills when using ICT: (i)
being able to use the ICT with adequate technical competence; and (ii) being able to use
the ICT in a way that promotes higher-quality pupil learning. Teachers need to master
the first set of skills before they can develop expertise in the second set of skills (this is
also true for pupils). Recognising the purpose you have for using ICT will enable you
to check that you have developed the necessary skills which go hand in hand with the
particular purpose you have in mind for its use (Leask and Pachler, 2005; Wheeler, 2005).
Of particular importance when planning to use ICT, is being able to move beyond the
stage of using ICT simply as a means of engaging pupils in the work (the so-called
‘whizz-bang’ approach) to being able to use ICT to enhance pupils’ deeper
understanding of the subject matter. Whilst using ICT can act as a powerful motivator
for pupils in the short term (and that’s fine as far as it goes), it is only when pupils use
ICT in a way that promotes their learning more effectively that a sustained impact on
their self-confidence and attainment can be realised. This, of course, places demands
on you to develop your ICT skills to support your teaching. This is recognised by the


inclusion of ICT skills development for student teachers in the TDA (2007) QTS
standards to support their teaching and wider professional activities.

Monitoring and assessing pupils’ progress
Once the lesson has begun, you will need to monitor and assess pupils’ progress and
attainment to ensure that the lesson is being effective and is likely to deliver the pupil
learning intended (Clarke, 2005). At the same time, this will also give you feedback
on what aspects of the lesson, as originally planned, need ongoing modification and
adaptation to maintain effectiveness. This requires more than just being responsive and
reactive to feedback, such as waiting for a pupil to say they do not understand how to
approach the task set. Rather, it requires you to be active, and to probe, question, check
and test whether the progress and attainment intended is occurring.
While there is much feedback available to the teacher simply by looking at pupils’ facial
expressions or responding to those who confess to having difﬁculties, all too often most
pupils will adopt strategies and techniques which indicate superficially that they
understand and can do the work set. Only when exercise books are collected in, or
questions asked at the end of the lesson, or subsequent tests are given, might it become
evident that much less learning was going on than appeared to be the case.
Unfortunately, it is all too easy to avoid active probing of progress and attainment; if
the lesson appears to be going well, you naturally feel that to do so will be making
problems for yourself that will need to be dealt with. It requires a great deal of integrity
on the teacher’s part to, in essence, look for trouble. However, that is in fact the very
cutting edge of the skill involved here. Simply approaching a pupil who appears to be

You should regularly assess your pupils’ progress


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working well and asking the question ‘How are things going?’ and probing with a few
telling questions, can often reveal difficulties that either the pupil was not aware of, or
was even deliberately trying to avoid you noticing. It is important to be aware of just
how well some pupils manage to avoid being noticed by teachers, by avoiding eye
contact and appearing to be working well whenever the teacher is nearby. The ‘ripple
effect’ refers to the way pupils appear to be working hard at the task in hand when the
teacher walks around the room, with those pupils the teacher is approaching having
their eyes glued to their work, whilst those pupils whom the teacher has just passed start
to relax, and in some cases resume talking to their neighbour.
Such active monitoring and assessment of pupils requires some forethought and
planning. At what stages during the lesson, and how, are you going to get the necessary
feedback? For example, one may usefully use a transition period between one activity
and another for some quick whole class questioning and discussion about what was
covered and whether any problems have arisen. This does not mean that every lesson
must have some in-built testing of attainment; rather, a more subtle form of ongoing
probing and reviewing should be employed that will be sufficient to enable the teacher
to feel confident that the intended learning is occurring. Nevertheless, there is a role
here for formal tests from time to time, and also the use of homework to explicitly probe
the learning covered as well as to generate new learning.

Lesson preparation
Preparation primarily refers to the preparation of all the resources and materials to be
used in the lesson, including the writing and running off of copies of worksheets, the
ordering, delivery and checking of equipment, arranging desks and chairs in the
required layout, and making notes about the content of the lesson to be presented.
Clearly, planning and preparation go hand in hand, and many planning decisions are
taken while preparation is going on. Nevertheless, there are a number of important skills
involved in preparation that are worthy of attention and may be crucial to the
effectiveness of the lesson.

Showing you care
The care and effort that teachers take over preparation can have a major positive impact
on pupils’ sense that the teacher cares about their learning and that the activities to be
undertaken are worthwhile and important. In contrast, a lack of preparation, such as
may be evident if the teacher has to leave the room at a crucial point to find some
statistical tables that need to be handed out, does not simply disrupt the flow of the
lesson, but may be perceived by pupils as insulting to their sense of worth as learners
(if our learning was really important, the teacher would have prepared better).
While such problems will arise from time to time even in the best prepared circumstances, and pupils will tolerate these, the regular occurrence of poor preparation must
be avoided. To be able to say in the middle of a lesson, ‘I have already prepared for
you . . .’, and then reveal some materials, equipment, or using PowerPoint to display


a diagram or set of key questions, can have a marked rousing effect on pupils’ selfesteem, enthusiasm and sense of purpose for the next part of the lesson.

Rehearsal, checking and back-up
The use of any sort of equipment always poses potential problems for the teacher. Three
key words are relevant here: rehearsal, checking and back-up. If you are going to use
equipment or materials for any sort of experiment or practical work, you will often find
it useful and worthwhile to have a rehearsal of some sort before you deliver that lesson
for the first time. Practicals that appear to be virtually problem-proof can have surprises
in store for you. For example, you may find that the length of time it takes for a
particular effect to be visible takes much longer than you had planned for; or that
connecting to the internet is particularly slow.
Another problem can arise if the equipment available is different in some form from
that you have used in the past. Some lessons will also require testing the equipment for
its purpose. For example, if you are going to take a group of pupils pond-dipping, you
may want to check on the type of creatures currently in the pond and whether the jars,
nets or whatever is needed are available. Another aspect of rehearsal involves trying to
experience the use of the equipment and materials from the pupils’ perspective. In
preparing an overhead transparency, for example, is what is projected onto the screen
clear and readable from the back of the classroom? In using an audio-tape, is the sound
clear at the back of the room? In making a construction from card, is the card too flimsy
or too thick for its purpose? Is the visual display of material on a laptop sufficiently clear
for the task in hand?
Checking simply refers to the need to ensure, shortly before the lesson is due to start,
that the resources needed are to hand and in good working order. For anything
electrical, this is almost mandatory. Such checking is made easier if you have marked
on your lesson notes those items that need a check in this way. Nevertheless, even with
adequate rehearsal and checking, things will happen that require a change in your
lesson plan. It is here that some thought to back-up can be extremely helpful. While
you cannot have a back-up for every piece of equipment, as a matter of regular practice,
it is always worth having, for example, a spare light bulb for an overhead projector. More
appropriately, you do need to think of what you will do if a particular piece of
equipment fails, or if the lesson grinds to halt for some other reason. In planning a
lesson, some thought, even if only limited, can be usefully devoted to how another part
of the lesson or some alternative activity can be used to good effect if problems arise.

Teaching materials
Worksheets, overhead transparencies, task cards and ICT software packages are
commonly employed in schools, and their design and use involve a number of
preparation skills. Often it is important to regard such preparation as a team activity,
shared with colleagues, rather than something you do in isolation. Resources of this sort
can be used many times over and, as such, if they can be designed to fit well into the
programmes of study, are also used by colleagues, and can be linked carefully to
assessment tasks, then the time spent in producing high-quality items will be well
worthwhile.


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However, before embarking on such preparation, it is a good idea to explore whether
such resources are already available and can be purchased, borrowed or copied. Some
textbook schemes provide a set of parallel worksheets that can be used. Websites often
contain a whole host of well-prepared resources of a high quality that can be adapted
and used for your purposes. Some schools have gone to great lengths to develop and
catalogue materials into a resource centre, either school-wide or subject-speciﬁc, and
some teachers have similarly indexed materials (including pictures and various artefacts)
which they have in their personal possession or have easy access to.
There are many excellent resources and activity packs now published, including
mathematical games, facsimile documents for historical analysis, and ICT simulations,
all of a quality well beyond that which teachers can normally produce. However, there
is a danger in using such materials, particularly ones that have been commercially
produced and look very attractive. The danger is that one can be misled into thinking
that because such materials have been produced at a high level of quality in appearance,
then effective learning is likely to follow from their use. In fact, it is extremely important
for the teacher to carefully consider what learning will actually follow from their use,
in order to ensure that the educational outcomes intended are realised.
In preparing worksheets, task cards or similar types of materials, quality of presentation
is of the highest importance. They need to be well laid out, not contain too much
information, and should attempt to elicit pupils’ interest. Particular attention needs to
be paid to the language used; you need to be sure it is neither too simple nor too difﬁcult
for the range of pupil ability for whom it is intended. You also need to give careful
thought as to whether such materials are going to be introduced by you and
supplemented with various instructions, or whether they are to be self-explanatory.
Worksheets and task cards can range from simple exercises and tasks aimed at extracting
facts from what is given to answer the questions posed, to quite sophisticated materials
aimed to give pupils an opportunity for creative analysis.
An example of the former is a worksheet on percentages containing cut-out adverts from
a newspaper concerning the prices of various items with percentage reductions;
questions here involve calculating which items are the best buys. An example of the
latter is a series of line-drawn pictures (as in children’s comics) about which pupils have
to write a story. As well as examples designed to be used by individual pupils, other
materials can be designed for small group work, such as using a facsimile of a letter
written by a king as a source of evidence to interpret a historical event (also taking
account of when and to whom the letter was written as part of the discussion of the
letter as valid evidence); here the use of small group discussion may highlight the extent
to which the interpretation and validity of evidence involve personal judgements.

Assessment materials
Preparation skills also include the need to prepare assessment materials. Indeed, the
monitoring of pupils’ progress and attainment throughout their school careers requires
a formal and regular record to be kept. While some of this will involve formal tests given
at the end of periods of study, much assessment is also based on observing performance
during normal classroom activity.


This is particularly so in relation to monitoring the development of various pupil skills
defined in the National Curriculum. This requires that appropriate assessments are
prepared and built into the planning of lessons, and a formal note made of pupils’
performance. This means that some activities in the lesson will be deliberately planned
with a view to an assessment being made. As such, the activity must offer a fair
opportunity to monitor the performance being examined. Two important planning
decisions are involved here. First, how many pupils will you attempt to assess in a
particular lesson (one, several, all)? Second, what procedures will you adopt? (Will you
tell pupils that a formal assessment is being made? Will you help pupils having
difﬁculties during the assessment and, if so, how will you take this into account in your
recording?)
In designing assessment materials to be used during normal classroom activity,
particular care needs to be taken to ensure that they validly explore the learning you
intend to examine. This involves not only assessing what it purports to assess, but
assessing it in the way and to the degree required. Consider, for example, the following
two framework planning objectives for design and technology, which can be linked to
the DfES Key Stage 3 National Strategy for developing thinking skills (DfES, 2005a):
●

●

Pupils should be taught to predict and manage the time needed to complete a short
task.
Pupils should be taught to prepare an ordered sequence for managing the task.

The DfES (2005a) illustrate how these can then be developed into the following two
objectives for year 7 pupils in a design and technology lesson:
●

●

Pupils should evaluate group and individual processes used in recreating the
instructions for using a construction kit.
Pupils should analyse how the components of a LEGO construction kit fit together
to make a complete model.

Before being able to even begin to prepare for the assessment of these pupils’
performance in this lesson, the teacher will need to be clear about what exactly is being
assessed and how, and how the assessment will be recorded. In addition, for such
assessments to be fair, the assessment materials and procedures adopted will need to
be standardised so that each pupil is assessed in the same way. For example, in this
lesson, the teacher might prepare a set of levels of success criteria, and then identify
the extent to which each pupil’s performance matched a particular level of success
criteria.

Record keeping
Advanced thought and planning about how records are to be made and kept is also
required. These will almost certainly need to be developed and agreed with other
colleagues, so that the school’s records will be consistent and coherent as the pupils
progress through their school careers. A variety of assessment materials need to be used
and types of responses given (based on direct observations of pupils’ behaviour,
questioning in verbal and written form, paper and pencil tests, and derived from normal


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coursework, including homework). This includes ICT designed to track pupils’ progress
against national attainment targets and programmes of study.

Preparing yourself and pupils
Another aspect of preparation is the need to prepare yourself. While most teachers can
teach most topics most of the time with little need to stimulate their subject knowledge,
there will be some topics where you will need to learn about the topic in advance of
teaching about it. In that sense, you need to stay one jump ahead of the pupils. Indeed,
in areas of rapid curriculum development, you may be hard pressed to do this. This
means that private study of particular topics will be needed, ranging from making use
of appropriate teacher guides that are available, to attending formal courses or workshop
activities for teachers. At its best, the need to do this can add a sense of freshness and
curiosity for these topics that you can share and delight in with your pupils.
The TDA (2007) QTS standards include the need for student teachers to have a secure
knowledge and understanding of their subjects / curriculum areas and how these relate
to the age and ability range they are teaching and to the relevant aspects of the National
Strategies.
In addition, you must consider whether pupils need to be prepared in any way. You
may need to give them advance warning of certain topics, particularly if they will have
to do some preparatory reading, revise some previous work, or bring certain equipment
or articles with them. In such circumstances, you also need to check that they are
prepared as required, and you may need to have spares of the equipment available.
Indeed, in some schools, having spare pens to hand is almost essential for the smooth
running of lessons.
Preparing pupils to use ICT, such as interactive whiteboards, laptops and graphic
calculators, is particularly important, in order to ensure that pupils do not feel
threatened or marginalised by lacking the required ICT skills when using such
equipment during the lesson. Indeed, a whole class interactive style of teaching using
ICT will generate a lot of pupil frustration if the necessary ICT skills have not been
developed and practised ﬁrst.

Further reading
Butt, G. (2006) Lesson Planning, 2nd edn. London: Kogan Page. An excellent, succinct and clear
overview of the key issues involved in lesson planning.
Clarke, S. (2005) Formative Assessment in Action: Weaving the Elements Together. London: Hodder
Murray. Illustrates with practical examples how planning lessons which have clear lesson
objectives and success criteria are needed to provide a basis for high-quality formative assessment.
Gronlund, N. E. T. and Nivaldo, J. (2004) Writing Instructional Objectives for Teaching and
Assessment, 7th edn. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. A clear and comprehensive analysis of
the different types of learning outcomes and how these can form a basis for setting instructional
objectives for a lesson.

Tileston, D. W. (2004) What Every Teacher Should Know About Instructional Planning. London:
Corwin. A clear and readable analysis of the stages involved in planning lessons that takes account
of what pupils need to know and be able to do, and how to make learning experiences
meaningful.

Key questions about your planning and preparation
1 Are my educational objectives for this lesson clear?
2 Do my educational objectives take appropriate account of pupils’ needs, particularly
in terms of their abilities, interests, motivation, the context of the lesson and the
work they have previously done and will do in the future as part of their programme
of study?
3 Does the content matter of the lesson and the learning activities selected, together
with the structure of the lesson, appear appropriate to maintain pupils’ interest and
motivation, and deliver the educational objectives intended?
4 What type of pupil performance during the lessons can I expect, and how do I
monitor and explore pupils’ progress to ensure that the lesson is effectively
promoting the intended pupil learning?
5 Are all the materials, resources and equipment I require well prepared and checked?
6 Does my lesson plan contain all the notes I need to refer to, including, for example,
worked examples or a note about extension work to be used if the need arises?
7 Have I adequately prepared pupils for this lesson, by alerting them in advance to
any revision that may be required or preparation they should do beforehand?
8 Am I prepared for this lesson, in terms of my subject matter knowledge about the
topic to be covered?
9 What type of assessment will I be conducting during the lesson, and, if formal
assessment is occurring, is this well-planned and prepared?
10 Are there any particular concerns that I need to bear in mind regarding this lesson,
such as a pupil with special educational needs, or a particular aspect of the topic
or learning activity that will require careful monitoring?

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3 Lesson presentation
Lesson presentation refers to the learning experiences you set up to achieve the intended
learning outcomes by pupils. As a result of the many different types of teaching methods
that have been developed, there is now a staggering range of learning activities available
that can be deployed to good effect. These include, by way of example, exposition,
practicals, worksheets, ICT, role play and small group discussion. Moreover, teachers
are actively encouraged and expected to make use of a variety of teaching methods in
their programme of lessons.
In considering learning activities that a teacher can use, a useful distinction can be made
between those activities largely dependent on teacher talk and those that can proceed
with little or no direct teacher participation. The former includes teacher exposition,
teacher questioning and, to a greater or lesser extent, classroom discussion channelled
through the teacher. I shall call the former teacher talk activities. The latter includes, for
example, practicals, investigation and problem-solving activities, worksheets, ICT, role
play and small group discussion. I shall call these academic tasks. These two classes of
activities will be discussed later in this chapter. Before doing so, however, it is important
to consider ﬁrst of all another aspect of lesson presentation: the teacher’s manner.

The teacher’s manner
When it comes to lesson presentation, the way that you do it is just as important as what
you do. Asking a question with interest conveyed in your tone of voice and facial
expression, as opposed to sounding tired and bored, makes a world of difference to the
type of response you will get, no matter how appropriate the actual question was.
Similarly, circulating around the room to monitor progress and help anyone having
difficulties, rather than sitting at your desk at the front marking work from another
lesson, also conveys an attitude to pupils about the importance of the lesson. All such
cues together create a general impression regarding how much effort you feel it is
worthwhile to put into the lesson to ensure pupil learning takes place. To elicit and
sustain effective learning by pupils, in general, your manner needs to be confident,
relaxed, self-assured and purposeful, and should generate an interest in the lesson. In
addition, you need to exude positive expectations concerning the progress you expect
to be achieved during the lesson.

Positive cues about your manner
There are a number of skills involved in conveying to pupils that you are confident,
relaxed, self-assured and purposeful. However, the most crucial aspect of doing this is
that you are in fact conﬁdent, relaxed, self-assured and purposeful! The starting point
is not one of being nervous and anxious, and then thinking how you can convey that
you are relaxed and confident. Rather, the starting point should be that by sound
planning and preparation, and with developing experience, you will quite naturally and


unconsciously convey these positive cues. Nevertheless, there are times, particularly
when beginning a career in teaching, or occasionally when things are going wrong, that
you will feel anxious. In such circumstances, it is helpful to try to consciously induce
a sense of relaxation as far as possible, and also to be aware of the aspects of your
behaviour involved in conveying this.
The positive cues are largely conveyed by your facial expression, tone of voice, speech,
use of eye contact, gestures and positioning. When you feel nervous, you will naturally
tend to look and sound nervous, avoid eye contact, and make awkward or repetitive
gestures. As such, when feeling nervous, consciously make an effort to ensure that your
speech is fluid, clear and audible, that you maintain regular eye contact with pupils and
scan around the classroom, and that you spend time standing centre-stage at the front
and erect when appropriate.
For the vast majority of beginning teachers, such skills develop fairly quickly; for others,
it takes somewhat longer. Some student teachers appear to feel at home in the classroom
from the very first lesson; others only start to feel really relaxed and confident during
their first year or two of teaching. It must be recognised, however, that there are some
for whom the act of teaching will always be anxiety provoking. For those who are unable
to feel at home in the classroom, most will not pursue a career in teaching for long. This
largely reflects the fact that although much of the teacher’s manner can develop through
training and experience, it is in part also bound up with the teacher’s personality. This
is why it is so important for beginning teachers to capitalise on their strengths and
mitigate their shortcomings, rather than attempt to model themselves on any particular
style of teaching they have witnessed or that is being advocated to them.

Other important aspects of your manner
Over the years there has been much discussion and research on other aspects of the
teacher’s manner which contribute to effective teaching, and it must be said that no
clear and consistent picture has emerged (Borich, 2007; Kyriacou, 1997). Undoubtedly
this is because it is possible to be effective through different means. For one teacher, the
key to success may largely stem from being firm; for another teacher, it may stem from
a warm and caring attitude. Nevertheless, in general it does appear that the quality of
conveying enthusiasm and interest for the subject matter at hand is important. Less
consistently supported by research evidence, although widely advocated, are the qualities
of patience and a sense of humour.

Teacher talk activities
Teachers spend a great deal of their time talking, whether it be lecturing, explaining,
giving instructions, asking questions, or directing whole class discussion. As such, it
is not surprising that the quality of teacher talk is one of the most important aspects of
effective teaching. Indeed, many would claim that it is the most important quality of
effective teaching. Communicating effectively with pupils and, in particular, the
teacher’s effective use of language when using explanations, questions, discussions and
plenaries, feature as an important element of the TDA (2007) QTS standards.

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Exposition
There is a wealth of research evidence to support the claim that clarity of explanation
(often referred to as ‘teacher clarity’) makes a major contribution to greater educational
attainment. Teacher clarity certainly enhances teacher talk activities, and also makes a
contribution to the effectiveness of a variety of academic tasks, for example in briefing
and debriefing role-play activities, or in the content and layout of a worksheet.
Periods of teacher exposition (i.e. informing, describing and explaining) typically occur
throughout a lesson. In schools, it rarely takes the form of a lecture for any great length
of time, nor should it, as pupils will find it difficult to pay attention to a lecture, except
for a short length of time. Indeed, for this reason, many teachers use a series of questions
and the development of pupils’ replies to trace out what they want to say, rather than
an uninterrupted exposition. This not only involves the pupils more, but also enables
you to check on pupils’ understanding.

Starting the lesson
What you say at the start of the lesson can be particularly important as it serves a number
of functions. First, it must elicit and sustain pupils’ attention and interest in the lesson.
Establishing a positive attitude at the start of the lesson provides a good springboard for
what follows. To create a positive mental set amongst pupils, it is important to ensure
that pupils are paying attention when the lesson begins.
Second, it is useful to indicate what the purpose or topic for the lesson is, and its
importance or relevance. You will also need to outline the main structure for the lesson
(e.g. will there be a starter session or a plenary at the end?). A short warm-up or starter
activity can usefully function as a quick recap of a previous lesson or be linked to the
topic for the current lesson. In introducing the main part of the lesson, a question to
the class, rather than a statement, can usefully arouse their curiosity and induce a
problem-solving thrust towards what follows. A fairly quiet but audible voice level is
best as it encourages listening, discourages background noise, and makes varying the
tone and volume of your delivery easier.
Having elicited attention and indicated the purpose of the lesson, the third function
of your introduction may usefully be to alert pupils to any links with previous lessons
they need to be aware of, or any particular problems or aspects of this lesson they should
be alert to, in order to best prepare them for what is to follow. Such preparation may
include practical matters concerning the equipment they will need to use or the pace
at which they will be expected to work.
Finally, you can discuss and share with pupils how the main learning intentions will
be linked to success criteria and targets for learning, and whether the lesson will be
linked to subsequent lessons and to a homework activity.

Effective explaining
Explaining often goes hand in hand with questioning, with the teacher switching from
one to the other as and when appropriate. Often this switch is influenced by whether


the teacher feels it is appropriate to pull ideas together swiftly to facilitate a move to
the next phase of the lesson, using a synthesising statement, or whether the teacher feels
more involvement and probing of pupils’ ideas is needed. For both explaining and
questioning, it is particularly important to ensure that the nature and complexity of the
language used by the teacher is at an appropriate level for pupils to understand. Indeed,
the skill of the teacher to pitch language use appropriately by taking account of pupils’
current level of understanding is one of the most important skills the beginning teacher
needs to master.
Writings and research on explaining (Kerry, 2002; Wragg and Brown, 2001a,b) have
highlighted seven key aspects involved in enhancing the effectiveness of an explanation:
●
●

●
●

●
●

●

Clarity: it is clear and pitched at the appropriate level.
Structure: the major ideas are broken down into meaningful segments and linked
together in a logical order.
Length: it is fairly brief and may be interspersed with questions and other activities.
Attention: the delivery makes good use of voice and body language to sustain attention
and interest.
Language: it avoids use of over-complex language and explains new terms.
Exemplars: it uses examples, particularly ones relating to pupils’ experiences and
interests.
Understanding: the teacher monitors and checks pupils’ understanding.

Perhaps the most important aspect of explaining, however, is the skill in deciding the
size of step that pupils can take in going from what they know at the start of the lesson
to the learning you intend will take place by the end of the lesson. This decision about
the size of step has crucial implications for the type and sophistication of the
explanations offered.
In summary, explanations should, by and large, be grammatically simple, make good
use of examples, deﬁne any technical terms and, most importantly, not go on for too
long!

Questioning
Questioning skills are also central to the repertoire of effective teaching (Kerry, 2002;
Walsh and Settes, 2005; Wragg and Brown, 2001c,d). There can be few professions to
compare with teaching where you spend so much time every day asking questions to
which you already know the answer. Research studies looking at teachers’ use of
questioning has identiﬁed the various reasons given by teachers for asking questions
as follows:
●
●
●

●

to encourage thought, understanding of ideas, phenomena, procedures and values
to check understanding, knowledge and skills
to gain attention to task, enable teacher to move towards teaching points, as a ‘warmup’ activity for pupils
to review, revise, recall, reinforce recently learned points, remind about earlier
procedures

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39

for management, settling down, to stop calling out by pupils, to direct attention to
teacher or text, to warn of precautions
speciﬁcally to teach whole class through pupil answers
to give everyone a chance to answer
to prompt bright pupils to encourage others
to draw in shyer pupils
to probe pupils’ knowledge after critical answers, re-direct questions to pupil who
asked or to other pupils
to allow expressions of feelings, views and empathy.

Types of questions
A useful distinction can be made between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ questions. Open questions
can have a number of right answers, whereas closed questions will only have one right
answer. Another useful distinction can be made between ‘higher order’ questions and
‘lower order’ questions. Higher order questions involve reasoning, analysis and
evaluation, whereas lower order questions are concerned with simple recall or
comprehension.
Much research indicates that teachers overwhelmingly ask more closed and lower order
questions than open and higher order questions. While, in general, open and higher
order questions are more intellectually demanding and stimulating, and research does
indicate that more of these types should be used, one does need to bear in mind the
range of purposes behind asking questions, as indicated earlier. Given that open and
higher order questions are more time consuming, it would be difficult to use these
very frequently without constraining other intentions, such as the need to maintain
an appropriate pace to the lesson, or to involve most of the pupils. As with all aspects
of teaching skills, a balance is required in meeting a range of different intentions at
the same time.

Effective questioning
Kerry (2002) has highlighted seven questioning skills:
●
●
●
●
●
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●

pitching the language and content level of questions appropriately for the class
distributing questions around the class
prompting and giving clues when necessary
using pupils’ responses (even incorrect ones) in a positive way
timing questions and pauses between questions
learning to make progressively greater cognitive demands through sequences of higher
order questions
using written questions effectively.

When asking questions there are two extremely important points to bear in mind. First,
answering a question, particularly in front of classmates, is an emotionally high-risk
activity. As such, it is essential that the classroom climate during questioning is one of


support and respect for the pupil’s answer (both by the teacher and by other pupils).
Second, do not allow some pupils to opt out of questioning. It is evident that some
pupils are adept at avoiding being noticed and will do whatever they can to terminate
quickly any interaction with the teacher. Such pupils need to be involved and helped
to contribute to the lesson.
A number of features characterise skilful questioning. It is a useful technique not to
name the pupil whom you want to answer the question until you have finished the
question. This helps to ensure that all pupils are attentive. When asking the question,
try to ensure that it is as clear and unambiguous as possible. If the pupil is in difﬁculties,
it can be useful to rephrase the question in a different way or guide the pupil towards
an answer through the use of scaffolding (see later in this chapter for a description of
scaffolding). Allowing pupils some time to talk to partners and to share answers can
be useful in promoting higher-quality thinking.
Most importantly, ask the question in a manner that conveys you are interested in the
reply, maintain eye contact with the pupil and ensure that other pupils have the courtesy
to listen in silence. When prompting or helping a pupil, remember that the object of
this is to assist the pupil’s thinking, not to enable the correct answer to be guessed from
the clues given. Finally, it is often worthwhile to check how a pupil arrived at the answer
given (whether right or wrong), as this can give you some useful insight into the
thinking involved.

Directing classroom discussion

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Directing classroom discussion
The third area of teacher talk activities to be considered here is that of classroom
discussion channelled through the teacher: a mixture of teacher and pupil explanations,
views and questions. Classroom discussion begins at the point when pupils ask
questions and when one pupil responds to what another pupil has said.
When classroom discussion takes place, there are two key decisions you need to take.
First, you need to consider how best to lay the room out (is it appropriate to organise
pupils so that they can see and hear each other?). Second, you need to consider the
extent to which you are going to direct the discussion and make a leading contribution
to shaping the ﬂow and development of what is said.
In using classroom discussion to good effect, it is useful to indicate the purpose of having
such a discussion, to indicate how long the discussion is intended to last, and to
summarise at the end what conclusions can be drawn. It is particularly important to
remember that one of the prime reasons for having classroom discussion is to give pupils
the opportunity to develop and express their ideas. This will need encouragement, and
a tolerance to allow badly formed and incorrect notions to be expressed (ensuring that
any errors become apparent as the discussion develops, rather than interrupted or shot
down immediately).

Whole-class interactive teaching
In recent years a style of teaching referred to as whole-class interactive teaching has been
widely advocated (Moyles et al., 2003; Hayes, D. 2006). This style of teaching involves
the skilful use of exposition and questioning to engage pupils in higher level thinking
about the topic in hand. This is often characterised as being done with pace, in order
to sustain a lively and buoyant feel to the lesson, but the teacher also needs to give pupils
adequate thinking time when appropriate in order to allow higher-quality responses to
questions. A teacher will typically also give pupils short tasks to do or ask them to talk
in pairs for a few minutes before asking for answers. Unfortunately, in unskilled hands,
this style of teaching can regress back into a more conventional whole-class (expositionbased) teaching. Indeed, a study by Smith et al. (2004) looking at the quality of
interactive whole class teaching in the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies
reported that traditional patterns of whole class interaction have not been dramatically
transformed by the Strategies. The skills needed lie in being able to sustain pupils’
engagement and contributions, and in particular to ensure that less able pupils and
more socially reserved pupils in the class do not feel intimidated by this style of teaching.
At its best, pupils will be encouraged to argue with and comment on both what the
teacher says and on what other pupils have said. Generating high-quality pupil talk
in this way is perhaps one of the most challenging and important tasks facing being
teachers (Myhill et al., 2006).

Academic tasks
Academic tasks refer to activities set up by teachers to facilitate pupil learning, which
can proceed with little or no direct teacher participation once they are up and running.


Examples include doing experiments or other practical tasks, investigation and problemsolving activities, worksheets, ICT, role play and small group discussion. Almost all
such activities tend to involve the teacher circulating around and monitoring progress,
giving individual help as and when necessary. Nevertheless, some teachers prefer to
maintain a high level of direction during such activities, while others see important
educational benefits deriving from being less directive (this point will be developed
further when we consider the notion of ‘active learning’ later in this chapter).

Setting up academic tasks
For academic tasks to be successfully employed, it is absolutely crucial that it is clear
to pupils what they have to do, and to indicate the relationship between the task and
the learning intended. It is easy to fall into the trap of thinking that the most important
aspect is to get the pupils under way quickly with the task and then to deal with any
problems as they arise. Doing so can lead to your having to dash from one desk to
another throughout the lesson, or else having to interrupt the class as a whole on several
occasions. In fact, the most important aspect for success is the careful preparation of the
tasks and materials to be used (so that they are clear and, if necessary, self-explanatory)
coupled with a clear briefing of what is required before the task is started. Some pupils
may not pay attention during this briefing session if they know that you will simply give
an individual briefing to anyone who wants one once the work has begun. If several
pupils have this attitude, there will be many demands made on you at the start. As such,
it is well worthwhile to ensure that as many pupils as possible are clear about the task
in hand before the class is allowed to start the work.
Another aspect of academic tasks that is of great importance is to ensure that pupils
possess the skills required to undertake the task successfully, or, if not, that the skills
are helped to develop. All tasks, whether it be extracting information from a set text,
using a worksheet, extracting data from the internet, loading a CD, carrying out an
experiment, or participating in small group discussion, involve a number of skills. It is
all too easy to assume that pupils already have appropriate skills or can develop these
by trial and error. In fact, many pupils get into difficulties simply because they are
unsure about how to proceed and what is expected of them.
A nice example of this is that of a teacher asking pupils to spend a lesson writing a poem
about winter. Now, for some pupils the processes involved in writing a poem are rather
mysterious, and little headway may be made. However, if the teacher was first to spend
a lesson composing a poem from scratch on the blackboard in front of the pupils, and
demonstrate, by thinking aloud, how one can start from some ideas or phrases and
rework these and change words, the whole process for pupils could then be demystified.
This demystification is essential for almost all academic tasks. How do you extract
information from a set text? How do you make successful use of small group discussion?
What steps are involved in conducting an investigation? Paying explicit attention to
pupils’ learning skills before, during and after academic tasks can have a major impact
on the quality of learning which takes place.
One of the advantages of setting work for individuals is that it allows pupils to work at
their own pace, it helps them to organise and take responsibility for their own effort,

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and it enables the work to be structured and tailored to their own level of difficulty
(including the provision of extension and enrichment materials and tasks for the more
able pupils in the class). Where pupils are working individually on an extended piece
of work or a project, or through a work scheme, careful and regular monitoring of
progress is essential.

Co-operative activities
Co-operative activities, such as small group discussion or collaborative problem-solving,
enable pupils to share ideas, to develop the skills involved in co-operative interaction,
to communicate clearly and to work as a team. Generally speaking, a group size ranging
from two to six seems to be best for most co-operative tasks. Pairs are most commonly
used, in part for logistical reasons and in part because both partners will get more
contribution time than when in a larger group. However, it is important to make use
of larger groups, which will enable pupils to develop wider communication and
organisational skills.
Some teachers, however, are reluctant to make use of co-operative tasks because they
fear that by relinquishing tight control over the learning activities, it will be harder to
sustain good order. There is little doubt that such activities do depend on good teaching
skills, but fortunately with the increasing use of such activities, pupils are more familiar
and more skilled at using such activities to good effect than when such activities were
relatively novel in schools.
It is important to note that pupils require help and support to use small group cooperative activities effectively. Research indicates that the way the activity is structured
can have a positive impact on the quality of learning that takes place. A study by Gillies
(2004) identiﬁed three key elements of a structured activity:
●

●

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The pupils understand what they are expected to do and how they are expected to
work together.
The task is established so that all group members realise they are required to
contribute to completing it and to assist others to do likewise.
Pupils are taught the interpersonal and small group skills needed to promote a sharing
and respectful attitude towards others.

Gillies found that pupils in structured groups (as described above) worked together
much better and more effectively than pupils working together in unstructured groups.

Active learning
Active learning refers to any activities where pupils are given a marked degree of
autonomy and control over the organisation, conduct and direction of the learning
activity. Most usually, such activities involve problem-solving and investigational work,
and may be individualised (such as an extended piece of work or project) or involve
small group collaboration (such as small group discussion, games, a role-play simulation
or collaborative project).


In essence, active learning may usefully be contrasted with expository teaching, in which
pupils are largely passive receivers of information which is tightly under the teacher’s
control. A number of educational benefits have been claimed for active learning activities:
●

●

●

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They are intellectually more stimulating and thereby more effective in eliciting and
sustaining pupil motivation and interest.
They are effective in fostering a number of important learning skills involved in the
process of organising the activities, such as when organising their own work during
individualised activities, and interaction and communication skills during co-operative
activities.
They are likely to be enjoyed, offer opportunity for progress, are less threatening than
teacher talk activities and thereby foster pupil attitudes towards themselves as learners
and more positive attitudes towards the subject.
Co-operative activities in particular enable greater insights into the conduct of the
learning activities through observing the performance of peers and sharing and
discussing procedures and strategies.

In considering active learning, however, you need to be aware that this term has not
been used by teachers with any consistency. As well as referring to teaching methods
or learning activities, it is sometimes used to refer to the mental experience of learning
by discovery. Nevertheless, in the sense of activities such as small group work, teachers
are generally expected to make use of such activities as well as teacher talk activities.
The message, in effect, is that how pupils learn is as important as the content of what
they learn.
In addition, active learning can sometimes offer a much more powerful experience or
insight into what is to be learned than expository teaching. For example, in a
mathematics lesson a teacher could ask pupils to guess how many pupils fit into a one
cubic metre box, and then bring one in and see. Pupils having this experience are
thereafter left with a very strong image of what this unit of volume means.

Academic tasks versus teacher talk activities
Much discussion has taken place over the years concerning the relative merits of teachers
using whole-class teaching methods based on teacher talk activities compared with the
use of academic tasks, particularly those characterised by active learning. Comparisons
of educational attainment in different countries coupled with a whole host of research
studies of effective teaching suggest that an approach described as ‘direct teaching’ is
probably the most effective approach to promoting higher levels of pupil attainment.
Direct teaching essentially consists of lessons that follow five main stages:
●
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The teacher sets clear goals for the lesson.
The teacher teaches through exposition of what is to be learned.
The teacher asks questions to check pupil understanding.
There is a period of supervised practice.
The teacher assesses pupils’ work to check that the goals have been achieved.

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Nevertheless, one should not use such findings to call for teaching to become
predominantly based on whole-class teaching methods employing teacher talk activities.
It is widely accepted that teachers need to make use of a variety of teaching methods.
Doing so helps pupils to develop the skills of learning in different ways and also provides
for a greater variety of learning outcomes. What is needed is the right mix of activities.

Teaching styles and learning styles
Discussion of the skills involved in lesson presentation has sometimes made reference
to the way in which some teachers seem to adopt a typical approach to their teaching,
and also the way in which some pupils seem to have strong preferences about how they
prefer to learn. This has given rise to consideration of whether certain teaching
approaches may be particularly effective, and whether an attempt should be made by
teachers to take account of differences between pupils in their preferences for certain
learning activities.

Teaching styles
Studies of classroom practice have attempted to categorise teachers in terms of their
teaching styles, which refers to their tendency to make frequent use of certain types of
learning activities in their teaching (Cohen et al., 2004; McCormick and Leask, 2005).
For example, some teachers tend to make much greater use of teacher-centred,
exposition-dominated activities, together with teacher-directed seatwork tasks. At its
most traditional, this approach may be coupled with the organisation of desks into rows
and a great deal of guided practice. This approach has often been described as a ‘formal
teaching style’. In contrast, some teachers make much greater use of student-centred
activities, involving small group work and giving pupils’ more control over the direction
of their work. This may be coupled with arranging desks together to form groups of
pupils seated together, and the use of more open-ended tasks negotiated with pupils.
This approach has often been described as an ‘informal teaching style’.
Attempts to identify and describe teaching styles, however, have been problematic,
because there are a wider variety of styles than can be described (a simple dichotomy
between formal and informal, for example, is too simplistic) and most teachers use a
mix of styles and also vary their mix of styles from lesson to lesson and from class to
class. Nevertheless, some consistent differences between teachers in terms of their
general approach to teaching do seem to be discernible.

Learning styles
Similarly, attempts have also been made to describe pupils in terms of their learning
styles (Pritchard, 2005; Smith, 2005). This term refers to the types of learning activities
and tasks pupils prefer to experience and which they feel are more effective in promoting
their own learning. It also includes their preferences about the types of strategies for
learning they prefer to adopt when given a choice, and their preferences regarding the
physical and social characteristics of the learning situation. For example, some pupils


prefer to read (rather than listen), work alone (rather than in a group), find things out
for themselves (rather than be given a digest by the teacher), and have tasks tightly
prescribed (rather than left to their own decision-making).
The point is sometimes made that if pupils are taught more often in their preferred
learning style, more learning will take place. As such, teachers should try to match
learning activities to pupils’ preferences. Whilst I agree that it is important for teachers
to be aware that pupils differ in their learning styles, I think the idea of matching of
work to pupils’ preferred learning styles involves a number of problems. First of all, it
is important to help pupils to develop the skills to learn effectively in their non-preferred
learning styles, as pupils who are taught overwhelmingly in their preferred learning
style may not be able to develop a full range of learning skills. Second, pupils’ learning
styles are not easy to determine and also vary from lesson to lesson and from subject
to subject. Third, the logistics of classroom life would make it extremely difficult to cater
differentially for the variety of pupils’ learning preferences in the same class.

Personalised learning
The debate about the relative effectiveness of different teaching methods and learning
activities is a complex one, and what works best will vary from situation to situation,
depending on the type of class taught and the particular type of learning outcomes being
fostered. However, one important implication of research on teaching styles and
learning styles is that teachers do need to make use of a variety of learning activities in
their teaching. In addition, teachers can use their awareness of the differences between
pupils in their learning preferences to help sustain each pupil’s motivation by making
use of their preferred activities when appropriate, and also by providing additional
support and encouragement when making use of their non-preferred activities.
The consideration of how teachers can best meet the learning needs of pupils by taking
careful account of each pupil’s circumstances, ability and motivation, and preferred
learning styles, has given rise to the notion of ‘personalised learning’, which refers to
how a school can tailor the curriculum and teaching methods to the specific learning
needs of each pupil, and offer each pupil the type of personalised support that will
enable them to develop the skills needed to access learning activities to better effect.
The genesis of personalised learning was initially seen as a way of combating
disaffection amongst lower-attaining pupils, but it gradually began to be conceived in
terms of being good practice to better meet the needs all pupils. Personalised learning
has featured heavily in a range of DfES policy statements which have been produced
in its drive to improve the quality of education and to raise the levels of pupil
attainments (e.g. DfES, 2004c, 2005b).
The DfES also notes that personalised learning needs to be based on the regular
assessment of pupil progress to identify each pupil’s learning needs in order to teach
them accordingly (‘assessment for learning’). The essence of personalised learning is
for the pupil to experience learning as something that is relevant to their needs and
which they can readily engage in with success. Some attempts have also been made to
indicate how the development of personalised learning in schools can be informed by
research evidence (Pollard and James, 2004).

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The importance of personalised learning is reflected in its inclusion as an element of
the TDA (2007) QTS standards. Student teachers need to have knowledge and
understanding of a range of teaching, learning and behaviour management strategies
and to know how to use and adapt them, including how to personalise learning and
provide opportunities for all pupils to achieve their potential.
In recent years a number of research reports have highlighted the ways in which the
skilful use of ICT can support personalised learning. A number of these reports can
be found at the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (Becta)
website (www.becta.org.uk). Becta (2005) argue that ICT can personalise learning by:
●
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personalising content sources and resources
providing pathways through content that are personalised to individual pupils’ needs
presenting a range of interfaces appropriate to an individual pupil’s level and ability
facilitating effective assessment and reporting tools
providing flexibility regarding when, where and with whom pupils learn.

Matching work to pupil ability and needs
Matching the learning experience to the ability level and needs of each pupil in the class
is one of the most skilful aspects of teaching. The difficulty of doing this successfully
is in part a reflection of the complexity of the teacher’s task: namely, that the class may
well have about 30 pupils in it, comprising a wide range of ability and needs.
One of the problems facing teachers is that there is a tendency to pitch the lesson
towards meeting the needs of the broad middle range of ability within the class, and
then to provide additional material, demands or help for those at the extremes. Part of
the problem with this approach is that the more able pupils need more enriching and
more stimulating demands, not simply more of the same or more difficult work.
Similarly, less able pupils also need more enriching and stimulating demands, not
simply less of the same or easier work. A number of work schemes based on
individualised programmes of work have been particularly successful in enabling this
match to occur across a broad range of ability.
The notion of matching work to pupils does not mean setting work at a level that pupils
can already do fairly successfully. Rather, it deals with the idea of what pupils of a certain
level of ability are able to achieve in the way of new learning. ‘Matching the work’ thus
refers to deciding how much progress pupils can make in a given lesson or over a course
of lessons and then pitching the work to achieve the optimal progress the pupils appear
to be capable of.
Studies looking at the school factors influencing pupil progress have indicated that a
key factor contributing to greater progress was intellectually challenging teaching
(McNeil and Sammons, 2006). However, many studies have noted that the match of
task demands to pupils indicated that a majority of tasks were not well matched to
pupils, in the sense of promoting the optimal progress pupils were capable of. In some
cases the tasks were too easy, whilst in other cases they were too difficult.


Setting and streaming
Another approach used to help match work to pupils is that of grouping pupils into
narrower ability bands. This can be done by streaming, where pupils in a particular
ability band stay together as a group for all lessons and topics; or setting, where pupils
are put into a separate ability group for each subject or topic. Reviews of research on the
advantages and disadvantages of grouping pupils by ability (Ireson and Hallam, 2002)
indicate that such grouping can be very help in terms of:
●
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allowing pupils to make progress in line with their ability
making it easier for the teacher to set work that meets the needs of the whole group
more able pupils not being held back by the less able
less able pupils not being discouraged by the more able.

At the same time, research has indicated that there are dangers here, most particularly
that pupils grouped together into a low-ability band or set may get caught up in a vicious
circle of lowered teacher and pupil expectations concerning what they are capable of.

Mixed-ability groups and differentiation
In some schools mixed-ability groups are used. This may be because the small size of
the age group or the small number of pupils doing a particular subject or topic does not
allow setting. Additionally, some schools wish to make use of the advantages of having
mixed-ability groups in allowing pupils from different backgrounds to mix socially and
academically, and to avoid having to teach low sets. It is also important to note that all
classes of pupils, even those where some selection by attainment has been made, will
involve a range of ability.
Differentiation involves adapting the way the work is set and assessed in order to meet
the needs of a range of abilities within the same class. Seven types of differentiation have
been highlighted:
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differentiation by task, where pupils cover the same content but at different levels
differentiation by outcome, where the same general task is set, but it is ﬂexible enough
for pupils to work at their own level
differentiation by learning activity, where pupils are required to address the same task
at the same level, but in a different way
differentiation by pace, where pupils can cover the same content at the same level
but at a different rate
differentiation by dialogue, where the teacher discusses the work with individual pupils
in order to tailor the work to their needs
differentiation by support, where the degree of support is tailored to the needs of
individual pupils, with less support offering more challenge and opportunity for
initiative
differentiation by resource, where the type of resource used (worksheets, internet,
graphical calculator) is tailored to the pupil’s ability and skills.

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These seven types of differentiation are not mutually exclusive, but rather a matter of
emphasis.

Inclusion
Inclusion refers to the way in which teaching and learning in a school is organised in
a way that enables the school to cater for pupils with a broad range of ability and needs.
Some pupils with moderate or severe special educational needs, including those whose
behaviour can be regarded as challenging to deal with, are now being taught in
mainstream schools when in the past they would have had their special educational
needs catered for in special schools. Teachers need to be skilled at handling a wide range
of pupils’ needs in the classroom, and this may often involve being able to plan and
teach with the help of a support teacher (Lewis and Norwich, 2005). The importance
of the skills involved in doing this are recognised in the TDA (2007) QTS standards
in which student teachers need to:
●

●

know and understand the role of colleagues with specific responsibility for pupils with
special educational needs and disabilities and other individual learning needs
know how to make effective personalised provision for those they teach, including
those for whom English is an additional language or who have special educational needs
or disabilities, and how to take practical account of diversity and promote equality and
inclusion in their teaching.

Skilful matching
One of the useful ways in which teachers can help ensure that a match is achieved is
through careful monitoring of pupils’ progress and questioning to check understanding.
Unfortunately, many pupils are reluctant to confess to difficulties and are likely instead
either to do little work in silence, or else to use various strategies to get the work
demanded done with little or even incorrect understanding. As such it is of crucial
importance that you take the initiative in monitoring progress, rather than wait for
difficulties to be drawn to your attention.
Expectations also play a role in sometimes obscuring what pupils are capable of. Most
pupils will do slightly less than is typically demanded of them. This can easily result in
a downward spiral of teacher demands, if what the teacher demands of each lesson is the
level of work that was produced in previous lessons. Hence you need to be consistently
conveying expectations of a higher quality of work and progress in each lesson than is
typically achieved. This will create an impression of encouraging and expecting a
standard just higher than the norm previously produced, but not so much higher that
pupils feel discouraged or that you are dissatisfied with genuine effort on their part.
Matching work to pupils also involves the need to take account of pupils’ interests and
needs. This includes taking advantage of examples and topics and their applications
that are likely to be of interest or relevance to the pupils in your class. In addition, as
noted earlier in this chapter, it includes providing a variety of ways of working, using
both teacher talk activities and a range of academic tasks, so that pupils can build up
the skills involved in working successfully in these different ways.


Some pupils will also have particular needs that must be met. These may range from
a pupil who is rather shy and needs encouragement to participate, to a pupil who has
difficulty producing legible handwriting. Some pupils will require individual attention
for their needs to be met. Some pupils may well have a marked learning difficulty and
be identified as having a special educational need. In such cases, the teacher may be
able to meet these needs, or there may be additional help or resources available. Indeed,
all teachers need to be alert to the possibility that a pupil may have a special educational
need and to ensure that such needs are identified and met. Learning difficulties may
stem from a physical handicap of some sort, a long period of absence from school, very
low general ability, or social and emotional problems.

Tutoring
Another aspect of matching work to pupils is the use of one-to-one teaching, sometimes
referred to as tutoring. As well as whole-class teaching and the monitoring of progress
on academic tasks, teachers also spend much of their time helping individual pupils on
a one-to-one basis. This type of help is a crucial part of effective teaching, not only
because of the academic support offered, but also because it is a personal and private
encounter between you and the pupil. As such, it offers an important opportunity to
emphasise your care, support and encouragement for the pupil’s progress. It also
provides an important opportunity to assess the pupil’s general ability and motivation,
and to identify any particular needs.
One of the most important aspects involved in skilful tutoring is that of scaffolding. The
notion of scaffolding deals with how skilful tutoring can involve helping the pupil with
a task by directing their attention to the key elements necessary for applying and

A wide variety of resources are available

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developing their current understanding, and thereby enabling them to carry out the task
successfully. A number of studies of classroom practice have shown that the teacher’s
ability to do this effectively requires a sensitive awareness of both the pupil’s current
level of understanding and the subject matter in hand.
The effectiveness of tutoring has long been recognised, and some schools now make
use of parents as helpers in the classroom or use other pupils, either the same age or
older pupils, to provide additional opportunities for one-to-one help in the classroom.
The use of pupils as tutors, often referred to as ‘peer tutoring’, is fairly widespread and
a number of studies have indicated that where pupils are asked to help other pupils in
this way (usually with reading or number work), both pupils seem to benefit. Of
particular importance in using other adults or pupils as tutors in this way, is that they
are carefully briefed about their role and the need to offer encouragement to pupils
during the interactions.

Using resources and materials
There is a vast range of resources and materials available for use in the classroom, including interactive whiteboards, laptops, PowerPoint, overhead projector
transparencies, CDs, worksheets and simulation materials. Perhaps the golden rule
concerning their use is always to check their quality and appropriateness for the lesson.
It is all too easy to think that because such resources are going to be used, that is an
excuse for accepting a somewhat lower quality or something not quite appropriate for
the intended learning. As a result, pupils all too often have to watch videos with poor
sound quality or work through a software package that is unclear or even inappropriate
to the topic being investigated. While the desire for pupils to acquire a familiarity with
such materials may be important enough to warrant this on the odd occasion, you must
be rigorous in your appraisal of the suitability of such materials for the learning
outcomes you intend.
It is also important to familiarise yourself with the content of such materials if you have
not used them before or for some time, since it could prove difﬁcult to deal with any
problems that may arise unexpectedly. In addition, since many resources may be used
by pupils with little or no help from the teacher, difﬁculties could arise which you may
not be aware of until after the lesson or not at all, unless you carefully monitor progress.

Using the board and projector
The board is still the most widely used teaching aid and the quality of your board use
will be a major indicator of your teaching. Well-prepared and clear use of the board is
not only effective as a teaching aid, but is also an example to the class of the standard
or quality of work and presentation you expect. The board can also usefully be a
reminder or record of important points: for example, the spelling of new or difficult
words, a note of the task pupils are to undertake when the present task has been
completed, or a list of pupils’ ideas to be used for later analysis. One pitfall for beginning
teachers to note is talking while facing the board. When you are writing on the board


and have something important to say, you must turn your head to face the class as you
speak.
Similar points can be made about the use of interactive whiteboards and data projectors,
although here it is possible to produce materials in advance to good effect. Always ensure
that the projection onto the screen is clearly visible from all parts of the classroom, and
that you are not obscuring the view yourself (an occasional fault, even amongst some
experienced teachers!).

Individualised schemes of work
One marked area of development in the use of resources and materials has been the
widespread use of individualised schemes of work based on software packages. One of
the skills involved in their effective use concerns the organisation of how and when
pupils use these, and how and when they receive feedback on their progress.
Many studies have indicated that one of the key factors in promoting greater pupil
attainment is the ability of the teacher to maximise the time that pupils spend
educationally benefiting from the learning activity in hand. The more time they spend
waiting to use resources or waiting for help when they are in difficulties, the less time
they are making progress in their attainment. The procedures used by teachers to ensure
good organisation in using such resources is thus of great importance.
One advantage of some software packages is that they are designed to be self-explanatory
and often provide feedback about correct answers and help for pupils in difficulties.
Nevertheless, most such resources do still require teacher assistance from time to time,
and for teachers to be involved in assessing progress. As such, you need to ensure that
the arrangements you make allow such time to be given. One particularly useful
strategy, more commonly employed in primary schools, is to organise a lesson such that
different groups are working on different tasks, ranging from tasks involving minimal
teacher contact, to those involving a great deal of contact. By dividing the class up in
this way, you will be able to spend more time with those pupils needing your help
without this being to the detriment of other pupils.
Another useful strategy is to establish routines or procedures that pupils are required to
follow, so that they do not waste time wondering what to do next in a particular
situation. A simple rule stating what pupils are expected to do if they get into difficulties
or have finished a piece of work, can help to ensure smooth running of classroom
activities, and enables you to check whether the activities set are causing problems, are
too easy, too difficult, or are unclear in any respect.

Treating resources and materials with care
Finally, when pupils use resources and materials that are to be used again by others, it
is worth emphasising that the resources must be handled with care and respect. This
is important not only because loss or damage may be costly and also inconvenience other
pupils, but also because it highlights that in life everyone will be sharing resources
and that such common ownership and use imposes responsibilities and obligations on
each user. What is true in this respect within the community of the school is also true
for society in general.

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Further reading
Borich, G. D. (2007) Effective Teaching Methods: Research Based Practice, 6th edn. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall. An excellent overview of our current state of understanding about effective
lesson presentation.
Hayes, D. (2006) The Art of Interactive Teaching. Exeter: Learning Matters. A readable treatment
of the key features involved in interactive teaching.
Kerry, T. (2002) Explaining and Questioning. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. This book provides
an excellent overview of the two teaching skills that are still the stock and trade of an effective
teacher’s repertoire.
Myhill, D., Jones, S. and Hopper, R. (2006) Talking, Listening, Learning: Effective Talk in the
Primary Classroom. Maidenhead: Open University Press. An excellent analysis of the
way the quality of language used in the classroom affects learning, and the teaching skills
involved in sustaining quality talk.

Key questions about your lesson presentation
1 Are the learning activities appropriate to the type of learning outcomes I intend?
2 Do the learning activities take adequate account of pupils’ abilities, interests and
needs, and of their previous and future learning?
3 Do I make use of a variety of different types of learning activities?
4 Are my instructions, explanations and questions clear and appropriate for pupils’
needs?
5 Do I use a variety of question types and distribute these widely throughout the class?
6 Is my general manner conﬁdent, relaxed, self-assured and purposeful, and one that
is conducive to generating an interest in the lesson and providing support and
encouragement for learning?
7 Does my lesson take account of any particular needs of individual pupils, including
any special educational needs?
8 Are resources and materials used to good effect?
9 Do I carefully monitor the progress of the lesson and the progress of pupils’ learning
to ensure that the learning activities are effectively fostering the learning outcomes
I intend?
10 Does my general standard of presentation indicate to pupils my respect and care for
their learning?

4 Lesson management
Teaching a class of 30 pupils requires a whole range of management and organisational
skills if sufﬁcient order necessary for pupil learning is to be maintained. In many ways,
I think the task of teaching is rather like the act one sometimes sees on a stage where
a person has to spin plates on top of several canes simultaneously. To do this successfully
requires the performer to set new plates spinning while occasionally returning to those
plates that have slowed down and are near to falling off, for a booster spin. In the same
way, successful lesson management requires you to keep switching attention and action
between several activities to ensure that pupils’ learning proceeds smoothly.
The key task facing you as a teacher is to elicit and sustain pupils’ involvement in the
learning experience throughout a lesson which will lead to the learning outcomes you
intend. At any one time you are likely to have several demands pressing on you for
action. For example, you may be dealing with a pupil having problems with the task
in hand, then become aware that another pupil needs an item of equipment, also notice
another pupil is staring out of the window apparently day-dreaming, and be approached
by another pupil who wants some work checked.
Lesson management essentially refers to those skills involved in managing and
organising the learning activities such that you maximise pupils’ productive involvement
in the lesson as much as possible (Dean, 2000; Haydn, 2007; Kyriacou, 1997). Given
the large size and range of ability of most classes, this is no mean task! Research based
on classroom observation and interviews with beginning and experienced teachers has
identiﬁed how a successful lesson hinges on certain key lesson management skills.
Paradoxically, watching successful experienced teachers in action tends to provide
student teachers with little explicit guidance on successful lesson management skills,
since such teachers make everything look too easy. It is only when such teaching is
contrasted with that of teachers where problems arise, that the differences in what they
do become evident, and the skills used by successful lesson managers can be described.

Beginnings, transitions and endings
One of the key areas of lesson management concerns the skills used in beginning a
lesson, handling the transitions within the lesson between activities (say, moving from
group work to whole-class discussion) and bringing a lesson to a successful ending.

Beginning punctually
The two most important aspects concerning the beginning of the lesson are punctuality
and mental set. It is important for the lesson to start punctually, i.e. fairly soon after the
time formally timetabled for its start. This requires that both you and your pupils have
arrived for the lesson in good time. Ideally, it is a great help if you can be in the

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classroom first, to greet pupils as they arrive and to ensure that pupils enter the
classroom in an orderly fashion and settle down quickly. Certainly you should convey
to pupils that lateness is not acceptable without good excuse.
The first few minutes of a lesson is usually a period of dead time during which pupils
settle down, books may be distributed, or you may check material or notes. If possible,
you can use this time to good effect by having a social exchange with one or two pupils,
or deal with some matters outstanding from a previous lesson, such as a pupil’s overdue
homework. Once you are happy that everyone has arrived, you need to signal that the
lesson itself is ready to begin. This is probably the most important moment in the lesson.
It signals the moment that pupils are to pay attention and begin their involvement in
the lesson. A clear explicit signal, perhaps saying ‘Okay everyone’ or ‘Pay attention now’,
is required. It is immensely important for pupils to start paying attention immediately.
If you are not happy that all pupils are paying attention, you should indicate this. Trying
to continue with the start of a lesson when a few pupils are not paying attention often
acts as a signal for others to do likewise in future.

Establishing a positive mental set
Most lessons begin with the topic in hand or with some short activity that needs to be
dealt with first, such as comments on homework, or some comment about equipment
or materials that everyone should have ready. Whether you start with the topic itself
or some other activity, it is important to stand centre-stage, at the front of the room, and
to use a clear voice, eye contact and scanning, to ensure everyone is paying attention.
A pause followed by a stare at someone not paying attention is often sufficient to signal
this.
Once you begin to introduce the topic in hand for the lesson, you need to think about
how to elicit and sustain pupils’ interest. The best way to do this is to convey in your
tone of voice and general manner, a sense of curiosity and excitement, and a sense of
purposefulness about what is to follow. Two useful techniques are to establish a link
with previous work (e.g. ‘Now, you remember last week we looked at . . .’) or to pose
some questions (e.g. ‘Can anybody tell me what the word energy means?’). Such
techniques help to establish a positive mental set towards the lesson, i.e. an attitude of
mind in which the pupil prepares to devote attention and mental effort towards the
activities you set up. A successful introduction to a lesson, which establishes a positive
mental set, makes it far easier to sustain learning as the lesson unfolds.
Another aspect of establishing this mental set is to check that every pupil is ready and
prepared for the start of the lesson. Are there still pupils with bags on the desk, or
standing up talking to each other, or looking for an exercise book that was not handed
back? One of the skills involved here is deciding whether to hold up the start of the
lesson and chivvy pupils to settle down quickly (e.g. ‘Hurry up now, I can still see bags
on desks’) or whether, if you simply start, pupils will quickly pay attention.
Once a routine for a quick and smooth start to lessons has been well established, you
can normally relax the formality of the start, as pupils will quickly respond. However,
it is useful from time to time to re-emphasise the procedure and expectations to ensure
that they continue to operate well. At the same time, you need to check that you are


ready and prepared for the start of the lesson. Are the materials you intend to use readily
to hand, has the diagram you wish pupils to talk about been drawn on the board, are
the copies of the worksheets to be used ready for distribution? A state of readiness on
your part will contribute to your own mental set and this will in turn influence the
mental set of pupils.
It is well established that giving pupils ‘advanced organisers’ at the start of a lesson can
be helpful. Advanced organisers refers to ways in which the teacher alerts pupils to how
the content and activities of the lesson can be organised and related to their previous
knowledge and understanding. However, it appears that explicitly sharing with pupils
the learning objectives for the lesson at the start can also have a positive impact on the
quality of their work. A study by Seidel et al. (2005) indicated that in lessons where the
pupils were given a clear idea of the lesson goals, the pupils characterised the lesson as
providing a more supportive classroom climate for their learning and they made greater
progress in their learning as indicated by their subsequent attainment test scores.

Smooth transitions
The notion of ‘smoothness’ is helpful when considering whether a lesson has started
smoothly and whether there has been a smooth transition between activities (Kounin,
1970). This can best be described by contrasting it with the notion of ‘jerkiness’.
Jerkiness would be evident if the teacher had to repeat instructions because pupils had
not heard or were confused by what was said, or if, having begun a new activity, the
teacher kept referring back to the previous activity.
The worst form of jerkiness is attempting to start an activity only to find that some prior
activity needed to be undertaken first, and as a result of this needing to stop the activity
and change to the prior activity. An example of this would be having to tell pupils who
had started working through a worksheet, that they should have been told to read a
passage in their textbook first. This not only interrupts the pupils, but makes them feel
that their efforts have been wasted through the teacher’s poor planning and lesson
management. Effective beginnings and transitions are smooth in the sense of lacking
jerkiness. Clearly, from time to time, such jerkiness is inevitable and occurs for good
educational reasons, such as if it becomes evident that an unforeseeable learning
difficulty has arisen. Nevertheless, skilful teaching tends to be characterised by a
minimum of unnecessary and avoidable instances of jerkiness.
Two other aspects of transitions contribute to smoothness. First, the teacher needs to
be sensitive to how a lesson is progressing in deciding when to initiate a transition.
For example, if pupils seem to be working fairly well at a task but somewhat slower than
anticipated, the teacher may well decide that it is better to allow more time for the task
to be continued, rather than interrupt the activity before it is completed to move them
on to another activity. In some cases this may be crucial. A transition to discussion
following group work may be harder to set up effectively if the group work has not
continued long enough for the issues or ideas to develop that were to form the basis
for the discussion.
The second aspect of transitions worthy of note is deciding when to give instructions to
the class as a whole, rather than to individuals. All too often a teacher interrupts a class
embarking on a new activity simply to issue a further or elaborated instruction which is

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only of use to two or three particular pupils. It may well have been better and less
disruptive for the teacher to talk to each of those pupils privately. The same pitfall can
be associated with issuing a reprimand, which again may disrupt the working of a whole
class when simple and silent eye contact might have been more effective and less
disruptive.
The key point to bear in mind about transitions is that care and attention in setting
up a sequence of activities in which pupils are working steadily are just as important
as the effort you put into dealing with the content of the learning activities.

Ending the lesson
The ending of lessons can usefully include a few words of praise about the work covered
and some conclusions or summary about what was achieved. There are three important
issues of management relating to endings. First, a lesson should end on time, neither
early, nor, except for special reasons, late. Good time management is one of the skills
that pupils will reasonably expect you to have. Ending early can imply a lack of concern
about the worthwhileness of using all the time available. Should some time be available
at the end of the lesson, this can usefully be spent reviewing or probing the topic covered.
Ending late can imply that you lack the organisational skills to marshal the activities,
and will deprive you of the opportunity to finish the lesson in a well-ordered and
unhurried fashion. Most pupils will naturally resent lessons running over time on a
regular basis.
A second management issue is the procedure for getting pupils ready for the end of
the lesson. This may involve collecting books and equipment, giving feedback on the
work done, and setting homework or other action needed before the next lesson. While
this should be done in good time, you also need to ensure that some pupils do not start
to pack away too early or before you have signalled that they may do so.
Third, the exit from the classroom should be well ordered. If necessary, it should be
controlled, with you dismissing groups of pupils at a time, rather than allowing a rushed
exit, until such time as pupils are used to making a well-ordered exit from the classroom
without your explicit control.

Maintaining pupils’ involvement
Once the lesson is under way, your main task is to maintain pupils’ attention, interest
and involvement in the learning activities. The task is not, however, one of simply
keeping pupils busy. There may be a number of activities that you could set up that
would effectively keep pupils busy, but they may not be effectively promoting the
learning you intend. What makes lesson management skills so sophisticated is the task
of setting up activities that are both educationally effective and maintain pupils’
involvement.
While the two should go together, it is easy to ﬁnd some activities erring too far towards
only the latter. Skilful lesson management is primarily a question of getting a good
balance between the learning potential of an activity and its degree of sustaining pupils’


involvement. Since learning cannot occur without involvement, a danger facing teachers
is to be uncritical about the quality of learning that occurs when they have successfully
maintained a high level of pupil involvement. Nevertheless, at the same time one needs
to bear in mind that the learning outcomes which teachers try to achieve include the
development of study skills, organisational skills and sustained concentration by pupils.
These can usefully be fostered by lengthy periods of working without interaction with
the teacher. Hence a teacher may well choose to use an activity that can sustain high
pupil involvement for a long period primarily as a means to foster such skills.

Skills in lesson management
An analysis of documents and reports produced by the DfES and Ofsted cover a
numbers of skills involved in effective lesson management (e.g. DfES, 2003a,b, 2004a;
Ofsted 2002, 2006), although some of these clearly overlap with issues of lesson
presentation covered in the previous chapter. In particular these focus on the need to
be able to use teaching methods that sustain the momentum of pupils’ work and keep
all pupils engaged through:
●

●

●
●

●

●

●

stimulating their intellectual curiosity, communicating enthusiasm for the subject being
taught, fostering pupils’ enthusiasm and maintaining their motivation
structuring information well, including outlining content and aims, signalling transitions
and summarising key points as the lesson progresses
clear instruction and demonstration, and accurate, well-paced explanation
effective questioning which matches the pace and direction of the lesson and ensures
that pupils take part
listening carefully to pupils, analysing their responses and responding constructively
in order to take pupils’ learning forward
providing opportunities for pupils to consolidate their knowledge and maximising
opportunities, both in the classroom and through setting well-focused homework,
to reinforce and develop what has been learned
setting high expectations for all pupils notwithstanding individual differences, including
gender, and cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

In addition, the TDA (2007) QTS standards include a reference to the need for student
teachers to be able to manage the learning of individuals, groups and whole classes,
modifying their teaching to suit the stage of the lesson.

Monitoring pupils’ progress
Overall, the most important skill involved in maintaining pupils’ involvement is that of
carefully monitoring pupils’ progress. This should be done actively, through circulating
around the room and asking probing questions, and passively, by having wellestablished routines whereby pupils are encouraged to ask for help. Both active and
passive monitoring is important. As a result of such monitoring, key decisions may be
made about how best to sustain pupils’ involvement. Such decisions may relate to the
needs of one or two particular pupils or to the needs of the class as a whole.

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Pace and flow of the lesson
If pupils’ attention or interest in the lesson seems to be on the wane, a number of
possible reasons may account for this. It may be that a particular activity is being
employed for too long (most commonly a long exposition). Alternatively, it may be that
the general pace and flow of the lesson is either too fast or too slow.
If the pace of activities (be it exposition, group work, worksheets or reading tasks) is too
fast, pupils will simply wilt or find that they are missing important points or ideas. If
the pace is too slow, pupils’ minds can easily start to wander. Indeed, an important
aspect of maintaining the correct pace during exposition involves having a sense of how
long to dwell on each particular point for understanding to occur and not spending
too long dwelling on minor points or points already well taken.
In addition, maintaining a good pace also involves avoiding unnecessary interruptions
to the flow of the lesson. For example, if while explaining a task, you stop in order to
get a pencil for a pupil, or to find a map you need to refer to, or to reprimand a pupil,
the flow of the lesson will be interrupted. A useful lesson management skill is that of
dealing with the demands that arise, or postponing dealing with them, so that they are
not allowed to interrupt the flow of the lesson. For example, if while explaining a task
you notice two pupils talking, you may continue your explanation while looking at the
two pupils concerned, or, if necessary, move towards them. This would enable the flow
of the lesson to continue while dealing with the problem. This skill is sometimes
referred to as ‘overlapping’, i.e. dealing with two or more tasks at the same time.
Another example of overlapping is the teacher’s ability to monitor pupils’ progress and
behaviour while giving individual help to a particular pupil. A skilful teacher is able
to listen to a pupil reading aloud or give help with some number work, for example,
while at the same time periodically scanning the classroom and listening to the
background noise to pick out any behaviour giving concern. This involves quickly

You have to be able to do a wide variety of things at the same time


switching attention between your interaction with the particular pupil and what else
is going on in the classroom. Indeed, a particular pitfall for beginning teachers is to
become so engrossed in giving individual help and attention that they fail to monitor
what else is happening. In contrast, experienced teachers are much more skilful in their
attention switching.

Withitness
The general awareness of what is going on in the classroom is commonly referred to
as ‘withitness’ (Kounin, 1970). Experienced teachers are adept at picking up cues and
signals which indicate to them what is going on. A quick downward glance by a pupil
in the back row, or a furtive look at a neighbour, or simply taking slightly too long to
walk to a seat, can all be picked up by a teacher as signalling the onset of possible
misbehaviour.
Beginning teachers are often so overwhelmed by all the demands of classroom life that
they find it difficult to pick up such signals. With increasing experience, which gradually
makes the unfamiliar familiar, the teacher becomes better able to pick up and monitor
subtle cues of this type. As such, it is useful for beginning teachers to consciously make
an effort to scan the classroom periodically and monitor general behaviour, to see if
anything gives concern. It is also useful to bear in mind the times when such monitoring
is vulnerable. As well as when giving individual help, times when your back is turned
to the classroom while writing on the board or looking in cupboards may interrupt your
monitoring. A useful technique when writing on the board is to face sideways or to
glance back at the class regularly, and to listen carefully to any background noise.
Interestingly, the importance of lesson-managing skills relating to transition,
overlapping and withitness, was highlighted in a seminal study by Kounin (1970), in
which he compared the videotaped classroom behaviour of teachers who were regarded
as having few discipline problems with teachers having frequent problems. What was
particularly noticeable was that the former’s relative success largely stemmed from them
simply being more effective lesson managers, rather than anything to do with how they
dealt with pupil misbehaviour itself. Research on teaching skills, including my own (e.g.
Kyriacou and McKelvey, 1985), indicates that experienced teachers are generally very
skilful in these three important aspects of their classroom practice.

Managing pupils’ time
Pupils’ involvement in the lesson can also be facilitated if they are given a clear idea of
how much time and effort they are expected to devote to particular tasks or activities.
For example, if you ask pupils to copy a map into their exercise books and answer three
questions relating to the map, some pupils may rush the task, anticipating that ten
minutes should be sufficient time, and others may assume the task is intended to last
half-an-hour. If you indicate that the task should take about 20 minutes, it will help
pupils to tailor their effort to the time available.
There can, of course, sometimes be a danger in encouraging pupils to perhaps take
longer than they need. In general, however, it helps to ensure that some pupils do not
work slowly only to find they are halfway through a task when you want pupils to move

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on to another activity. It also helps to maintain attention and interest, since they have
a clear sense that another activity is shortly to follow. This also helps to break the lesson
up into more attractive chunks of time.

Giving supportive feedback
Constructive and helpful feedback also needs to be given to pupils to support and
encourage further progress (Black et al., 2003; Gardner, 2006). Such feedback is not
only of practical use to pupils in identifying problems or indicating successful work, but
also conveys to pupils that their progress is being carefully monitored and that you
care about such progress. Such regular feedback thus offers a periodic boost to the
motivation and effort.
The skill of offering such feedback is a fairly complex one that needs time and practice
to develop. You need to be able to identify the nature of the pupil’s problem. Simply
indicating a ‘correct’ method or answer may not be enough to give the pupil the insight
necessary. You also need to be able to offer feedback in a way that is unthreatening,
since once a pupil feels anxious, it is harder for the pupil to follow what is being said.
This requires the use of a sympathetic tone of voice, and locating the problem in the
task or activity, rather than in the pupil. In other words, it is better to say ‘In this type
of question, it is a good idea to start by taking careful note of the information given in
the diagram’, rather than ‘You should have been more careful in your approach’. The
former statement is task-focused, whereas the latter locates the fault or blame with the
pupil. This sensitivity to pupils’ feelings is now widely appreciated as being an
important aspect of the skill involved in providing supportive feedback. Indeed, a
number of studies of pupils’ views of their teachers have reported that the teacher’s
capacity to empathise was one of the most valued teacher qualities cited by the pupils
(Cullingford, 2003).
Giving individual feedback privately to each pupil in a fairly large class is clearly going
to be demanding, and attempting to do this will almost certainly distract you from other
important tasks. Consequently you need to maintain a good balance between giving
individual feedback and other strategies, including giving feedback to the whole class,
or enabling pupils to correct their own or each other’s work. These other techniques
help to ensure that feedback occurs regularly and with sufﬁcient speed to improve the
quality of work and learning. However, you do need to ensure that such techniques are
used sensitively, given the emotional consequences of identifying failure.
It is thus a good idea to circulate around the classroom whilst pupils are engaged in a
task, and to give them ongoing feedback on their work in an informal manner. You can
take these opportunities to use the technique of ‘scaffolding’: this is where the teacher
helps a pupil who is in difﬁculty by drawing their attention to the key features of the
task and through dialogue with the pupil, gradually guiding the pupil towards the
understanding they need in order to complete the task successfully.

Adjusting your lesson plans
Careful monitoring of pupils’ progress and giving feedback also enables you to consider
how best the lesson ought to proceed in the light of its success to date and any problems
encountered. While lesson plans are important, all teachers will need to tailor the


development of the lesson to the needs of the moment. Part of successful lesson
management involves making whatever adjustments to your original plans for the lesson
are necessary. In doing so, however, always ensure that you have a good feel as to how
the class as a whole is progressing. Clearly, just because one or two pupils are finding
the work too easy or too difficult or lacking interest, this should not be taken as a signal
that this is generally true for most of the class. Once you get to know a class fairly well,
however, it becomes possible to make useful inferences from the behaviour of just a
handful of pupils. If, for example, two or three pupils who normally find the work in
hand difficult are suddenly racing through a particular task, you may well be fairly
certain that most pupils in the class are going to complete the task quickly without the
need for you to check too widely for confirmation.

Handling the logistics of classroom life
Lesson management skills are essential if the learning activities you set up are to take
place with sufficient order for learning to occur. Almost any task or activity can lead to
chaos unless you give some thought to the organisation of how and when pupils are
to do what is required of them. Organised control over the logistics of classroom life,
whether it be how pupils answer questions, collect equipment from cupboards, or form
themselves into small groups, requires explicit direction from you, at least until the
procedures you expect are followed as a matter of routine.

Social demand tasks
Research on teachers’ management effectiveness indicates that every learning activity
involves a ‘social demand task’. This social demand task might be, for example, who
can talk to whom, about what, where, when, in what ways and for what purpose. Such
research highlights the importance of how teachers indicate to pupils what is required
of them, and facilitate the smooth and effective running of the activity. Indeed, with the
increasing variety of learning activities used, effective lesson management skills need to
be applied to a host of very different types of activities to deal with the social demand
task involved in each. This has become increasingly evident in looking at the different
ways in which ICT use in the classroom has generated new types of social demands
which teachers have to manage skilfully.

Group work
Setting up group-work activities involves a number of decisions about the logistics of
their organisation (Jaques, 2000). First, there is the question of the size of the group
and how groups are to be formed. If you have a task which, ideally, involves four pupils,
you need to think about how the groups of four are to be created, and what to do if there
are one or more pupils left over, or, indeed, one or two pupils whom no one wants in
their group.
A second question concerns the nature of the task. Is it clear exactly what the task
involves, who will undertake which roles, and how and what is to be produced? A clear
instruc-tion, such as ‘At the end, each group will give a list of the four most important

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factors involved, in order of importance’ is clearer than simply getting each group to
discuss the factors involved. Often, it is useful to write the task on the board or on a
brieﬁng handout issued to each pupil or group. You may wish to let each group decide
who should report back at the end, or name a pupil from each group to do this (the
latter is useful in ensuring that certain pupils are given the experience of doing this).
A third aspect of group work concerns your monitoring role. While close monitoring
is usually desirable, particularly in checking that everyone is clear about the task, your
presence may have an inhibiting effect on group discussion and, as such, it is often better
to spend only a short while with each group to check that everything is in order, rather
than to sit in for any length of time.
Fourth, clear time management directions are crucial to most group-work activities. It
is useful to say how long each group has for the task as a whole, and also how much
time they may spend on any stages that make up the task. One last aspect concerning
group work is the need to help pupils develop the skills involved in successful group
work. Pupils need to develop a number of skills to use group work to good effect, and
feedback and guidance from you on good practice can help such skills to develop.
These points are well reﬂected in a review of the literature by Kutnick et al. (2005) which
looked at the research evidence on how to use group work effectively. Their report
highlighted the importance of ensuring that: (i) the task is broken down so that pupils
can assess their own progress; (ii) the group is supported in working independently by
providing hints about the task and also about group working; and (iii) the timing for
each component is made explicit.

Practicals
Practicals of any sort present a number of logistical problems, in part because you need
to co-ordinate your management of pupils and materials with the sequence and speed
of the practical itself. In a science practical, for example, there may be a 20-minute
period during which some effect is developing; this period can be actively used to explore
with pupils what is going on and to probe their thinking and the care they are taking
to observe and record any changes.
Another common problem regarding practicals may arise if certain equipment needs
to be shared. Again, a strict rota for the use of such equipment or a procedure to ensure
its speedy use and return, can make a large difference to reducing unproductive time.
During practicals, there are often times when bottlenecks can occur, such as when everyone wants to collect or return equipment, or perhaps wash apparatus. Simple rules, such
as only allowing one pupil from each group to collect apparatus, can help prevent
such problems.

Using ICT
Unless you can arrange for all pupils to have ready access to the ICT equipment they
need to use at the same time, such as booking an ICT suite, you will need to organise
a rota of some sort. One point about pairs – or occasionally a small group of three pupils
– working together when using ICT is that it is useful in most cases to group together
pupils of similar ability, unless you explicitly wish one pupil to act as a tutor. With other


types of group work, friendship groupings seem to work well, unless there is a clear
educational rationale for forming the groups on the basis of similar ability or in some
other way.

Managing pupil movement and noise
Two of the most important aspects of effective management skills are maintaining
adequate control over the movement of pupils around the classroom and keeping the
degree of noise generated at an appropriate level. In both cases, part of the difficulty lies
in there being no fixed acceptable standard; what may be acceptable to one teacher in
one context, may not be regarded as acceptable to another teacher in another context.
Furthermore, problems over movement and noise can arise simply as a result of pupils
being actively engaged in the tasks at hand and not because of any deliberate attempt
by pupils to be troublesome.

Pupil movement
We have already touched on some aspects of pupil movement in the classroom earlier
in this chapter, such as entering and leaving the room, and collecting equipment. In
addition to these, there are some occasions which require particular attention. The first
of these involves giving out books at the start of or during the lesson. It is certainly
important to issue books rather than allow pupils to collect them from a central point.
Often, it is more efficient for you to ask two or three pupils to issue books, rather than
do it yourself, unless you feel that distributing books yourself will provide a useful social
function or enable you to have a few pertinent words with some pupils. If pupils are
issuing the books, ensure that they do so sensibly and with care.
The second aspect concerns any mass movement of pupils; this always requires careful
control. Whilst useful routines can be established, there are occasions when you need
to organise a somewhat unusual or novel arrangement. For example, you may wish to

Managing pupils’ movement

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devise a role-play activity that requires all the classroom furniture, apart from eight
chairs, to be moved towards the edge of the classroom. Any complicated manoeuvre of
this sort requires prior thought if it is to proceed smoothly. A clear sequence of tasks
and who needs to do what is essential.
The third aspect involves establishing your expectations concerning when pupils may
leave their seat. Despite new forms of teaching and learning, most pupils will spend the
majority of their time in their seats. The management of pupils being out of their seat
during periods of work when pupils are expected to work at their desk is important. The
normal expectation during such activities is that pupils remain at their desk until given
explicit permission to move, unless certain well-established routines allowing movement
without explicit permission are followed. In such circumstances it is useful to ensure
that only a handful of pupils at any one time are out of their seats, or away from their
work area; it becomes much harder to monitor pupils’ progress if several pupils appear
to be wandering about, even if their purposes are legitimate. This is one reason why
teachers often set an upper limit on how many pupils are allowed to queue up at the
teacher’s desk. Being out of one’s seat for some pupils also acts as a break from their
work, and they may feel like extending this break longer than necessary, and may also,
as a result, start to disturb others. This needs careful monitoring.

Pupil noise
Managing the general level of noise is also an important management skill. Every
teacher develops their own standard of acceptable level of noise. The key thing here is
to be reasonably consistent, so that pupils have a clear idea of your expectations. If the
level of background noise during an activity appears to be too high, it is useful to give
specific feedback on the work practice you require, rather than make a general
complaint that the noise is too high. Thus, for example, it is better to say ‘You can talk
to your neighbour, but not to other pupils’ or ‘Try to ensure that only one person in
each group is speaking at a time’, than simply to say ‘The noise level is too high’ or ‘Less
noise please’.
It is also worth planning the activities to ensure that noise levels are not disruptive.
For example, in a science practical looking at sound as a form of energy, clear
instructions on how the apparatus or equipment is to be used can prevent problems
occurring through unnecessarily high noise levels. Indeed, the opportunity to make a
lot of noise legitimately is too tempting for many pupils to resist. At the same time, it
must be recognised that a certain level of noise is, of course, acceptable and desirable,
and that enthusiastic and excited contributions by pupils need to be harnessed to good
effect rather than squashed. Clearly, a balance that ensures sufﬁcient order is what is
needed.
Some studies, however, have indicated that the teacher’s management of noise can
sometimes become an end in itself. Given that the noise level of a class is often taken
as an indicator of the teacher’s level of control, many teachers are very sensitive about
their classroom noise level, particularly if they feel it may be heard by colleagues or
interfere with colleagues’ lessons. Indeed, beginning teachers often feel themselves to
be under particular pressure to control the noise level of their classes lest it conveys to
colleagues that they lack control. As a result, some teachers may make more frequent


use of certain learning activities because they will help sustain periods of quiet work
by pupils despite the fact that other learning activities might be more effective for the
learning outcomes intended but have more potential to generate noise. Indeed, the
reluctance that some teachers have to make greater use of group work is related to the
greater level of noise such activity typically generates.

Movement and noise as constraints on your teaching
While the management of movement and noise is important, you do need to be on your
guard as to whether, as indicated above, you are allowing management considerations
to have too great an influence on your choice of effective learning activities. Skilful
lesson management involves an interplay between the different constraints within which
you operate. Clearly, you need to ensure that a role-play activity involving a lot of
movement and noise does not disturb another class, or that one pupil’s excitement does
not lead to other pupils being constantly interrupted when they are speaking. At the
same time, you need to ensure that the learning activity does facilitate and encourage
pupils’ attention, interest and involvement in the lesson, and that this is not unduly
inhibited by management strategies that could be usefully relaxed to good effect.
One of the dilemmas facing teachers is that they may feel better able to manage certain
types of lessons, and as a result are reluctant to use other types of learning activities.
This reluctance may persist despite the fact that certain curriculum developments have
made the need for such change essential. This was evident, for example, in studies of
how teachers’ classroom practice has been influenced by the introduction of the
National Curriculum, with many teachers expressing hostility and resistance towards
the need for them to change their established practice. Indeed, senior managers in some
schools welcomed the National Curriculum because it made it easier for them to put
pressure on colleagues to change certain aspects of their classroom practice by
externalising the source of the need for change: ‘Your practice has got to change, not
because it’s my idea, but because the National Curriculum requires it’. This type of
pressure for change was also very evident when the National Numeracy Strategy and
the National Literacy Strategy were introduced.
In thinking about your own classroom practice, you should not be wary of setting up
activities that may involve more than usual movement or noise, as long as this is well
managed and to good purpose. Some years ago a well-known headteacher remarked
that effective teaching could sometimes be described as ‘organised chaos’. On the one
hand, I think that there is some truth in this description in so far as some effective
lessons may well appear to have such a quality. On the other hand, there can at times
be a danger in thinking that certain activities are so worthwhile in their own right,
particularly in terms of the extent to which they may offer pupils a fair measure of
control over their work, that the need to maintain sufficient order and control for
effective learning can be relaxed. While I am a strong advocate of using a variety of
learning activities, particularly active learning methods, there is always a need to ensure
that effective learning is going on, and to provide the conditions that will facilitate this.
Again, what is required here is an appropriate balance between the management
strategies used and the type of learning outcomes you intend, most notably if the
learning outcomes are in terms of developing pupils’ own skills to organise themselves.

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Further reading
Haydn, T. (2007) Managing Pupil Behaviour: Key Issues in Teaching and Learning. London:
Routledge. This book contains insightful and helpful advice on lesson management.
Kerry, T. and Wilding, M. (2004). Effective Classroom Teacher: Developing the Skills You Need
in Today’s Classroom. London: Pearson. An excellent overview of the facets involved in being
an effective teacher and the teaching skills that underpin these.
Kyriacou, C. (1997) Effective Teaching in Schools, 2nd edn. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. This
book looks at the theory and practice involved in effective teaching and links the teaching skills
involved in effective teaching with the wider research context.
Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2005) Effective Teaching: Evidence and Practice, 2nd edn. London:
Sage. A good overview of effective teaching which takes careful account of research evidence.

Key questions about your lesson management
1 Does my lesson start smoothly and promptly, and induce a positive mental set
among pupils?
2 Does the management of the lesson help to elicit and maintain pupils’ attention,
interest and motivation?
3 Is the pace and flow of the lesson maintained at an appropriate level and are
transitions between activities well managed?
4 Do I carefully monitor the progress of pupils so that the effectiveness of the lesson
is maintained by giving individual help or making modiﬁcations and adjustments
to the development of the lesson, as appropriate?
5 Do I give clear guidance and direction on what is expected of pupils during each
activity, and manage their time and effort, in relation to their involvement in and
the sequencing of the various activities, to good effect?
6 Do I make effective use of the various materials, resources and teaching aids, so that
pupils’ time is not wasted waiting for equipment to be set up or materials
distributed?
7 Do I organise and control the logistics of classroom life, such as how pupils answer
questions, collect equipment or form into groups, so that the order necessary for
learning to occur is maintained?
8 In particular, do I use effective management strategies in handling pupil movement
and the general level of noise?
9 Is the feedback conveyed to pupils about their progress helpful and constructive,
and does it encourage further progress?
10 Do my lessons end effectively, in terms of ending on time, drawing the topic of the
lesson to an appropriate conclusion, and having a well-ordered exit by pupils from
the classroom?

5 Classroom climate
The classroom climate established by the teacher can have a major impact on pupils’
motivation and attitudes towards learning (Cullingford, 2003; Pollard et al., 2000). As
such, the skills involved in establishing a positive classroom climate are of immense
importance. Indeed, a study by Day et al. (2006, 2007) found that having the skills to
establish a positive classroom climate, and in particular to establish a positive
relationship with pupils, was seen by teachers to lie at the heart of their view of
themselves as effective teachers.

Establishing a positive classroom climate
The type of classroom climate generally considered to best facilitate pupil learning is
one that is described as being purposeful, task-oriented, relaxed, warm, supportive and
has a sense of order. Such a climate facilitates learning, in essence, by establishing and
maintaining positive attitudes and motivation by pupils towards the lesson. In analysing
the skills involved in setting up a positive classroom climate, it is clear that the climate
largely derives from the values that are implicit and pervade the lesson – simply that
pupils and their learning are of immense importance. Interestingly, a study by Kaplan
et al. (2002) found that the level of disruptive behaviour by pupils tended to be higher
in those classrooms where the pupils felt that the demonstration of ability and doing
better than others was the dominant value compared with classrooms where the pupils
felt that the dominant value was learning, understanding and improving one’s own
performance.

Purposeful and task-oriented
A purposeful and task-oriented ethos stems largely from the way in which the teacher
emphasises the need to make steady progress with the learning in hand. An important
aspect of this derives from your insistence that time must not be wasted. Hence, a
prompt start to the lesson, close monitoring of pupils’ progress, and careful attention
to organisational matters, all help to ensure a smooth flow to the lesson and
maintenance of pupil involvement. Where teachers allow minor matters or avoidable
organisational problems to interrupt the ﬂow of the lesson, a message is conveyed to
pupils that the learning is not of such immense importance that it warrants more care
to ensure that it is not interrupted. Certainly, conveying in your tone of voice or, even
worse, adding a preamble to a topic that it is not particularly worthwhile, will
undermine the creation of a purposeful and task-oriented ethos. Ending a lesson early
is likely to have the same effect.
Overall, a purposeful and task-oriented emphasis can usefully be described as a
‘business-like’ style of presentation. This is characterised by pupils’ acceptance of the

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teacher’s authority to organise and manage the learning activities, and a pervading
expectation by the teacher and pupils that positive effort will be made by pupils to
undertake the work in hand and that good progress will be made.
A very important aspect of establishing such positive expectations by pupils is the need
to ensure that they have self-respect and self-esteem. This can, in part, be fostered by
providing realistic opportunities for success, and helpful support and encouragement,
whenever pupils experience difﬁculties. Learning is an emotionally high-risk activity
and failure is often extremely painful. Prolonged experience of failure or deprecating
remarks by a teacher about pupils’ low attainment can have devastating consequences
for pupils’ self-esteem. As a result, quite naturally, such pupils are likely to withdraw
from making further efforts as a means of protecting themselves from further pain (in
effect, if I am not trying, my lack of success is simply my choice).

Relaxed, warm and supportive
A relaxed, warm and supportive ethos stems largely from the style and manner of the
relationship you establish with the pupils. Being relaxed yourself, and in particular,
dealing with any pupil misbehaviour calmly, helps pupils to relax too. This better
enables pupils to develop curiosity and interest in the learning activities.
Warmth can best be thought of as conveying to pupils a sense that you care for them
and their learning personally, partly out of your affection for them as individuals. This
is conveyed in the way you deal with individual pupils. Simply saying, after giving
individual help, ‘Have you got that now?’ in a sympathetic and caring tone of voice
(rather than in a harsh and admonishing tone), can do much to convey this sense of
warmth. Pye (1988), in his analysis of skilful teaching, used the phrase ‘solicitous
tenderness’ to describe the mixture of warmth, reassurance, kindness and tact shown
by skilful teachers in how they handle interactions with pupils.
Being supportive involves the efforts you make to help and encourage pupils to meet
the demands made on them and, in particular, to deal with the difficulties they
encounter in a situation where they need further assistance rather than being
reprimanded. However, you do need to be aware of the fact that too readily providing
individual help and support may encourage some pupils to rely on such help rather
than to make the appropriate effort to pay attention during whole-class teaching or to
work things out for themselves. In giving supportive feedback, you can usefully help
pupils to develop study skills by indicating how paying attention earlier or using certain
strategies in approaching their work will enable them to meet the demands made on
them. In the context of establishing a positive classroom climate, such feedback can be
a useful part of offering support.

A sense of order
A ﬁnal aspect of a positive classroom climate is the need to establish a sense of order.
Clearly, a sense of order can be established in many different ways. What is advocated
here is that in order to contribute to a positive classroom climate, such order needs to


arise out of and complement the other features considered in establishing a purposeful,
task-oriented, relaxed, warm and supportive ethos. Such order will thus be based on
effective lesson presentation and lesson management skills and on a relationship with
pupils based on mutual respect and rapport.

Studies of classroom climate
A number of studies looking at effective teaching and effective schools have focused
on the notion of climate or ethos (Muijs and Reynolds, 2005). These include some
particularly interesting research that has focused on the wider notion of the ‘learning
environment’ of which the classroom climate is a part. For example, Fraser (2002) has
identified several aspects of the learning environment that relate to classroom climate,
such as:
●

●
●

●

involvement: the extent to which pupils show attentive interest, participate in
discussions, do additional work and enjoy the class
equity: the extent to which pupils are treated equally and fairly by the teacher
differentiation: the extent to which teachers cater for pupils differently on the basis
of ability, rates of learning, and interests
responsibility for own learning: the extent to which pupils perceive themselves as being
in charge of their learning process, motivated by constant feedback and affirmation.

A number of writers have also highlighted the importance of the classroom climate
being ‘inclusive’ or ‘incorporative’: the extent to which all pupils in the class feel
themselves to be a full participant in class activities and to be a valued member of the
class (Campbell et al., 2004; Watkins, 2005). The opposite of this would be a class where
some pupils feel marginalised and feel the work they do in the class is not valued. The
notion of ‘inclusive teaching’ also features strongly in the Every Child Matters agenda
developed by the DfES to promote pupil achievement in schools (Cheminais, 2006).
The notion of inclusive teaching originally developed as part of a consideration of good
classroom practice regarding the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs, but
is now used much more widely to refer to the ways in which all pupils in the class can
feel engaged and involved in classroom activities and tasks, as a way of combating the
feelings of disaffection or isolation amongst pupils whose background or circumstances
make them vulnerable.
Studies of classroom climate have provided a wealth of evidence to support the
importance of a positive classroom climate in facilitating pupil learning, and are in line
with the judgements expressed in a series of HMI and Ofsted reports dealing with
aspects of skilful teaching and good classroom practice.
Interestingly, a number of studies have also noted how important the first few lessons
with a new class are in establishing a positive classroom climate. Wragg (2005), for
example, compared the behaviour of experienced teachers with that of student teachers
during their first few lessons with a new class, and noted that experienced teachers:
●
●
●

were more confident, warm and friendly
were more business-like
were more stimulating

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were more mobile
made greater use of eye contact
made greater use of humour
were clearer about their classroom rules
better established their presence and authority.

These are all features which helped the experienced teachers to establish fairly quickly
a positive working climate for the school year ahead.
There is also research evidence to indicate that a positive classroom climate is more
likely to be established by the use of a learner-centred teaching style. A study by
Opdenakker and Van Damme (2006) identiﬁed seven key features of a learner-centred
teaching style which enabled teachers to develop a positive classroom climate:
●
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●

●
●

the use of differentiated activities and material
undertaking activities to help problem pupils
active pupil participation in lessons
discussing pupil and class affairs with other teachers using the assessment of pupils to
direct one’s own teaching
an orientation towards the development of the person(ality) of the pupils
establishing a personal relationship with pupils based on trust.

In recent years the use of whole-class interactive teaching ‘with pace’ has been advocated
as a way in which teachers can establish a positive classroom climate. The use of ICT
has also been seen as a means of sustaining pupils’ engagement in lessons. The use of
interactive whiteboards has been seen by many as offering the best of both worlds in
combining interactive whole-class teaching with ICT. A study by Smith et al. (2006),
which looked at the quality of pupil–teacher interaction in lessons using interactive
whiteboards in the context of the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies, found
that many teachers were using interactive whiteboards with a traditional type of wholeclass teaching. It is clear that using interactive whiteboards ‘interactively’ requires a high
degree of skill by both the teacher and the pupils.

Skills in establishing a positive classroom climate
Given the importance of establishing a positive classroom climate, it is not surprising
that descriptions of the skills that need to be displayed by teachers often make a speciﬁc
reference to these. For example, the TDA (2007) QTS standards include the following
elements as a means whereby teachers can establish a positive classroom climate:
●
●

●

●

establishing a purposeful and safe learning environment conducive to learning
having high expectations of pupils including a commitment to ensuring that pupils can
achieve their full educational potential
establishing fair, respectful, trusting, supportive and constructive relationships with
pupils
demonstrating the positive values, attitudes and behaviour they expect from
pupils

●

●

supporting and guiding pupils to reflect upon their learning and to identify their learning
needs
knowing how to identify and support pupils whose progress, development or wellbeing is affected by changes or difficulties in their personal circumstances, and when
to refer them to colleagues for specialist support.

Motivating pupils
An essential feature of the teaching skills involved in establishing a positive classroom
climate is how best to foster pupils’ motivation towards learning. In looking at pupil
motivation, a useful distinction can be made between three major influences on pupil
motivation in the classroom:
●
●
●

intrinsic motivation
extrinsic motivation
expectation for success.

Influences on pupil motivation
Intrinsic motivation concerns the extent to which pupils engage in an activity to satisfy
their curiosity and interest in the topic area being covered, or develop their competence
and skills in dealing with the demands made on them, for their own sake. All human
beings appear to have a natural drive of curiosity and wish to develop competence and
skills in various tasks for their own sake, rather than as a means to some other end.
Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity in order to achieve some end or
goal that is rewarding and is external to the task itself. Engaging in the activity is thus
a means towards some other end (e.g. getting praise from parents or the teacher, an
academic qualification, eliciting respect and admiration from fellow pupils, or avoiding
some unpleasant consequences of being unsuccessful). Intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation are often contrasted with each other, but are not in fact incompatible. Indeed,
many pupils have high intrinsic and high extrinsic motivation for engaging in a
particular task. For example, they may work hard in their mathematics lessons both
because they enjoy doing mathematics and because it is important for them to attain
well in order to realise their career aspirations.
Expectation for success concerns the extent to which pupils feel they are likely to succeed
at a particular activity. Many pupils will not attempt to make strenuous efforts to succeed
at a task they feel is far too difficult for them and they therefore have little hope of
succeeding with. Interestingly, however, not all tasks which pupils feel they can easily
succeed at may be motivating; tasks that are far too easy may be seen by pupils as not
being worthy of making the effort unless there is some explicit reason to do so. Research
evidence indicates that the tasks that best elicit pupil motivation are those seen by pupils
to be challenging, i.e. difficult but achievable (Brophy, 2004).

Eliciting pupil motivation
The key strategies which teachers can use to elicit pupil motivation are thus concerned
with building upon pupils’ intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and their

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Eliciting pupils’ motivation

expectation for success. It is important to note, however, that there are large individual
differences between pupils in how and when their intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
motivation and expectation for success are elicited.
To a great extent these will be inﬂuenced by their experience at home (particularly how
much encouragement they receive from parents to be interested in and value school
learning and school-related attainment), by their experience in school (particularly their
experience of success and failure to date), and by how they perceive teachers’
expectations of them and the demands of various tasks. In the context of skilful teaching,
the most important factor is to ensure that pupils are supported and encouraged to learn,
with high positive expectations being conveyed by the teacher. Such expectations need
to be realistic but challenging; they need to convey that the activities are worthwhile
and of interest; and, above all, they need to convey that each pupil’s progress really does
matter.

Building on intrinsic motivation
Strategies that build on pupils’ intrinsic motivation include selecting topics that are
likely to interest pupils, particularly if they relate to pupils’ own experiences. For
example, a task on drawing charts could be based on how pupils in the class travelled
to school that morning.
Offering choice can also elicit interest. For example, in composing a school newspaper,
those interested in sports could compile the sports page. Active involvement and cooperation between pupils also fosters enjoyment. The use of various games has much
to offer. Novelty and variety also provides a more stimulating experience. For example,
starting off a lesson by producing a shoe box that purports to contain the belongings
of a person, and then trying to build up as much information about the person as
possible from these belongings, would do this effectively.


Because intrinsic motivation involves a drive towards increasing competence, as well as
a curiosity drive, it can also be fostered by providing pupils with regular feedback on
how their skills and competence are developing, and drawing to their attention what
they can do and understand now compared with before the course of work began.

Building on extrinsic motivation
Strategies that build on pupils’ extrinsic motivation include linking effort and success
to material rewards and privileges. You must be extremely careful, however, to ensure
that the reward or privilege offered is actually one desired by the pupils concerned and
does not undermine their intrinsic motivation or alienate those who make an effort
but who are not rewarded in this way. For example, offering the opportunity to those
who work hard to start their break early, seems to devalue the worthwhileness of the
activity; offering a book token to the best piece of project work may again offer far more
hurt to those unsuccessful than pleasure to the pupil who wins it.
Other strategies include esteem-related rewards, such as high grades or other forms of
recognition for effort and success, although again, if such rewards are overtly
competitive, you need to be aware of their possible effect on other pupils. Teacher praise
is a very important and powerful motivation, although its effect depends on skilful use.
Praise that is explicitly linked to the pupil’s efforts and attainment, which conveys
sincere pleasure on the teacher’s part, and which is used with credibility, is more
effective than praise simply offered on a regular basis but lacking these qualities.
Extrinsic motivation can also be highlighted by indicating to pupils the usefulness,
relevance and importance of the topic or activity to their needs. These may be their
short-term needs, such as academic qualifications or high test scores of attainment, or
their long-term needs, such as coping with the demands of adult life successfully or
helping to realise their career aspirations.

Building on expectation for success
Strategies that build upon pupils’ expectation for success include ensuring that the tasks
set are challenging and offer pupils a realistic chance of success, taking into account
their ability and previous learning. In particular, you need to try to minimise any
unnecessary frustration caused by setting up the activities poorly. This requires close
monitoring of pupils’ progress once the lesson is under way, together with quick and
supportive feedback when a pupil has encountered major difficulties.
Your help and expectations must convey confidence in the pupils and your belief that
with appropriate effort they will be successful. When dealing with pupils who lack
confidence in themselves as learners, such help and expectations are of crucial
importance. It is also important to convey that success lies in their own hands, and
that they need to be aware of how they approach tasks, the degree of persistence they
have to apply to be successful, and that there is no substitute for a willingness on their
part to apply sustained effort.

Your relationships with pupils
A positive classroom climate very much depends on the type of relationship you
establish with your pupils. Pupils’ learning is most likely to flourish in a climate where

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this relationship is based on mutual respect and rapport between yourself and your
pupils.

Mutual respect and rapport
Mutual respect largely develops from the pupils seeing by your actions that you are a
competent teacher, and that you care about their progress by planning and conducting
effective lessons and carrying out your various tasks with commitment. In addition,
you convey in your dealings with pupils, both during whole-class teaching and in your
interactions with individuals, that you respect each pupil as an individual who has
individual and personal needs.
Good rapport stems from conveying to pupils that you understand, share and value their
perspective, as individuals, on a whole range of matters and experiences, academic,
social and personal: for example, expressing sympathy when the local football team is
knocked out of a cup competition, praise for a pupil who had performed well in a school
play, concern for a pupil who has a bad cold, and excitement that a school trip is near.
The development of a positive classroom climate depends on this relationship being
two-way: your respect for pupils should be reciprocated in their respect for you, and
your understanding of their perspectives reciprocated in their understanding of yours.
Nevertheless, as an adult, and given your role, it is up to you to have a major influence
in establishing such a harmonious relationship in the classroom.
The skills involved in establishing a climate of mutual respect and rapport are highly
prized in schools, as they also have a major impact on the general climate of the school
as a whole. They also contribute to the pastoral care role of the teacher, and make it
easier for pupils to come to you with their personal problems and difficulties. Indeed,
a high proportion of outstanding teachers in inner-city comprehensive schools tend to
be very skilful in developing good rapport with potentially difficult and demanding
adolescents and, not surprisingly, many of these outstanding teachers have specific
pastoral care responsibilities in the school as a result. Pye (1988), interestingly, noticed
how skilful teachers were able to convey a personal manner in their interaction with an
individual pupil during a private exchange, in which the mutual respect and rapport
established was particularly evident. Pye described this as a situation in which the
teacher and pupil were ‘acknowledging’ each other; i.e. they had established a personal
relationship that was separate from, and yet still part of, the relationship that the teacher
had with the class as a whole.

Acting as a good example
It is also important to be aware of the influence that your behaviour can have on pupils
in acting as an example or model for their own behaviour. This identification with the
teacher is evident in both the primary and secondary school years. Pupils will expect
you to be a good example of the expectations that you convey. If you insist on neat work,
your own board work should also be neat. If you expect pupils to act in a civilised
manner, you should not lose your temper or use sarcasm to hurt their feelings. If you
want pupils to find the work interesting, you should convey interest in the activities
yourself. Indeed, in a number of their reports based on school inspections, Ofsted
frequently report on the particular importance of the example set by the teacher in
establishing a positive ethos in the classroom.


The use of humour
One of the difficulties facing beginning teachers concerns knowing whether, how and
when to use humour in the classroom, and the extent to which their relationship with
pupils should be friendly. Judicious use of humour and conveying that you have a sense
of humour can play a useful part in helping to establish good rapport and a positive
classroom climate. Humour can be used to good effect in a whole range of situations,
including introducing a light-hearted aspect of the work in hand or making a joke at
your own expense (and, if done skilfully, making a joke at the pupil’s expense but in a
way that enables the pupil to share the joke rather than feel victimised).
Humour can also be used to reassure a pupil who is anxious or in difficulties or to defuse
a potential conflict with a pupil about misbehaviour. Conveying that you have a sense
of humour is indicated in the way you respond to events that occur with good humour
or share with pupils some amusement which they see in a situation. It might be
something as simple as how you react to a pupil’s aside (e.g. ‘Did a division of “minute
men” in the American War of Independence consist of three hours’ worth?’).
Linked with the use of humour is the extent to which you try to establish friendly
relations with pupils. Part of establishing good rapport with pupils involves sharing to
some extent each other’s understanding and perspective on the demands of classroom
life and life outside the classroom in general. This will include valuing and respecting
each other as individuals and valuing each other’s viewpoints. Much of this forms the
basis of friendship between individuals. Nevertheless, the classroom is a unique and, to
a large extent, a very ritualised environment. To sustain order and control, your
relationship with pupils, above all, must be one in which they respect and accept your
authority to manage and control what happens in the classroom so that their learning
may progress effectively. This means that your manner needs to be competent, businesslike and task-oriented. Frequent use of humour, particularly being ‘jokey’, and trying
to act as a friend of equal status, tends to undermine your authority because it does
not accord with the ritual of school life and how pupils typically see and react to different
aspects of a teacher’s manner.
As a result, beginning teachers who attempt to build their relationships with pupils on
frequent use of humour or on an over-friendly approach, often find that they are less
able to establish and exert their authority when required to do so. The ability to establish
mutual respect and rapport in the classroom, and to use humour to good effect, and to
be able to establish a friendly ethos without being too friendly, involves very sensitive
social awareness on the teacher’s part. It is somewhat like a chef who uses taste while
cooking to decide on the right amount of salt to enhance the flavour of the dish rather
than spoil it. Use of humour and friendship in the classroom can be seen as ‘flavour
enhancers’ to add to the generally business-like and task-oriented manner you convey.

Enhancing pupils’ self-esteem
Perhaps the single most important feature that has contributed to improving the quality
of education provided in schools has been the increasing awareness amongst teachers
of the importance of fostering pupils’ self-esteem, self-confidence and self-respect as

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learners. Many writers have documented the ways in which schools can damage pupils’
self-esteem by emphasising for many pupils their relative lack of success compared with
that of high-attaining pupils. As a result, such pupils attribute a sense of failure to the
work they do, even if it is their best. In consequence, they may then get caught up in a
vicious downward spiral of underachievement on their part and low expectations by
teachers for their future work. Hargreaves (1982) famously referred to this process as
involving the destruction of pupils’ sense of dignity, in which they increasingly feel
inferior, unable and powerless. He argues that this attack on their dignity stems not
only from their experience of the ‘formal curriculum’, but also, and even more so, from
their experience of the ‘hidden curriculum’.
The formal curriculum refers to learning about the subject and topic being studied,
whereas the hidden curriculum refers to all the messages conveyed to pupils by their
experiences in school. These messages stem from the way they are treated, and the
attitudes and values conveyed to them about their role and worth as individuals and the
worth of what they have accomplished. Many of the messages conveyed in the hidden
curriculum may be unintended. For example, if during classroom discussion with pupils
you never use or elaborate on pupils’ contributions, but always judge them simply in
terms of whether they have contributed what you wanted in a narrowly conceived view
of their correctness, pupils may get the message that their thoughts and ideas are of little
worth or value except in so far as they are correct as judged by you. This may undermine
the degree to which they are then willing to contribute ideas, particularly exploratory
or uncertain ones, which may be the opposite of what you would wish.

The humanistic approach to teaching and learning
The increasing awareness of the importance of fostering pupils’ self-esteem has been
a major development over the years. It stems in part from its emphasis within
humanistic psychology and its applications to education, notably through the work of
Maslow and Rogers (e.g. Maslow, 1987; Rogers and Freiberg, 1994). They both argued
that education must place an emphasis on the whole person, on the idea of personal
growth, on the pupil’s own perspective in terms of how they see themselves and see
the world, and on the notions of personal agency and the power of choice. The key
elements in applying such an approach to classroom teaching involve:
●
●

●

seeing the teacher’s role as essentially that of a facilitator
providing pupils with a signiﬁcant degree of choice and control to manage and organise
their learning
displaying respect for and empathy with pupils.

Studies of the attitudes held by student teachers towards teaching and learning in
schools typically show that student teachers tend to hold views consistent with the
humanistic approach at the start of their initial training courses, but that by the end of
their training they often report that such views are sometimes quite hard to sustain in
their actual classroom practice, given the constraints they face in the realities of
classroom life (Kyriacou and Cheng, 1993). Nevertheless, despite such difﬁculties, the
classroom climate in schools has become much more humanistic in tone over the years.


Fostering pupils’ self-esteem is seen to lie at the heart of this approach. This perspective
is evident, either explicitly or implicitly, in many important developments in classroom
practice; in particular, the growth of active learning methods, as well as the introduction
of new forms of assessment, most notably that of records of achievement. Indeed, some
lessons, such as those forming part of a personal and social education programme, are
often designed specifically to help foster pupils’ self-esteem in general, as well as their
self-esteem as learners in particular.

Conveying positive messages
The need to foster pupils’ self-esteem as learners is fundamental to establishing a
positive classroom climate, and the most important influence on pupils’ self-esteem in
the classroom is your interaction with the pupils. If your comments to pupils are largely
positive, supportive, encouraging, praising, valuing and relaxing, rather than negative,
deprecating, harsh, attacking, dominating and anxiety-provoking, this will do much
to foster pupils’ self-esteem.
In addition, your body language communicates to pupils how you feel about them,
through messages conveyed non-verbally by your use of eye contact, posture and facial
expression. It can sometimes make it difficult to convey a message verbally about how
you feel if your body language indicates to pupils something different. An awareness
of how what you say and how your body language is likely to be perceived by pupils can
help you to develop the skills involved in establishing a positive classroom climate.
Nevertheless, positive messages are much easier to convey if you genuinely do feel in
the ways you are trying to convey; that is to say, you genuinely do like and respect pupils,
care for their learning, and feel relaxed and confident in your role.

Giving positive help
In your interactions with pupils, the two areas that probably have the greatest effect
are how you treat pupils’ errors and the extent to which you take a personal interest in
their progress.
A pupil error is any contribution that falls short of the standard of progress you desire.
It includes a poor answer to a question, a poorly written-up project, or simply not being
able to undertake a task you have set. In such circumstances you need to consider the
type of feedback to give that will be helpful and supportive rather than admonishing.
It is generally better to give specific help that relates to the task rather than critical
feedback about performance or critical comments about the pupil. For example,
pointing out that the pupil needs to remember that the hypotenuse is always the side
opposite to the right angle, is better than simply saying ‘You can do better than this’
or, even worse, ‘This is the low standard of work I have come to expect from you’.
Also, when a pupil is having difficulties, you need to avoid sounding patronising. This
can be difficult, because you are in authority and may, from time to time, be giving advice
or diagnosing a difficulty that the pupil is already aware of. This should not be a
problem, since the pupil should be willing to tolerate it if it only happens occasionally.
The real problem arises if your tone is perceived by the pupil to be conveying an element
of ‘put-down’, sarcasm or unfair criticism. Thus, for example, telling a pupil whose
diagram would have been much better if a sharpened pencil had been used that ‘You

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should use a pencil sharpener because they’re handy for sharpening pencils’ would be
considered unnecessarily hostile.
You can convey a personal interest in each pupil’s progress by relating what you say to
each pupil, and how you respond to their progress, to their particular needs and previous
work. Learning and using pupils’ names with a new class as soon as possible is well
worthwhile, and you should certainly know their names after the first few weeks.
During personal interactions, indicating to pupils how they are making progress and
linking your comments to previous interactions does much to convey to each pupil that
you are taking a personal interest in them as individuals and, so far as possible, tailoring
matters to meet their individual needs.

Classroom appearance and composition
There are two important features of a lesson that have a major influence on the
classroom climate that develops, although neither is part of the lesson itself. The ﬁrst
is the general appearance of the classroom, including its layout and even the appearance
of the teacher and that of the pupils. The second is the composition of the class, whether
setted, mixed ability or mixed age in composition. Both these features convey strong
messages through the hidden curriculum referred to earlier.

Classroom appearance
The general appearance of a classroom indicates to pupils the care that goes into
providing them with an environment which is conducive to learning. A clean and wellkept room, with appropriate resources in evidence, which appears comfortable, light
and well aired, helps to establish a positive expectation towards the lesson. A positive
mental set is also provided by appropriate use of posters and other visual displays
relating to the type of work done in the classroom. Displays of pupils’ work also indicate
a pride in the work achieved, as well as acting as a motivation for those producing
display work. Everywhere a pupil looks should convey positive expectations. The degree
of light, space and air in the classroom of many schools built since the 1980s has been
generally very good. The continued use of temporary huts that have fallen into disrepair,
however, requires attention.
While the ethos in the classroom will, in part, be influenced by that of the school in
general, each teacher can do much to improve the appearance of their own room, should
you – as most teachers do – have your own room. If you are a subject specialist in a
secondary school, your room should act as an invitation to the subject. For example,
entering a foreign-language classroom should immerse pupils in signals of the foreign
countries, most notably through the use of posters, maps and even objects from those
countries. While primary school classrooms will be host to a variety of activities, it is
often possible to create areas that are subject-specific, and which can also act as a
resource area or as a focal point for particular activities.

Layout
The layout of the room should be functional for the purposes intended. At the very least,
you and the board should be clearly visible. There is much debate concerning the
importance of using a layout to match the general style of teaching and learning that


takes place. In ‘open classrooms’, characterised by more active learning methods,
including frequent use of group work, movement of pupils between areas, the use of
resource centres, independent work using ICT, the seating arrangements almost
certainly requiring desks to be grouped together, and the use of activity-specific areas.
In ‘traditional classrooms’, which emphasise didactic teaching, formal rows of desks are
more appropriate.
Unfortunately, the large number of pupils in some classes compared with the physical
size of the room itself, often places severe constraints on teachers in creating the most
functionally efficient layout. Fortunately, many modern primary schools were designed
with open classrooms in mind. This has allowed functionally efficient layouts to be
developed, some even making use of movable walls. Secondary schools have generally
been much less flexible in this respect. Some schools have developed well laid-out
resource centres housed in rooms of their own, where teachers can send a pupil or
groups of pupils to undertake particular tasks, either unsupervised or supervised by a
teacher based in the resource centre.

Tidiness
It is also very important to keep the classroom clean and tidy. This can have a marked
impact on pupils when they first arrive at the classroom, whether it be at the beginning
of the school day or after a break. In primary schools one can make efforts to ensure
that pupils themselves help to keep things tidy and avoid making a mess. This tends to
be more difficult in secondary schools, where you will be teaching many different classes,
and may not always be using your own room. If on occasion you take over a room where
desks and tables have been left disarranged, it is well worthwhile to tidy up quickly before
your class arrives. You, of course, also have a responsibility to colleagues to ensure that
any room you leave is fit and ready for the next user, which includes cleaning the
blackboard. This is all part of having a professional attitude towards your work.

Dress
Your appearance conveys messages to pupils about the care and attention you give to
presentation in general. It is the case that in our society, dress conveys signals about
status and about your formal role. However, the norms that operate here are changing
all the time. For example, in some schools, school uniform is worn by pupils, female
teachers are expected not to wear trousers, most male teachers wear a jacket and tie,
teachers may be addressed as ‘Sir’ or ‘Miss’ and pupils are addressed by their surnames.
At the other extreme, there are schools where none of these apply. Whatever else, you
will need to adapt to the conventions and expectations that operate in your school, as
radical deviations away from these are likely to be misunderstood by pupils, although
some degree of departure in the direction you feel is educationally worthwhile is
acceptable and desirable. Nevertheless, your behaviour in the classroom must take
account of your role in also contributing to a consistent and coherent attempt by staff
in the school as a whole to operate as a team in developing and emphasising certain
values and expectations.
While you will have little control over pupils’ dress, other than dealing with major
departures from school conventions (such as wearing earrings or jeans), it is important
to insist they arrive at the lesson prepared for the tasks to be undertaken, with appropriate

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Your appearance will convey a message about you

equipment, such as pens, pencils and rulers. Bags should not be left on desks and coats
should not be worn. In some schools, dealing with such apparently minor matters can
involve a lot of time and effort on the part of teachers. In such cases, well-developed
routines are of immense value in helping to ensure a prompt start to the lesson.

Class composition
The pupil composition of the class also conveys important messages. A class composed
of pupils setted or streamed in terms of attainment will almost certainly have an
influence on pupils’ expectations about themselves and on your expectations about
them. It is particularly important to ensure that those groups identiﬁed as average or
below average in attainment are not discouraged and do not underachieve as a result.
Mixed-ability groups are often used to convey a sense that all pupils are equally valued,
which in part explains their widespread adoption in comprehensive schools and in
primary schools, although in the latter it is often simply the most convenient form of
group given the size of the year group. In some primary schools and for some secondary
school (morning registration) tutor groups, cross-age groups are used, and these may
be composed of quite a wide age range. Other aspects of pupil composition of
importance include social class mix, ethnic origin mix, and the proportion of able pupils
or pupils with learning difﬁculties.
All such factors have an important bearing on teaching and learning. They also have
an important bearing on the type of classroom climate that develops, and on the ways
you can best facilitate a positive classroom culture. The key factor here is the skill
involved in developing mutual respect and rapport that takes the composition of the
class into account. Establishing your authority, being sociable and motivating pupils
will require different shared understandings and points of reference with classes that
may be composed very differently.
Thus, for example, the way in which pupils in general may react to your use of humour,
how supportive your feedback needs to be, the way you exert discipline, and how you


try to personalise interactions, may well be quite different for a group of racially mixed
pupils in an infant class in a school serving a relatively deprived urban catchment,
compared with a group of top-set pupils at a sixth form college serving a prosperous
rural catchment. An important aspect of your skill in establishing a positive classroom
climate is your sensitivity to the effect of your behaviour on the type of pupils that make
up the class and the context within which this occurs.

Further reading
Brophy, J. E. (2004) Motivating Students to Learn, 2nd edn. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. A
very readable overview of the ways in which teachers can use a variety of strategies in order to
foster and sustain pupil motivation in the classroom.
Campbell, J., Kyriakides, L., Muijs, D. and Robinson, W. (2004) Assessing Teacher Effectiveness:
Developing a Differentiated Model. London: RoutledgeFalmer. This book identiﬁes the values
held by teachers regarding teaching and learning and how these values affect the type of
classroom climate they seek to establish.
Cullingford, C. (2003) The Best Years of their Lives? Pupils’ Experiences of School. London:
RoutledgeFalmer. This book is based on interviews with pupils and explores their views about
their experience of schooling and the effect of the classroom climate on their learning.
Watkins, C. (2005) Classrooms as Learning Communities: What’s in it for Schools? London:
RoutledgeFalmer. A readable overview of the teaching skills involved in eliciting and sustaining
a high level of pupil engagement and a sense of belonging.

Key questions about your classroom climate
1 Is the classroom climate purposeful, task-oriented, relaxed, warm and supportive,
and does it have a sense of order?
2 Do my comments, particularly feedback on their progress, help pupils to develop
self-esteem and self-respect as learners?
3 Are the learning activities challenging and do they offer realistic opportunities for
success?
4 Do I make good use of both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of pupil motivation?
5 Does my behaviour convey positive expectations?
6 Do I successfully convey a personal interest and care for the progress of each pupil?
7 Is my relationship with pupils based on mutual respect and rapport?
8 Do the messages conveyed by the nature and types of activities used and the way I
interact with pupils contribute to establishing a positive classroom climate?
9 Does the appearance and layout of the classroom convey positive expectations and
facilitate the activities which occur?
10 Do I take account of the influence of the composition of the class (e.g. spread of
ability, social class mix) on the way I can best establish a positive classroom climate?

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6 Discipline
Discipline refers to the order that is necessary in the classroom for pupil learning to
occur effectively. There is a massive amount of literature on discipline in schools, which
includes a number of books offering sound practical advice (Chaplain, 2003; Porter,
2000; Rogers, 2006), those reporting the results of research studies dealing with the views
and experiences of pupils and teachers, including student teachers (e.g. Evertson and
Weinstein, 2006; Kyriacou et al., 2007), and major government reports on the topic,
such as the Steer Report (Steer, 2005). Discipline is one of the main areas of concern
for student teachers, and is also widely identified as a major area of need within the
in-service education of experienced teachers.
Developing the skills needed to establish discipline in the classroom is one of the major
challenges facing beginning teachers and, not surprisingly, features in the TDA (2007)
QTS standards. The TDA refers to discipline in terms of establishing a clear framework
to manage pupils’ behaviour constructively and to promote pupils’ self-control and
independence, and requires student teachers to be able to use a range of behaviour
management strategies.
Clearly, order is needed in the classroom if the activities that take place are to facilitate
effective learning by pupils. The most important point to bear in mind in considering
discipline is that creating the necessary order is more to do with the skills involved in
effective teaching in general than it is to do with how you deal with pupil misbehaviour
itself. If the learning activities are well planned and prepared, if the presentation elicits
and maintains pupils’ attention, interest and involvement, and if the activities are
challenging and offer realistic opportunities for success, then the necessary order will
be established as part of these qualities. In essence, skilful teaching as outlined in the
previous chapters lies at the heart of establishing discipline.
Nevertheless, pupil misbehaviour will occur from time to time, even in the lessons of
the most skilful teachers, and has to be dealt with. However, it is a mistake to view
discipline as something concerned with how you deal with pupil misbehaviour, separate
from your general teaching. It is an even worse mistake to try to establish discipline by
focusing on how to dominate and engender fear in pupils as a strategy for minimising
misbehaviour. Such a course of action is undesirable, not only because it will undermine
your efforts to create the positive classroom climate necessary to facilitate pupils learning
effectively, but also because it directs your attention away from considering how to
develop the quality of your teaching as the primary means of establishing order.

The nature of pupil misbehaviour
Most pupil misbehaviour is quite trivial. The types of pupil misbehaviour most
frequently cited by teachers are:
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excessive talk or talking out of turn
being noisy (both verbal, such as shouting to another pupil across the room, and nonverbal, such as dropping bags onto the ﬂoor)

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not paying attention to the teacher
not getting on with the work required
being out of their seat without good cause
hindering other pupils
arriving late for lessons.

To a large extent, such problems can be minimised by skilful teaching in general, and
by developing conventions and routines for behaviour that are followed. More serious
types of misbehaviour (verbal aggression to another pupil, bad language and cheek,
disobedience, refusal to accept authority, and physical destructiveness) are much less
frequent and are likely to occur if the lesser forms of pupil misbehaviour are allowed
to become commonplace, or if pupils are reacting against personal and academic
difficulties they are facing.
In thinking about pupil misbehaviour, we need to remember that there is a continuum
of such behaviour ranging from quite trivial acts to very serious ones. Moreover, the
standard of behaviour expected will vary from teacher to teacher. One teacher may insist
on virtual silence in a lesson while pupils are working, whereas another might be happy
with a marked degree of background talking. In addition, pupils will also vary in their
attitudes towards good behaviour. Some pupils will be happy to wait quietly while a
teacher looks for some equipment in a storeroom, whereas some pupils will be poised
to take any such opportunity to engage in rowdy behaviour. The discipline that prevails
in your classroom will not only be influenced by your behaviour and expectations, but
also by the expectations pupils bring with them and, importantly, by the prevailing ethos
in the school. Nevertheless, a well-managed lesson coupled with a relationship based
on mutual respect and rapport will do much to minimise pupil misbehaviour. Indeed,
even in schools where it is recognised that there are a number of pupils with marked
emotional or academic difficulties, skilful teaching can ensure that good discipline in
lessons will be the norm.

Causes of pupil misbehaviour
In general, you can start with the assumption that all pupils will be willing to engage
in the work, and are only likely to misbehave if there are specific reasons or motives
for doing so. As such, your task is to make it as easy as possible for pupils to sustain good
behaviour. The main causes of misbehaviour in the classroom are as follows:
●

●

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Boredom. If the activities are presented in a manner that fails to elicit and sustain their
interest, or if the activity lasts for too long and fails to be stimulating, or if the activity
is too easy or is felt to lack relevance, then pupils are likely to become bored.
Prolonged mental effort. Most academic work requires sustained mental effort, and this
is demanding. Everyone finds that sustaining mental effort for long periods is difficult
and, at times, unpleasant.
Inability to do the work. Pupils may be unable to do the work set, either because it is
too difficult or because they are unclear about the task demands.
Being sociable. Pupils have a complex social life in schools, in which friendships are
made, conflicts arise and interests are shared. Aspects of these social relationships

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between pupils will often spill over into a lesson (e.g. pupils may resume a conversation
started during the break period).
Low academic self-esteem. Some pupils will lack confidence in themselves as learners,
and may have experienced frequent failure in the past that makes them reluctant to
engage in academic tasks for fear of further failure (failing because you did not try is
much less painful than failing if you did). Such pupils can become quite alienated from
the academic expectations that form part of a positive classroom climate.
Emotional difficulties. Some pupils may have emotional problems which make it difficult
for them to adjust to and cope with the demands of school life and the academic
demands of the classroom. It may be because they are being bullied in school, or
because they are neglected at home. In many cases, such pupils may become attention
seeking, and actually enjoy the attention they provoke from you or their fellow pupils
for misbehaving.
Poor attitudes. Some pupils may simply not value doing well at school and, to the extent
that problems arise, such as finding the work boring or difficult, will switch off their
effort. Moreover, some may try to avoid doing the work by arriving late to lessons,
or keeping a low profile while doing little. When challenged, they may be apologetic
or hostile, but still do little. Some pupils may deliberately make a nuisance of
themselves simply to cause excitement.
Lack of negative consequences. Whenever a pupil misbehaves, your actions that follow
in consequence must be aimed at getting the pupil involved in the work again as quickly
as possible. Furthermore, your behaviour should act to dissuade such pupil
misbehaviour occurring again in similar circumstances. If pupil misbehaviour is not
picked up quickly and discouraged by the consequences that follow, it is likely to
become more frequent.

Implications for teaching
It will be evident from looking at these main causes of pupil misbehaviour that they
have different implications for how you can best deal with such incidents. For example,
if a pupil fails to pay attention because they are finding the topic boring, your best course
of action will be quite different than if the problem stems from worries and anxieties
the pupil has because the work seems too difficult. Part of the skill of teaching involves
being sensitive to the different causes of pupil misbehaviour. While most of the time
sound management techniques and the most obvious assumptions about the cause of
the misbehaviour are appropriate, skilful teachers are alert to circumstances where an
exploratory probe in private is needed. This will be evident if a pupil’s behaviour appears
to be out of character or if the normal management techniques do not appear to be
having their expected effect. Skilful teachers are also very adept at picking up subtle
cues from a pupil’s facial expression or tone of voice that might indicate an underlying
cause for concern.
An important point to bear in mind about the causes of misbehaviour is that pupils
are a captive audience. Unlike many activities in life, where we have some degree of


choice over whether we participate and can often withdraw from a situation that we
find unpleasant, pupils are required to attend lessons. Moreover, they are not allowed
to opt out of learning. In all teaching there is therefore an implicit tension underlying
the activities, namely that if pupils do not engage freely in the activities set up by the
teacher, they will be coerced to do so. Poor progress is not simply the concern of the
pupil, but also the concern of the teacher and the pupil’s parents. Most people will find,
from time to time, that being trapped in a situation that is unpleasant and from which
they cannot escape is extremely frustrating. If they are also coerced to participate, the
sense of frustration can become unbearable. The most serious incidents of pupil
misbehaviour are likely to occur when such a tension has built up, and when the pupil
feels your attention is aggressive and coercive rather than sympathetic and supportive.
A warning signal of this might be the pupil looking increasingly angry or tense, and
perhaps claiming to be picked upon or treated unfairly in some way. The skills involved
in being sensitive to whether a pupil is feeling tense in this way, and the ability to defuse
such a feeling, are very important in preventing serious incidents occurring.

Establishing your authority
The key to establishing good discipline in the classroom lies in pupils accepting your
authority to manage their behaviour and their progress in learning. Learning activities
cannot take place effectively in a classroom full of 30 pupils unless you are given authority
to control, manage and direct what is going on, as and when appropriate. All pupils
recognise this from their earliest days in school, but it is important to note that this
authority is given to you to act as a manager of their learning rather than as a power
relationship. A useful analogy is with the authority you give to a tour guide to show you
around places of interest in a particular city. You obey instructions about where and when
to go to different places and what to do there because you trust and expect that in doing
so you will get to see what is worth seeing efficiently. Your trust largely rests on the
expertise and skill you expect your tour guide to have. Similarly, establishing your
authority as a teacher largely depends on four main aspects of your role:
●
●
●
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conveying your status
teaching competently
exercising managerial control
dealing with pupil misbehaviour effectively.

Conveying your status
Much of your authority as a teacher derives from the status you have in that role, and
the respect and esteem for teachers generally held in society; this is particularly conveyed
to pupils by their parents and other sources of influence. You are also an adult, and will
have some degree of status because of this, most notably with younger pupils where you
may be perceived as a parent figure to some extent. If you have a formal post of seniority
in the school, such as being the headteacher or the deputy head, then this will also add
to your status.

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The most important thing about status, however, is not that you simply have such status,
but that you act as though you have status. This conveys to pupils a sense of you being
in charge and in authority that they simply take for granted. Behaving as though you
have status will be conveyed by your appearing relaxed, self-assured and conﬁdent, as
indicated in particular by your tone of voice, posture, facial expression and use of eye
contact. When you issue an instruction, your tone will indicate by its matter-of-factness
that you simply expect without question that the instruction will be followed.
Status is also conveyed by various actions that indicate you have status: for example,
you are free to wander around the classroom, initiate conversations and direct activities.
You also take the decisions about when pupils are to start and stop particular activities.
Again, it is by acting in these ways, in a manner that indicates that you are in charge,
that you create a climate in which your authority is taken for granted. This requires that
as well as behaving in these ways yourself, you control such behaviour by pupils; i.e.
pupils cannot wander about, decide when to stop activities, or when to initiate
conversations with you or with each other unless it is with your permission and is
appropriate. Thus, for example, most teachers will make a point of picking up on pupils
who have started to pack away their books near the end of a lesson before they have
been told to do so.
It is perhaps worth noting that one aspect of conveying status you need to be careful
about is the use of touch. It is quite common for those in a position of higher status to
touch those of lower status, in a friendly and caring manner, but not vice versa.
However, you do need to be aware that in the classroom, touching pupils in this way
can be misunderstood and, in part depending on the pupil’s personal circumstances,
even undesirable or unpleasant; touching pupils should be avoided.

Conveying your status


Teaching competently
The second major source of your authority comes from teaching competently. If you
convey to pupils that you are knowledgeable about the topic or subject, are interested
in it, and can set up the learning activities skilfully, then pupils will respect your ability
to teach; this will confirm your authority to manage their behaviour. This requires that
your lessons are well planned and prepared, that your manner conveys interest and
enthusiasm, and that you can set up challenging activities effectively.
One of the reasons that teaching competently is so crucial to establishing your authority,
is that poor teaching is often experienced as insulting. When pupils are taught in a
way they regard as unsatisfactory, they commonly make one of two interpretations:
either the teacher has not made an effort, which implies that the pupils are not worth
making an effort for; or the school has allocated them a teacher who lacks adequate
teaching skills, which implies that the pupils were not worth being allocated a better
teacher. Both interpretations strike at the heart of pupils’ self-esteem, and the extent
to which they react by misbehaviour is largely related to the underlying insult they
experience. In contrast, being taught competently engenders a feeling of pride and selfrespect, and affirms their sense of worth and importance.

Exercising managerial control
The third major source of your authority comes from exercising managerial control in
the classroom. In order to set up learning activities efficiently, lessons need to get off
to a prompt start, pupils must be kept involved in the learning activities, and transitions
between activities should be handled smoothly. Anything that frustrates these will
require you to exert managerial control. Pupils arriving late for lessons, not paying
attention or applying sufficient effort, or interrupting your presentation, can frustrate
the prompt start and flow of the lesson. Smith and Laslett (1992) famously identified
the four main tasks of classroom management as ‘Get them in, get them out, get on
with it, and get on with them!’
The most crucial aspects of exercising managerial control involve establishing clear
conventions, routines and expectations for pupils’ behaviour, and imposing your view
on a situation when any conflicts arise. For example, if when you are ready to start the
lesson and have called the pupils to attention, a pupil points out that they need a new
exercise book, rather than allow the start of the lesson to be delayed, you should indicate
that you will deal with that later and proceed promptly with the lesson. Once the lesson
has started, virtually any activity can frustrate the progress of the lesson. For example,
giving out equipment can take too long or become cumbersome, the pace of work by
pupils may be rather slow, or pupils may take a long time to pay attention to you after an
activity has been completed. To prevent the progress being frustrated, you need to
exercise your control whenever appropriate.
In order to exercise managerial control, pupils’ behaviour needs to be rule-governed.
Indeed, a study by Kyriacou et al. (2007), exploring the views of beginning teachers in
six counties on strategies they thought were effective in dealing with pupil misbehaviour
in the classroom, found that the strategy they viewed as most effective was ‘establishing
clear and consistent school and classroom rules about the behaviours that are acceptable

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and that are unacceptable’. In contrast, strategies such as issuing reprimands and
punishments were regarded as much less effective. In general, the beginning teachers
saw a combination of establishing sound classroom rules and counselling pupils towards
re-engaging with their work with the minimum amount of fuss, as being the most
effective approach to dealing with pupil misbehaviour.
Such classroom rules may be explicitly stated by teachers or simply inferred from the
teacher’s actions. In a study of secondary school teachers, Wragg (2005) identified 11
classroom rules that were explicitly stated by teachers or could be clearly inferred from
their actions. These were (in order of occurrence):
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There must be no talking when the teacher is talking.
There must be no disruptive noises.
Rules for entering, leaving and moving in classrooms.
There must be no interference with the work of others.
Work must be completed in a specified way.
Pupils must raise hand to answer, not shout out.
Pupils must make a positive effort in their work.
Pupils must not challenge the authority of the teacher.
Respect must be shown for property and equipment.
Rules to do with safety.
Pupils must ask if they do not understand.

In looking at primary school teachers, Wragg (2005) identified a similar set of rules in
operation. However, he noted that the primary school teachers’ initial encounters with
their new classes were generally characterised by a friendly smile, business-like manner
and benign firmness, whereas the secondary school teachers had been more aggressively
assertive.
Unpredictable events, such as the appearance of a window cleaner, can be disruptive,
although a quick acknowledgement of the situation with a touch of humour is often
effective in such circumstances. Imposing your will simply means ensuring that pupils
do what you want them to do to ensure that the lesson progresses.

Dealing with pupil misbehaviour effectively
From time to time, pupil misbehaviour will occur. This may range from a trivial
incident, such as a pupil not paying attention, to a serious one, such as a pupil punching
another in anger. How you deal with pupil misbehaviour is the fourth major source
of your authority. Your authority will be enhanced to the extent that you are able to deal
with pupil misbehaviour effectively and fairly. How to do this is the subject of the
remainder of this chapter. However, it is important to bear in mind that the type of
strategy that will work best not only depends on the teacher’s skilful use of these
strategies, but also their ability to take account of the context in which they are working
and in which the misbehaviour occurs.
The approach to dealing with disruptive behaviour advocated by Rogers (1998, 2006)
highlights the importance of having a well-thought-out repertoire of techniques that


can be brought into play in a skilful manner, so that pupils can be guided towards reengaging with the work as quickly as possible and be given a clear idea of what is
regarded by the teacher as unacceptable behaviour.

Pre-empting pupil misbehaviour
In considering pupil misbehaviour, ‘prevention is better than cure’. Skilful teaching can
do much to minimise pupil misbehaviour occurring in the first place, and can usefully
re-direct incidents that were developing before they need be regarded as misbehaviour.
The essence of pre-empting misbehaviour lies in vigilance plus action.

Strategies to pre-empt misbehaviour
Careful monitoring of pupils’ behaviour and progress during a lesson can ensure that
most misbehaviour is nipped in the bud. Successful monitoring requires a conscious
decision to do so periodically, as it is all too easy to get wrapped up in particular
activities, such as giving individual help, and thereby not to notice another pupil who
is disrupting someone else’s work. Experienced teachers are adept at such monitoring,
while student teachers can usefully remind themselves to do this until it becomes
routine.
The main useful strategies to pre-empt misbehaviour are as follows.
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Scan the classroom. Periodically look around the classroom and consider whether any
pupils appear to be having difficulties and, if so, go over and investigate in a supportive
and helpful manner to ensure that pupils resume working as quickly as possible.
Individual contact will be more effective than shouting across the room. The latter
both disrupts other pupils unnecessarily and tends to assume the pupil is misbehaving.
Circulate. Circulate around the room periodically and probe whether pupils are having
difficulties. Sometimes asking a pupil about their progress usefully uncovers problems
that they would otherwise not have drawn to your attention.
Make eye contact. When addressing the class as a whole, make eye contact with
individual pupils periodically, but do not look too long at any individual. If you suspect
a pupil may be misbehaving, making eye contact, and prolonging it, will indicate to that
pupil your awareness of their need to re-involve themselves in the lesson without
needing to signal this publicly or interrupt the flow of the lesson.
Target your questions. Directing your questions around the class helps to maintain
pupils’ involvement; targeting questions at particular individuals is also a signal to them
to get re-involved.
Use proximity. While you normally stand at the front of the classroom, how and where
you move to can be an effective signal of your monitoring. By moving towards two
pupils talking, you can indicate your awareness to them of this without interrupting
the lesson. You may also stand near a pair or group of pupils for some time to sustain
their working.

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Give academic help. Giving advice and guidance to pupils to enable and encourage them
to make progress with the task in hand is the single most powerful means of preempting misbehaviour.
Change activities or pace. As a result of monitoring pupils’ progress you may feel the
lesson is proceeding too slowly or too fast and that pupils are ready to move on to
another activity or are running into difficulties. Your decisions about altering the pace
of the lesson and when to change the activity are crucial to maintaining pupils’
involvement. This applies not only to the class as a whole, but also to individual pupils,
some of whom may need to work at a different pace or on a different activity, even
when whole-class teaching is taking place, if they are to sustain their involvement to
best effect.
Notice misbehaviour. If a pupil is misbehaving, in the vast majority of cases it is important
to indicate to the pupil that you have noticed this. Eye contact may be sufficient, or if
you wish to be more forceful, a stern facial expression or a pause in your exposition
will indicate your concern and displeasure, while not interrupting the flow of the lesson
for more than a moment. Student teachers often tend to refrain from doing this, in
part because they feel misbehaviour needs to be more formally reprimanded once it
is noticed or because they hope it might disappear if ignored. In fact, signalling of this
sort is very important and effective in exercising managerial control; failing to do so
by ignoring simply allows more frequent or serious misbehaviour to develop, whereas
too ready a recourse to reprimands serves to create a conflict unnecessarily.
Notice disrespect. When interacting with pupils you should expect them to behave with
appropriate respect. Thus, for example, if a pupil is slouched in their seat when
addressed by you, it would be a normal courtesy for the pupil to quickly sit up straight
while replying. If they do not do so, you might deal with it by looking surprised or stern
to indicate you are not happy with this, and if that is not sufficient you might comment
explicitly. Lack of courtesy or respect towards you needs to be picked up as it forms
part of pupils’ impressions about the standard of behaviour you expect and the type
of relationship you wish to establish. Not doing so will tacitly undermine your authority
in behaving with status and exercising managerial control on your terms.
Move pupils. If the circumstances warrant, do not hesitate to separate two pupils who
are not behaving acceptably together, after due warning to this effect. Alternatively,
you may require a particular pupil to sit at the front where you can monitor the pupil’s
behaviour more closely. Seating arrangements are a privilege rather than a right of
pupils, and if you feel a better arrangement is desirable, a move can be helpful.
However, you need to emphasise that this is done in the pupils’ interests, to ensure
that any resentment is minimised.

Sound discipline largely rests on skilful teaching and skilful use of such strategies to
pre-empt misbehaviour. Even so, misbehaviour will still occur from time to time, and
to deal with this the best strategy is to combine the use of investigating and counselling
with the use of reprimands.


Investigating and counselling
When pupil misbehaviour has occurred despite your use of pre-emptive strategies, you
have a choice to make between investigating the nature and cause of the misbehaviour
or reprimanding the misbehaviour on the basis of your reading of its most likely nature
and cause. Your decision will very much depend on the context, such as the pupil
concerned, the nature of the activities taking place, how certain you are about your
reading of the incident, and what you anticipate will be the most likely effect of any
action you take.
Investigating and counselling is a strategy whereby you approach the incident of misbehaviour with a view to finding out the nature of the problem. Indeed, your comment
to the pupil might well be ‘What’s the problem?’ Your tone should indicate your
concern with a view to helping the pupil return to the work in hand as soon as possible,
rather than convey hostility or aggression on your part. In such circumstances, the pupil
may admit to having problems with their work, or may attribute the misbehaviour to
being bored, being provoked by another pupil, or whatever. If the nature of the problem
is not primarily an academic difficulty, you then need to decide whether to counsel
the pupil towards behaving appropriately there and then or else seeing the pupil at the
end of the lesson, during a break time or after school.

Effective counselling
When counselling a pupil it is important to allow the pupil to do much of the talking,
with a view to helping them to see that the misbehaviour is not in their interests, and
that the pupil should agree to behave as required in future. Such counselling is likely
to be more effective if conducted in private, in a context of trust and mutual respect,
and where you convey a caring and concerned attitude. It is important to the pupils to
evaluate their own behaviour and to consider the consequences, such as poor academic
progress or punishment, that may follow if the behaviour does not improve. The most
important aspect of counselling is to end with the pupil agreeing to behave well in future
as a positive decision.
Where such counselling does not appear to be successful or serious problems appear
to be underlying the misbehaviour, it is important to confer with colleagues who have
explicit pastoral care concerns. In secondary schools, this will be the form teacher and
the head of house or year, although in many secondary schools it is usual for the head
of department to be involved in the first instance. In primary schools, the class teacher
is normally the form teacher as well, and thus consultation is likely to involve the
headteacher or a deputy head with specific responsibility for pastoral care.

Your pastoral care role
In your role as a class teacher, you must bear in mind that you simultaneously have a
pastoral care role. Hence, as well as being concerned about pupils’ academic progress,
you must also be concerned about their general behaviour and attitudes, their personal
and social development, and any individual needs they may have. Dealing with pupil

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mis-behaviour is not simply a matter of discipline, but is also bound up with your
pastoral care responsibilities.
In addition, in this respect you should also be alert to pupils’ behaviour giving cause for
concern that may not undermine discipline or be regarded as misbehaviour. For
example, excessive shyness, a tendency to work very slowly, or frequent day-dreaming,
may not be in any way disruptive, but may well need to be picked up in monitoring
pupils’ progress and may well need to be investigated further. Indeed, picking up on
non-disruptive behaviours such as inattentiveness or an unwillingness to participate
in activities can sometimes be a sign of personal problems in the pupil’s life (such as
being bullied, or worries about a parent who is seriously ill) and identifying this can
enable the teacher and school to offer the pupil appropriate help and support (Kyriacou,
2003).
Such concerns are linked to the Every Child Matters agenda, and this is recognised by
inclusion in the TDA (2007) QTS standards of the need for student teachers to be aware
of the legal requirements, national policies and guidance on the safeguarding and
promotion of pupils’ well-being.

Resulting actions
As a result of investigating and counselling by you alone or in wider consultation with
colleagues, there may well be actions you need to take to assist the pupil to behave well.
For example, you may discover that the pupil finds it difficult to settle down to work
because they are easily distracted by certain other pupils, or the pupil is finding the work
too difficult or is getting late nights at home. Some pupils may have a special
educational need that requires a formal assessment to be made and explicit provision,
such as the help of a support teacher for a period. Some of the necessary actions can
be taken by you in the classroom; others may involve collaboration with colleagues,
particularly if parents and other agencies are to be involved.

Using reprimands
A reprimand refers to an explicit verbal warning or comment by you to a pupil which
indicates your disapproval of the misbehaviour that has occurred. Because the use of
investigating and counselling is time-consuming and logistically too difficult to be used
for every misbehaviour that occurs, most misbehaviour that has not been successfully
dealt with by the pre-emptive strategies will be dealt with by reprimands; only a minority
of problems are dealt with by recourse to investigating and counselling. However, the
balance between these two strategies will vary greatly from lesson to lesson and from
class to class.

Effective use of reprimands
Reprimands are best used sparingly and should complement skilful teaching in general.
Too frequent a use of reprimands will lessen their effect, will undermine creating a
positive classroom climate, and is experienced by some pupils as ‘nagging’.


A number of qualities are involved in the skilful and effective use of reprimands.
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Target correctly. The pupil being reprimanded should be correctly identified as the pupil
instigating or engaged in the misbehaviour. A particular danger here is to reprimand
a pupil who was reacting to another’s provocation
Be firm. Your reprimand should be clear and firm in tone and content. Avoid pleading
or implying damage limitation (e.g. ‘Let’s at least get some decent work done in the
last ten minutes’) or softening your reprimand once it has been issued.
Express concern. Your reprimand should convey your concern that the pupil’s interests
or those of other pupils are being harmed by the misbehaviour.
Avoid anger. While a firm expression of disapproval is effective, expressing intense
anger, shouting at pupils, and appearing to have lost your temper will tend to undermine a positive classroom climate. Frequent expressions of anger are undesirable, are
experienced by pupils as unpleasant and, with younger pupils in particular, may be very
upsetting.
Emphasise what is required. Reprimands should emphasise what pupils should be doing
rather than simply complain about the misbehaviour itself. ‘Pay attention’ is better than
‘Stop looking out of the window’, while ‘You may talk quietly with your neighbour’ is
better than ‘There’s too much noise in here’.
Maintain psychological impact. When a reprimand is given, its impact is enhanced by
non-verbal cues, such as eye contact. After the reprimand is given, a momentary
prolonging of eye contact together with a slight pause before continuing with the
lesson can increase the force of the exchange.
Avoid confrontations. Do not force a pupil into a heated exchange. Where such a
possibility seems likely because the pupil appears tense, agitated or unresponsive to
your pre-emptive strategies, postponing a reprimand and instead using investigating
and counselling strategies would be appropriate. If you reprimand a pupil who then
reacts emotionally, you can usefully curtail the exchange by telling the pupil to stay
behind at the end of the lesson in a matter-of-fact manner and quickly resume the
lesson.
Criticise the behaviour not the pupil. It is important to emphasise that you disapprove
of the misbehaviour not the pupil. This enables you to convey a sense of caring for the
pupil and their interests, and gives pupils an opportunity to dissociate themselves from
such misbehaviour in future. ‘You need to concentrate more on your work and spend
less time chatting to others’ is better than ‘You’re an idle person’.
Use private rather than public reprimands. A private reprimand, such as a quiet word,
is useful because it is a more personal contact and lessens the likelihood of
embarrassing the pupil and the chance that the pupil might react with hostility. It is
also less disruptive to other pupils. A public reprimand to a pupil is better only when
there is a specific reason to go public, such as when you actually want the whole class
to hear the reprimand as an implicit warning to others. A less disruptive use of a public
reprimand is to simply call out the pupil’s name in a tone that conveys that you have
noticed some misbehaviour which must stop immediately.

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Be pre-emptive. Reprimands aimed at pre-empting misbehaviour are more effective
than those that follow only after repeated and prolonged misbehaviour.
State rules and rationale. A reprimand can usefully consist of a statement of the rule
being transgressed together with an explanation of why the rule is required for the
benefit of teaching and learning (e.g. ‘Please put up your hand and wait until I ask you
to speak so that everyone gets a fair chance to contribute and we can all hear what
is said’).
Avoid making hostile remarks. Hostile and deprecating remarks should be avoided, as
pupils may feel personally disliked, and may become disaffected and alienated. Sarcasm
and ridicule in particular are felt by pupils to be unfair, and can undermine mutual
respect and rapport to the detriment of a positive classroom climate.
Avoid unfair comparisons. Pupils tend to feel that reprimands which involve stereotyping
or comparisons with others are unfair, particularly if they relate to other members
of the pupil’s family or other classes (e.g. ‘Your sister’s work is much better than this’
or ‘Just because this is set three doesn’t mean you don’t have to pay attention’).
Be consistent. Reprimands should relate to clear and consistently applied expectations.
Pupils will resent being reprimanded if they feel the behaviour was not the type you
would normally reprimand or if the severity of the reprimand was unexpectedly great.
Do not make empty threats. Do not issue reprimands that threaten consequences you
would not wish to or could not carry out (e.g. ‘The next pupil who talks will go straight
to the head’ or ‘If you make another insolent remark, I shall be contacting your
parents’). If you explicitly state consequences that will follow, it is very important to
carry these out if you are to maintain credibility when you use this strategy in the
future.
Avoid reprimanding the whole class. Reprimanding the whole class is a serious act and
should only be used when certain misbehaviour or your cause for concern is so
widespread that individual reprimands will not have sufficient effect or be appropriate.
In order to avoid casting your criticism equally on all pupils, including the blameless,
it is useful to indicate your concern with ‘too many pupils’ rather than all pupils. A
useful alternative is to discuss with the class as a whole why certain misbehaviour has
become widespread, so that you can identify any particular problems and reinforce
the need for good behaviour.
Making an example. Another useful alternative to reprimanding the whole class is to
issue a particularly forceful reprimand to one pupil, adding or implying that you will
not tolerate other pupils acting in this way. Reprimanding an individual can have just
as much impact on the behaviour of the class as reprimanding the whole class. Making
an example can be particularly useful in the first few lessons with a new class to
highlight your expectations, such as how you deal with the first pupil who arrives late
for your lessons without any excuse. It is also useful if certain pupils appear to be trying
to challenge your authority publicly; however, you must be sensitive about whether
you are simply being drawn into a public confrontation that is best dealt with in some
other way.


Ideally the use of reprimands can be thought of as adding a few drops of oil to an engine
that is running well but very occasionally needs further lubrication to maintain its
smooth operation. Once the use of reprimands becomes frequent, the climate of the
lesson can change quite markedly, and the tone becomes one of the teacher trying to
coerce and cajole pupils towards working well. In such circumstances you need to think
carefully whether the academic demands made upon pupils can be modified and
consider the nature of the underlying causes of such continuing conﬂict.
Indeed, frequent misbehaviour by pupils acts as an on-going critique by pupils of the
demands made upon them, and has acted as a major stimulus for curriculum
development. The point being stressed here is that if the skilful use of reprimands does
not appear to be successful, you should not assume that the best way ahead is to resort
to more frequent and more severe reprimands and the use of punishments or other
related strategies without first thinking long and hard about the educational context
within which the problem over discipline has arisen.

Using punishments
Despite the skilful use of reprimands and other strategies already discussed, pupil
misbehaviour may persist. In such circumstances, the use of punishments may be
effective in restoring discipline.

The nature and purpose of punishment
A punishment is in essence a formal action which the pupil is intended to experience
as unpleasant, as a means of helping the pupil to behave appropriately in the future.
The dividing line between a reprimand and a punishment is often blurred because
reprimands and other strategies are often also experienced as unpleasant. The difference
largely lies in the formal way in which a punishment is set up and the explicit intention
for it to be unpleasant.
In setting up a punishment, you thus need to emphasise to the pupil that the use of
punishment is intended to help the pupil appreciate the gravity and seriousness with
which you are treating the misbehaviour and the urgency of the need for acceptable
behaviour to occur in future. Indeed, it is essential that the pupil sees the punishment
as being in their own interests, and certainly not as an expression of malice or hostility.
Punishments have three main purposes:
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Retribution: the idea that justice requires that wrongdoing is followed by a morally
deserved punishment.
Deterrence: the idea that the pupil or other pupils will wish to avoid such misbehaviour
in the future for fear of the consequences.
Rehabilitation: the idea that the pupil will be helped to understand the moral
wrongdoing of the misbehaviour and the need to behave well in future.

In schools, punishments often involve all three purposes to some extent, but rehabilitation
is clearly the most important one and the one that embodies an educational purpose to

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enable a pupil to choose to behave well in the future. Deterrence is also important and
may contribute to the effectiveness of your expressions of disapproval when using
reprimands. Retribution tends to be the most evident when a moral code has been
broken: an action which the teacher feels needs to be punished in the interests of justice
as an expression of the school community’s disapproval, the most notable examples being
bullying, stealing, cheating, vandalism and certain types of verbal abuse.

The shortcomings of punishment
The most important aspect of punishment to bear in mind is that its impact is largely
dependent on it being used as a formal and weighty sanction employed for serious
incidents of misbehaviour when other strategies have been unsuccessful. There is,
however, an element of illusion involved here, since very few sanctions are in fact of any
weight, with most involving only a short period of unpleasantness or having a nuisance
value. Their impact owes much more to using them in a way that conveys the
seriousness with which the misbehaviour is being viewed. It is also largely the case
that the type of pupils most likely to be punished, notably disaffected pupils who have
little respect for authority and the values and ethos of the school, are the pupils least
likely to respond by better behaviour in future. In contrast, those pupils who would be
most worried about punishment are those pupils for whom skilful use of other strategies
should be sufﬁciently effective.
The main drawbacks of using punishments are:
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They form an inappropriate model for human relationships.
They foster anxiety and resentment.
They have a short-lived ‘initial shock’ effect.
They encourage pupils to develop strategies to avoid getting caught.
They do not promote good behaviour directly but simply serve to suppress
misbehaviour.
They do not deal with the cause of the misbehaviour.
They focus attention on the misbehaviour.

Types of punishment
Despite the shortcomings of punishments, they do have a useful role to play in
maintaining discipline if used skilfully. Each type of punishment has certain strengths
and weaknesses which will have a bearing on their effectiveness. The most commonly
used punishments are as follows.
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Writing tasks. These may range from writing out lines to a short essay on ‘Why I
misbehaved and will behave better in future’. The main advantage of this approach is
that it is done in the pupil’s own time without wasting yours. Its weakness is that it is
often felt to have a patronising quality and is probably regarded as insulting by older
pupils. It is essential not to require pupils to do work that is missing or overdue as a
punishment. Doing schoolwork should not be a punishment. Such work must be
explicitly justiﬁed on other grounds.

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Detention. This could entail keeping a pupil in detention for a break period or after
school coupled with a writing task (as above) or simply detaining them in silence for
a set period of time. Its main advantage is that it is widely disliked by pupils; its main
disadvantage is that it can inconvenience you. It is essential to distinguish between a
detention and requiring to see a pupil for a period of time as part of an investigating
and counselling approach or to issue a reprimand. A detention is a formal punishment
and should be administered as such.
Loss of privileges. This can range from requiring a pupil to sit alone and in isolation to
preventing the pupil going on a school outing. Its main advantage is that it can be quite
upsetting to the pupil; its main disadvantage is that it can easily be seen as vindictive
and unfair.
Exclusion from the class. This can range from requiring the pupil to wait outside the
classroom for a period of time to being sent to another classroom or place in the
school. Its main advantage is that it removes the pupil from the classroom and allows
them to think about why they were excluded; its main disadvantages are that it is not
particularly unpleasant for some pupils and can pose other problems, such as a pupil
who keeps looking in through a window or simply wanders off.
Verbal intimidation. A very severe talking to may be considered as a punishment rather
than a reprimand, particularly if done by a senior teacher in the school in a formal role.
Its main advantages are that it can be very unpleasant and can be administered quickly;
its main disadvantage is that it can provoke a confrontation. A severe talking to in this
way should only take place in private.
Informing significant others. Informing the headteacher or the pupil’s parents is, for most
pupils, very punishing. Its main advantage is that it is usually a quite powerful sanction;
its main disadvantage is that the pupil may now feel labelled by the school as a
disruptive pupil and may even feel the need to live up to this label as a result.
Symbolic punishment. Some schools have a system of recording bad conduct marks
which translate into a detention for a given total and may be included on the school
report to parents. Its main advantage is that it can use the formal ritual of punishment
at a mild level; its main disadvantage is that it can be clumsy to administer and
communicate.
Exclusion from school. This is the ultimate sanction. Exclusion can be temporary (usually
one to five days in length) or permanent. It tends to be used as a final resort to help
the pupil appreciate the immense gravity of the situation and the misbehaviour, either after a long history of problems or in reaction to a particular misbehaviour of the utmost seriousness (such as using drugs, or assaulting a teacher). For
some, it provides the shock needed to salvage their school career or acts as a vehicle
for the provision of special support. For others, it marks a point of no return. It may
result in transfer to another school, with perhaps a fresh start. With pupils approaching
the school leaving age, it may lead to a limbo land during which efforts to place the pupil
elsewhere are finally overtaken by time running out.

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Effective use of punishments
While it is evident that punishments generally have a more severe and unpleasant
consequence for a pupil than strategies based on investigating and counselling or using
reprimands, this does not mean that they are actually more powerful or effective in
dealing with pupil misbehaviour. Research on the effectiveness of different strategies
used to deal with difﬁcult classes or pupils indicates that while almost any strategy can
be effective if used skilfully in the right situation, generally strategies based on reasoning
with pupils are the most effective. Indeed, recourse to a punishment in a situation may
be counterproductive if all that might have been necessary and effective was offering
some academic help or simply reasoning with the pupil. A major pitfall facing beginning
teachers in particular, is to assume that a punishment is more powerful and hence more
effective; as a result, they resort to their use too readily and inappropriately.
The skilful and effective use of punishments involves a number of qualities, and
includes those considered earlier in relation to the effective use of reprimands. There
are, however, some additional qualities worthy of particular note.
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Sparing use. Punishments should only be used sparingly and judiciously, and in the vast
majority of cases only after other strategies have been tried.
Timing. Punishments should be given as soon as possible after the misbehaviour. If
there is a long delay, the link should be re-established at the time given.
Tone. A punishment should be conveyed as an expression of your just and severe
disapproval of the misbehaviour, and given in the interests of the pupil and of the class
as a whole. It should not result from you losing your temper, or appear vindictive.
Fitting the crime. The type and severity of the punishment should be appropriate to
the misbehaviour but should also take account of the context.
Due process. It is important that the pupil accepts that the punishment is fair and just.
This will normally mean that the pupil has been warned that such a consequence may
follow, and that your expectations and actions regarding such misbehaviour are clear
and consistent. The pupil should also be asked to explain the misbehaviour and
encouraged to understand and accept why the punishment is just, deserved and
appropriate.
Relating to school policy. The punishment should relate to the overall policy of the
school towards discipline.
Aversiveness. The punishment must be unpleasant for the pupil. Some pupils may not
mind being sent out of the room, or may even gain status in the eyes of peers in doing
so. As such, each punishment needs to be of a type that is aversive for the pupil
concerned and minimises any factors that are likely to weaken its effectiveness, bearing
in mind the need to be fair and consistent.

It is also important to consult with colleagues in the school about any pupil giving cause
for concern. If a pupil is having to be punished frequently, this may indicate an
underlying problem which goes well beyond being the concern of the class teacher
alone. While you may feel you are expected to cope with any discipline problems
yourself as best you can, this does not mean it is desirable to keep problems to yourself
as far as possible. In fact, the opposite is the case. You also have a responsibility towards

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ESSENTIAL TEACHING SKILLS

pastoral care and you need to act as a member of a team in monitoring pupils’
behaviour, so that any concerns you have are shared with others and appropriate action
can then be better and more widely informed.

Dealing with confrontations
From time to time, a confrontation may develop in the classroom between you and a
pupil. A confrontation may be characterised by a heated and emotional exchange, which
is upsetting for all concerned. Such a confrontation can develop so quickly and
unpredictably, that the first thing you are aware of is that you are in the middle of having
one. Usually, however, there are warning signals evident that enable you to pre-empt
its development.

Triggers for confrontations
There are four major triggers for confrontation in the classroom:
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A pupil may feel emotional and tense as a result of prolonged learning difficulties which
are causing increasing frustration.
A pupil may feel that the disciplinary strategy you are adopting towards them is unfair
and constitutes a threat to their self-esteem, particularly if linked to loss of face in front
of their peers (the use of sarcasm or ridicule may provoke this, or trying to resolve a
conflict by making the pupil submit to your authority in some way, such as moving to
a seat at the front of the classroom).
A pupil may react against explicit physical or verbal intimidation, such as a teacher
waving a finger in front of the pupil’s face or using a forceful reprimand.
A pupil may be trying to avoid embarrassment when you are cajoling or insisting they
answer a question or take part in an activity which they feel very anxious about, or
in which they feel they may make a fool of themselves in front of others.

Clearly, skilful teaching and, in particular, the skilful use of the disciplinary strategies
outlined earlier, will do much to minimise the occurrence of such triggers. However,
there are circumstances which can lead to a pupil feeling over-sensitive to what
otherwise would be unproblematic behaviour on your part. For example, the pupil may
be having to deal with acute personal problems at home, or some upsetting news may
have been received in school (e.g. being dropped from a school team, being told that
their school report will be critical of poor progress, or even that a best friend has not
invited the pupil to a party).
You can usually sense from a pupil’s behaviour that something is amiss, such as the
pupil looking tense or arriving in the classroom in an uncharacteristically loud manner.
Such signals will alert you to the possibility that you may need to be sensitive to this
in deciding how best to interact with the pupil.

Dealing with confrontations
If a confrontation does develop, there are some useful strategies that will enable you
to deal successfully with the situation.

DISCIPLINE

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Stay calm. If you remain calm, or regain your composure quickly, and interact calmly
with the pupil, the pupil will quickly calm down.
Defuse the situation. Rather than try to pursue the conflict further, you can tell the
pupil that ‘There’s no need for anyone to get upset, I suggest you just calm down
and we can deal with this at the end of the lesson’ and then back off. If this is not
effective, your best course of action is to send for help so that the pupil can be moved
elsewhere for the rest of the lesson. Backing off in this way does not mean that you
have backed down or lost authority. Indeed, it displays your skill in dealing with this
as a special circumstance demanding appropriate action, and pupils will generally
understand this. Some teachers can use humour to defuse a confrontation, but doing
so successfully requires adept sensitivity.
Be aware of the heat of the moment. A confrontation can develop in a matter of
seconds, and in the heat of the moment you or the pupil may say or do something
which they may profoundly regret later. Bear this in mind before you act and in how
you respond to what the pupil says or does.
Use your social skills. A pupil may be horrified by what they have said or done but
may lack the social skills to get out of the situation. It thus behoves you to use your
social skills to help the pupil, for which they may be immensely grateful later once
the incident is defused and dealt with.
Design a mutual face-saver. In the heat of the moment, your natural tendency may be
to feel you must exert your authority by coming out ‘on top’ in some way. Such a
stereotyped reaction is often unhelpful and counterproductive. You needs to consider
which strategy best fits the situation, and enables you and the pupil to come away from
the incident with sufficient grace.
Get help if necessary. Do not hesitate to get assistance from another member of staff
if this seems appropriate.

Research on how teachers deal with confrontations indicates that almost all confrontations can be avoided or resolved by the skilful use of conflict management techniques.
In particular, this requires teachers to be aware of their own emotions during conflicts
and confrontations and how these might influence their behaviour, and to be able to
stand outside the situation to think rationally about how best to proceed. The biggest
danger facing you in dealing with a confrontation is to lose your temper or see the
situation as ‘I win – You lose’ where you need to exert whatever power you have. By
remaining calm, standing back from the situation, thinking carefully, and using
appropriate strategies skilfully, the vast majority of such incidents can be defused and
dealt with efficiently and effectively, and without becoming unnecessarily unpleasant.

Other strategies
As well as the strategies outlined so far, there are other strategies and approaches that
are worthy of particular note.

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Monitor your pupils’ behaviour

Formal monitoring of behaviour
Formal procedures for monitoring pupils’ behaviour can be effective. A frequently used
strategy is to put a pupil ‘on report’, which means that for a period of a few days or a
week, each teacher must make a note of the pupil’s behaviour at the end of each
teaching session on a report card. At the end of this period, the pupil’s behaviour is
reviewed.

Contracts
The notion of contracts involves promising the pupil an agreed reward of some type if
good behaviour is maintained over a speciﬁed period. The reward may typically be a
merit certificate for good behaviour, allowing the pupil to spend time on a valued activity
(such as an afternoon in the craft workshop), or even a tangible reward (such as a bar
of chocolate). It is important to note that the real motivation here does not stem from
the desire for the reward, but rather the desire to behave well. The procedure and reward
simply serve as a helpful vehicle to support the pupil’s own efforts.

Getting help from parents and carers
Enlisting the help of pupils’ parents and carers is often very important if the behaviour
has become a serious cause for concern. Parents and carers should be informed about
a cause for concern, not only as part of the desirability of keeping parents and carers
informed in general about their children, but also because parents and carers may offer
useful and helpful information themselves and assist in various ways to encourage an
improvement in the pupil’s behaviour. If it is suspected that the pupil may have a special

DISCIPLINE

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educational need of some sort, then parents and carers should be involved in any
discussions at an early stage.
The importance of the role of parents and carers is reﬂected in their inclusion in the
TDA (2007) QTS standards, which refer to the need for student teachers to be able to
communicate effectively with parents and carers and to recognise and respect the role
that parents and carers can make to the development of pupils’ well-being and to raising
pupils’ levels of attainment.

Units for disruptive pupils
Many schools are able to make use of on-site or off-site units to which disruptive pupils
can be sent for a period of time. This can operate for quite short periods, such as one
lesson, or half-a-day to provide a cooling-off period during which the pupil can come
to terms with the gravity of the situation. In addition, it can operate for a longer period,
perhaps three weeks, during which a detailed assessment and review of the pupils’
behaviour and needs are considered. At its best, this strategy can allow a crisis to be
defused successfully, followed by a return to normal schooling. At its worst, particularly
for pupils near to the school-leaving age, it can result in de facto exclusion.

Positive teaching
Positive teaching refers to an approach to classroom discipline based on ideas stemming
from behavioural psychology (McNamara, 2001; Porter, 2000). The basic underlying
principle here is that pupil behaviour that is rewarded is more likely to occur in the same
situation in future, and behaviour that is not rewarded or is punished, is less likely to
occur. Advocates of this approach to classroom teaching argue that it enables teachers
to be more consistent, systematic and effective in how they deal with discipline
problems. First, the teacher needs to identify desirable behaviours that need to be
promoted, and the types of misbehaviour that need to be discouraged. Having done this,
you then use a programme of regularly praising and otherwise rewarding the desirable
behaviours, and reminding pupils of the classroom rules that need to be adhered to.
The important point about this approach is its emphasis on the use of praise and other
rewards to encourage and sustain improved behaviour. Punishments are rarely used.
Research studies based on evaluating this approach indicate that its skilful use can
successfully improve the behaviour of the class as a whole and also promote better
behaviour with individual pupils causing problems.

Further reading
Chaplain, R. (2003) Teaching Without Disruption in the Primary School: A Model for Managing
Pupil Behaviour. London: RoutledgeFalmer. An insightful analysis of how to anticipate and
manage pupil misbehaviour. [There is also a version of this book that focuses on secondary
schools.]

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Porter, L. (2000) Behaviour in Schools. Maidenhead: Open University Press. A useful account
of different ways of looking at the nature and causes of pupil misbehaviour and their implications
for how to promote good behaviour.
Rogers, B. (1998) You Know the Fair Rule: Strategies for Making the Hard Job of Discipline and
Behaviour Management in School Easier, 2nd edn. London: Prentice Hall. This book presents a
strategic approach to dealing with disruptive behaviour based on developing a repertoire of
techniques that can be used consistently.
Rogers, B. (2006) Classroom Behaviour: A Practical Guide to Effective Teaching, Behaviour
Management and Colleague Support, 2nd edn. London: Paul Chapman. An excellent guide to
dealing with pupil misbehaviour.

Key questions about your use of discipline
1 Is my discipline embedded within a positive classroom climate characterised by
mutual respect and rapport and positive expectations, and linked with good lesson
presentation and management?
2 Is my authority established and accepted by pupils?
3 Am I clear and consistent in establishing rules and expectations regarding pupils’
behaviour?
4 Do I make good use of general teaching skills and pre-emptive strategies to
minimise pupil misbehaviour?
5 Do I make good use of investigating and counselling strategies, reprimands and
punishments, to deal with pupil misbehaviour skilfully?
6 Are the strategies I use to deal with pupil misbehaviour employed flexibly and
skilfully to take account of which strategy is likely to be most effective and
appropriate to the situation?
7 Do my disciplinary strategies encourage good behaviour without undermining a
positive classroom climate?
8 Do I avoid confrontations where possible, and efﬁciently and effectively diffuse those
that do occur?
9 Am I sufﬁciently sensitive to my pastoral care role and alert to any particular needs
of individual pupils giving cause for concern?
10 Do I make adequate use of consultation with colleagues and ensure that my actions
complement the school’s general policy towards discipline?

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7 Assessing pupils’ progress
The regular assessment of pupils’ progress is part and parcel of teaching and learning
in the classroom. Such assessment may range from simply looking over pupils’
shoulders while they are writing during a period of classwork, to the use of formally
administered external examinations. Indeed, there is a vast variety of activities used to
assess pupils’ progress, each with their own particular processes and procedures.
Nevertheless, the skilful use of assessment techniques can be identified, and these will
be highlighted in this chapter.
The phrase ‘fitness for purpose’ applies more importantly to assessment than to any
other aspect of a teacher’s work. Because assessment is very time consuming, it is very
easy to find yourself spending hours collating records of assessment that you later realise
you have no productive use for; or spending hours making detailed notes on pupils’ test
papers only to find later that pupils are given no opportunity to read and make use of
these comments. Therefore the skilful matching of the type and the way you make use
of a particular assessment activity to the key purpose that it is intended to serve is one
of the key teaching skills.

The purposes of assessment
In essence, assessment is any activity used to appraise pupils’ performance. The learning
outcomes promoted by schools involve helping pupils to develop knowledge,
understanding, skills and attitudes. Assessment thus consists of techniques you can use
to monitor pupils’ progress in terms of specific learning outcomes. The first and most
important question facing you in assessing pupils’ progress, is ‘why’? What purpose
have you in mind for the assessment activity?
Assessment can serve a number of different purposes. The most frequently used
purposes are as follows.
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To provide you with feedback about pupils’ progress. Such feedback enables you to
consider how effective your teaching has been in achieving its intended learning
outcomes. In particular, it may highlight certain problems or misunderstanding that
have arisen, that will require remedial action in your subsequent teaching.
To provide pupils with educative feedback. Assessment enables pupils to relate their
performance to the standard expected, to use detailed feedback to correct and
improve their work, and to appreciate more clearly the requirements of the tasks
set (e.g. regarding the layout of the work or procedures used).
To motivate pupils. Assessment activities can act as a spur to pupils to organise their
work well and to learn what is required so as to achieve well at these activities. The
spur may be largely based on intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, or a mix of
both. Feedback of success at a challenging task is particularly effective in stimulating
future motivation.

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To provide a record of progress. Regular assessment activities enable you to keep a
record of pupils’ progress over a long period. This can then form the basis for your
decisions about individual pupils’ current and future educational needs, particularly if
a cause for concern arises. It can also be used when communicating with others,
including parents, and may influence your future planning of teaching similar groups.
To provide a statement of current attainment. A specific assessment activity or
group of activities can be used to identify the standard of attainment achieved
at a particular point in time. Such attainment may form the basis of certification, or a
formal statement issued to others, most notably parents.
To assess pupils’ readiness for future learning. Assessment can be used to indicate
whether pupils are ready for a particular type of learning (e.g. readiness to learn to
read), whether they have any specific learning difficulties, or, more simply, whether
they have covered the previous learning required for the new topic to be taught
effectively (if not, revision or prior preparation will be needed).
To provide evidence of teacher and school effectiveness. Pupils’ performance in
assessment tasks provides evidence of their progress and hence acts as a useful
indicator of teacher and school effectiveness.

Your decision about how and what to assess will thus depend on the exact purpose or
purposes you have in mind for the assessment. Part of the difficulty facing teachers in
making skilful and effective use of assessment is the need to meet different purposes
and uses of assessment at the same time, and to ensure that any undesirable side-effects
are avoided or limited as far as possible.

Dangers of assessment
There are three major dangers that you need to guard against when making use of
assessment activities. First, and most serious of all, is the danger that pupils who find
that the feedback concerning their progress indicates that they are doing less well than
their peers or some standard of attainment of value to them, may become disheartened
and upset by this. This may lead to their becoming disenchanted and alienated from
schooling, and sinking into a vicious cycle of increasing underachievement. Second, the
procedures and practices adopted for assessing pupils’ progress may be too timeconsuming and bureaucratic for teachers and pupils, so that they encroach undesirably
on time and energy that could be better spent on other activities. Third, they may lead
teachers and pupils to becoming over-concerned with pupils performing well. In
particular, the lessons and assessment activities (both the content and the teaching and
learning processes involved) may become geared to promoting success in attainment
tests at the expense of the quality of educational experiences occurring in the classroom.
Because assessment practices are so interlinked with teaching and learning, the skilful
use of assessment practices which complement and facilitate the hallmarks of effective
teaching considered in previous chapters is essential. Where assessment practices are
used which have undesirable side-effects, these can make it much more difficult to teach
effectively. Indeed, many of the reforms in assessment practices over the years have

ASSESSING PUPILS’ PROGRESS

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stemmed precisely from the recognition of the important role of assessment in
promoting effective teaching.
Briggs et al. (2003) have also made the important point that when assessing a task in
which the pupil has used ICT, one needs to make a distinction between the quality of
the pupil’s use of ICT and the pupil’s subject-related attainment. The pupil may well
have used the ICT well, but this may not corresponded to the same level of attainment
in the subject.

Types of assessment
As a result of the diversity in the type of assessment practices used in schools, a number
of key terms are now frequently referred to (Clarke, 2005; Weeden et al., 2002). The
most important of these are as follows.
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Formative assessment. Assessment aimed to promote effective future learning by pupils.
It may do this by giving pupils helpful feedback, or by giving you feedback or information
that will enable you to meet the pupil’s future learning needs more effectively. Typically,
such assessment tends to identify errors, difficulties or shortcomings in the pupil’s work
and offer advice, guidance and information to improve future performance.
Summative assessment. Assessment which identifies the standard of attainment
achieved at a particular moment in time, normally carried out at the end of a period
of instruction (e.g. end of term, end of course). The most typical examples of these
are the grades used on school reports of attainment, or the results of external
examinations.
Norm-referenced assessment. The grading of each pupil’s performance is related to the
performance of others. For example, if a grade A is defined as the level of performance
achieved by the top 10 per cent of the assessment cohort, this would mean that no
matter how high or low the general standard of work produced was, the best 10 per
cent (no more and no less) would always receive a grade A.
Criterion-referenced assessment. The grading of each pupil’s performance is judged in
terms of whether a particular description of performance (the criterion) has been met.
This means that all pupils who meet this criterion would be assessed as achieving the
related grade, regardless of how other pupils performed. Typical examples of these
are graded tests used in music, modern languages and mathematics, the use of graderelated criteria at GCSE, and the level of attainment in the National Curriculum.
Diagnostic assessment. This overlaps with formative assessment, but specifically identifies
learning difficulties or problems. Certain tests can be used to identify particular needs
(e.g. dyslexia), and related to the statement of special educational needs.
Internal assessment. Assessment activities which are devised, carried out and marked
by the class teacher, and often used as part of their own programme of teaching.
External assessment. Assessment activities devised by examiners outside the school,
and usually also marked by external assessors, although in many cases marking can
be done by the class teacher but is then checked (‘moderated’) by external assessors
on a sample basis.

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Informal assessment. Assessment based on the observation of performance which
occurs in the classroom as part of normal classroom practice.
Formal assessment. Assessment made following prior warning that an assessment will
be carried out. This normally allows the pupil an opportunity to revise and prepare
for the assessment.
Continuous assessment. Basing the final assessment of the standard of attainment
achieved on pieces of assessment made over a long period of time.
Terminal assessment. Basing the ﬁnal assessment of the standard of attainment achieved
on an assessment made solely at the end of the course or programme of work.
Objective assessment. Assessment activities and associated marking schemes having
extremely high agreement between assessors on the marks awarded. The best
example of this is the use of multiple choice tests.
Subjective assessment. Assessment activities based on a subjective and impressionistic judgement of a piece of work. An example of this would be judging a painting,
a vignette of acting, or a piece of creative writing.
Process assessment. Assessment of an ongoing activity, such as reading aloud
a poem or designing and conducting an experiment, in which the assessment is based
on direct observation of the performance while in progress.
Product assessment. Assessment based on a tangible piece of work, such as an essay,
project, model or examination script, submitted for the purpose of assessment.

Discussion about types of assessment typically considers contrasting pairs, most notably:
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formative versus summative
norm-referenced versus criterion-referenced
internal versus external
informal versus formal
continuous versus terminal
objective versus subjective
process versus product.

While this is often helpful, the nature of assessment practices is often such that a mixture
of each contrasting pair is in fact involved. Thus, for example, one may imagine that an
end-of-year school report was primarily a summative assessment, but inspection of its
content may reveal many comments and pieces of information clearly intended to be
formative. Similarly, an assessment scheme for marking a coursework project may claim
to be primarily criterion-referenced, but close inspection may reveal aspects that are
clearly norm-referenced. In tailoring your assessment practice to the purpose you have
in mind, it is most important that the assessment is effective in meeting the needs you
have for it. Over-concern with its purity, in terms of pigeon-holing its type, is likely to
be unproductive.

Assessment for learning
The phrase ‘assessment for learning’ has been increasingly used to refer to the ways in
which pupils and teachers can make use of assessment activities to gain a clearer


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understanding of the learning that has taken place to date and how pupils’ future
learning can best progress (Black et al., 2003; Gardner, 2006). This phrase builds upon
and extends the notion of formative assessment, and has also been included by the DfES
(2005b) as an important strand of personalised learning. Gardner (2006) lists ten
principles which underpin assessment for learning:
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It is part of effective teaching.
It focuses on how pupils learn.
It is central to classroom practice.
It is a key professional skill.
It is sensitive and constructive.
It fosters motivation.
It promotes understanding of goals and criteria.
It helps learners know how to improve.
It develops the capacity for self-assessment.
It recognises all educational achievement.

Strong links have also been made between assessment for learning and personalised
learning as part of the Every Child Matters agenda that has been developed by the DfES
(2004b) to promote pupil achievement in schools (Cheminais, 2006). The particular
importance of the skilful use of formative assessment in promoting motivation and
learning is now widely recognised (O’Donnell et al., 2007).

Improving assessment practices
Looking at the types of assessment listed above, and bearing in mind the range of learning
outcomes that can be assessed (knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes), the type
and nature of the performance involved (oral, written, practical, coursework, tests,
examinations) and the educational domains (academic subjects, study skills, personal and
social education), it is perhaps not surprising that a number of complex issues underlie
the skilful assessment of pupils’ progress. Attempts to improve the nature and quality
of assessment practices used in schools are continually evident in many countries.
The introduction of the National Curriculum in 1989 was coupled with associated
procedures for monitoring pupils’ progress involving the use of centrally produced tests.
The results of these tests have been used both to provide an indication of each pupil’s
individual progress and an indication of the general progress made by pupils in each
school compared with other schools. However, a number of problems and issues have
emerged concerning the use of centrally produced National Curriculum tests, and the
use of GCSE and A-level results in the form of ‘league tables’ to monitor standards and
make judgements about relative school effectiveness (Gardner, 2006).

Value-added and baseline assessments
One major problem that has been highlighted in respect of using league tables based
solely on giving the final level of attainment of each pupil is that such tables do not
provide a fair indicator of a teacher’s or a school’s effectiveness; rather, what needs to
be considered is each pupil’s progress. ‘Value-added’ refers to the difference between a

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pupil’s initial level of attainment and their ﬁnal level of attainment. It is argued that
by taking account of pupils’ prior levels of attainment, we can see whether a teacher
or school is performing better or worse than one would have expected. Such an initial
assessment is called a ‘baseline assessment’.
Many primary and secondary schools carry out baseline assessments for each new intake
of pupils in the areas of language and literacy, mathematics, and personal and social
development, based on the class teacher’s observations of a range of classroom activities
during pupils’ first few months at the school or by making use of standardised tests
developed for this purpose.
The use of data on pupils’ initial levels of attainment, whether based on teacher
assessments, standardised tests, or the results of National Curriculum tests, together
with information about the general socio-economic circumstances of the pupils, allows
comparisons to be made between teachers and schools based on measures of valueadded. Nationally produced tables of pupil progress and attainment at each school now
include information about value-added.

Skills in assessing pupils’ progress
The importance of developing skills in the ability to assess pupils is recognised by its
inclusion in various lists of the skills expected of teachers. For example, the TDA (2007)
QTS standards include several elements regarding assessment by teachers:
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knowledge of the assessment requirements for the subjects/curriculum areas and age
ranges they teach
knowledge of a range of approaches to assessment, including the importance of
formative assessment
knowledge of how to use local and national statistical information to evaluate the
effectiveness of their own teaching, to monitor their pupils’ progress, and to raise their
pupils’ levels of attainment
making use of a range of assessment, monitoring and recording strategies
assessing the learning needs of pupils in order to set challenging learning objectives
providing timely, accurate and constructive feedback on pupils’ attainment, progress
and areas for development.

Records of achievement
One of the criticisms of assessment made for many years was that pupils were often
awarded a single mark or grade to indicate their attainment, and that this provided very
little useful information to pupils and others (including parents, employers, and
university admissions tutors). As a result, a major development in assessment practice
over the years has been the introduction of ways in which a much fuller record of pupils’
progress in a school could be recorded, including both academic and non-academic
aspects.
This includes the introduction of documents that provide the pupil with a record of
their achievements whilst at the school. These are typically given to pupils when they


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reach school-leaving age, and aim to include as full a range of their achievements during
their school careers as possible, both academic and non-academic. A number of primary
schools also produce such records. However, evaluation studies have indicated that
teachers need to develop a host of new assessment practices and procedures, and to
operate these skilfully, for these documents to be produced efﬁciently and with validity.

Portfolios of pupils’ work
Another major development in assessment practice has been the need for teachers to
build up a portfolio of pupils’ work to exemplify certain standards, in order to assist
teachers in their monitoring of pupils’ progress and also to enable them to make reliable
and valid judgements in any assessments they carry out. To foster this, a number of
documents and materials have been produced for teachers to help improve consistency
in teacher assessment by providing examples of standards of pupil work and
performance at different levels and grades.

Assessment activities in the classroom
As discussed earlier, assessment activities are going on in schools all the time, ranging
from asking pupils questions during classwork, to administering a formal written
examination. In carrying out assessment activities, you need to be clear about the main
purpose or purposes of the assessment and the type of assessment you want to use, as
has been considered so far in this chapter. After this, you are then ready to think about
how best to select, design and carry out the appropriate assessment activities themselves.
The main assessment activities in use in the classroom are:
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monitoring classwork activities
designated assessment tasks integrated within classwork
homework

You should use a wide range of assessment activities

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●
●
●
●


assessment tests designed by the teacher
standardised tests
National Curriculum tests
formal examinations.

Monitoring classwork activities
Monitoring classwork activities is a central aspect of teaching, and is bound up with
your decision-making about the progress of the lesson and the feedback you give to
pupils to facilitate their learning. The most important aspects of such assessment are
that you ensure that you regularly monitor the progress of all pupils (not just those who
frequently demand or require more attention). Furthermore, your monitoring should
be investigative and active, in the sense that you actively probe pupils’ current
understanding and difficulties rather than simply rely on this being drawn to your
attention in some way. Many forms of assessment in common use now involve teachers
monitoring pupil performance during classwork.

Designated assessment tasks integrated within classwork
There is a thin line between monitoring classwork activities and using designated
assessment tasks integrated within classwork. Some activities that need to be assessed
occur in classwork on a regular basis, whereas others need to be specifically designed
and introduced for the purpose of the assessment. The latter is often the case if it is
important for the task to be carefully standardised and assessed in terms of specific
criteria that require close attention. In either case, however, you need to consider
whether you should forewarn pupils that a particular assessment activity is to take place
and indicate its purpose and use. Skilful assessment of pupils’ progress in meeting the
National Curriculum attainment targets depends very much on how well assessment
tasks are integrated within classwork without disrupting or interfering unduly with
the progress of learning.
As the range of activities within the classroom increases, so the range of assessment skills
teachers need to develop also increases. For example, the skills needed to give formative
assessment for a PowerPoint presentation and the skills needed to then assess the final
product will be quite new for a teacher who has not taught and assessed such work
before. A study by Postholm (2006) looked at the skills involved in the ways in which
teachers can monitor and support pupils undertaking project work, encourage and help
pupils to assess their own work and the work of other pupils, and in discussion with the
pupil explain how the final grade for the finished piece of work was arrived at and
justified. In particular, Postholm focused on the quality of the dialogue between the
teacher and pupil, to illustrate how the teacher was able to help foster pupils’ learning
during the ongoing assessment of the project work they were undertaking.

Homework
The use of homework tasks is very important in providing feedback on how well a pupil
can perform when unaided. Homework is particularly useful in developing pupils’
organisational skills and power of commitment to meet the demands made on them.


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It can also provide stark feedback to the pupil and to you on the nature of any difficulties
or problems that arise which are less evident in the class where you may be readily
available to provide help. Unfortunately, in this respect, parental help is useful in
providing further tuition, but unhelpful if it readily enables the pupil to enlist assistance
rather than persevere with their own efforts. Parental help has also posed problems for
the assessment of independent project work done partly or largely at home, and much
such work now has to be based solely on classwork activity.
It is common for homework to be used to assess pupils’ previous learning in lessons,
and often involves consolidation and practice-type tasks, or preparing for a test by
revising. However, it is also important to use homework to good effect by encouraging
new learning. This involves not simply the learning of new material, but also creative
investigation and application of the topic area to life outside the school (e.g. listing
cubes, spheres and cylinders that can be found in the pupil’s living room, or exploring
the earliest recollections of the pupil’s parents about when they first went to school).

Assessment tests designed by the teacher
Short tests devised by you can motivate learning in preparation for the test, and provide
a formal note of attainment in the test. Regular tests can be particularly useful in
conveying the importance of making progress with new learning, but can also be very
threatening. As such, they have to be used with sensitivity and in a way that will facilitate
rather than discourage learning. Short tests vary immensely in type and form, ranging
from a spelling test based on homework, to an end-of-course or topic test used to assess
academic progress.

Standardised tests
Standardised tests are widely used to monitor progress and attainment in key areas of
learning. Such tests are standardised by being given to a large number of pupils of a
specific age (usually a nationwide sample), so that the score of pupils who are well above
average, average, and well below average can be identified. Standardised tests are thus
norm-referenced tests. Thereafter, when a pupil takes this test, it is easy to see how well
they have performed on the test relative to an average pupil of the same age. Intelligence
tests are standardised tests. The most commonly used standardised test in learning is
for reading, where a pupil’s score is normally given in terms of a reading age. For
example, if a 10-year-old pupil takes the test and achieves a reading age of 12, that
indicates that the pupil’s reading level is comparable to the reading level of an average
12-year-old.
A range of other standardised tests in learning include language tasks, mathematics,
and tests used as part of screening procedures to identify pupils who may have special
educational needs. Such tests are useful in enabling the teacher to compare the result
with that expected for a pupil of that age. In using standardised tests, however, you must
be alert to their appropriateness for the use you are making of them. In particular, a
dated test may well include words, formats or tasks that are no longer commonly used.
A mathematics test may explore attainment based on a different coverage or approach
to the one your pupils have experienced. In addition, a test result, of course, can only
be based on what was tested, which means that other aspects of performance which may

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be difﬁcult to test are largely excluded. Given the increasing diversity of learning skills
and qualities being fostered in schools, written tests in particular are likely to be
inadequate as the major or sole assessment activity used to measure attainment.

National Curriculum tests
National Curriculum tests are designed to test whether a pupil can perform as described
in terms of the levels of the National Curriculum attainment targets. Such tests are thus
criterion-referenced tests.

Formal examinations
Formal examinations devised by the school are a common feature of school life. The
formality varies from classroom-based examinations designed and administered by the
class teacher at an appropriate time, to examinations designed in collaboration and
administered as part of an examination timetable. As well as providing a useful measure
of attainment to be used in school reports, they also help pupils to develop examination
skills and techniques which prepare pupils for externally set tests and examinations.

Making use of local and national data on pupil attainment for
target setting
Data are available to enable teachers and schools to compare pupil attainment in their
own class and school with the standards of pupil attainment achieved locally and
nationally. They can also do this in a way that enables them to make comparisons with
those schools that have a similar intake of pupils (in terms of their range of ability and
the type of community catchment they serve). Such comparisons enable teachers and
schools to set sensible targets for raising standards.

Carrying out assessment activities
In carrying out assessment activities, a number of important points need to be borne
in mind:
●

●

●

●

The assessment activity must be a fair one, in the sense of relating to the work
covered, so that pupils can be reasonably expected to perform well on the activity if
progress has been made during the appropriate coursework.
The assessment activity should relate to the learning outcomes planned by the school,
which may be documented in terms of appropriate aspects of the National Curriculum
or as part of a particular course of study detailing syllabus, content and assessment
criteria to be achieved.
The programme of assessment activities used over a long period should be varied in
type and form so that the full range of learning outcomes intended are assessed, and
assessed in different ways.
Pupils should be informed about the nature and purpose of assessment activities, how
they are used, and the criteria employed that characterise successful performance.


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Assessment activities should be conducted in a manner that facilitates performance, by taking place in appropriate circumstances and, in particular, avoiding
disruptions and, so far as possible, minimising pupils’ anxieties.
Assessment activities should be carefully designed to ensure that tasks are
unambiguous and the type and nature of performance expected is clear to pupils.
Most importantly of all, you need to ensure that the assessment activity actually
assesses validly what it is intended to assess.

Skills underlying assessment
Three examples will suffice to illustrate the complex skills needed to carry out
assessment activities effectively. The first example concerns designing a multiple-choice
test in science. Consider the following question:
●

In very cold weather, pipes sometimes burst because:
(a) Water expands when it freezes.
(b) Ice is harder than water.
(c) Unlagged pipes always burst.
(d) Cold water softens pipes.

In designing this item, the teacher needs to check that the question is clear and
appropriate, and that the four options will effectively discriminate between pupils who
have the understanding being tested from those who do not. You also need to consider
whether this test item is a good example of the particular learning outcome being
assessed: knowledge, understanding, ability to relate science to real-life applications,
appreciation of the nature of cause and effect, or whatever.
A second example comes from a document to be completed by secondary school pupils
taking part in a paired-reading scheme at a primary school as a component of a
community studies course (paired reading involves the older pupil listening to the younger
pupil’s reading). The following section appears within the self-assessment section:
●

When you have finished your module, we would like you to give a summary of your
experience (please ring round the words to answer the questions).
(a) Do you think the help you gave in reading was:
useless, easy, exciting, useful, dull, enjoyable, difficult?
(b) Do you think your attitude and behaviour was:
responsible, unhelpful, helpful, wasting time?
(c) Do you feel proud that you have done your best?
yes, no, not sure
(d) Would you like to do this type of thing again?
yes, no, not sure

In designing this assessment activity, the teacher clearly needs to think about its purpose,
whether it will do what it is intended to do effectively, and how it will be used. In
particular, were the pupils involved in the design of this self-assessment section and
informed of its purpose and use, and how will it be related to other evidence of their
performance?

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The third example is asking a class of junior school age pupils to write a short story
about someone who fell into a river. Such a task could be used to assess a whole range
of aspects on progress in writing, including technical aspects such as handwriting,
grammar, punctuation and use of capital letters, and aspects of its content, such as
creativity, use of ideas, and intelligibility to the reader. Because the same assessment
task can be used for different areas of evaluation, it is often important to indicate to
pupils which aspect is being assessed. Thus, for example, you could tell pupils to try
and make the story as imaginative as possible, as this is the aspect you are assessing
(hence a very imaginative story should still get a high mark even if there are technical
shortcomings).
It will be evident from consideration of these three examples that carrying out
assessment activities involves a whole range of skills regarding selection, design,
implementation, match of activity to purpose, marking procedures, feedback, and
appropriate and valid use of the results of the assessment.

Marking, recording and reporting
A number of studies and reports concerning assessment practices in primary and
secondary schools have highlighted the importance of sound and appropriate practice
regarding the marking of pupils’ work and the recording and reporting of pupils’
progress (Tanner, 2003). The way in which pupils’ work is marked, recorded and
reported has a major impact on pupils’ subsequent motivation and the effort and
strategies they use regarding further learning. As such, the skills displayed by a teacher
in this area are of crucial importance.

Marking classwork and homework
The marking of pupils’ work during and after lessons needs to be thorough and
constructive, and the work should be returned in good time. Good practice in marking
acts as an important model for pupils in setting them an example of the care and
attention that needs to be devoted towards academic tasks, and can thereby maintain
a high expectation for the standard of work required. The formative aspect of marking
is of fundamental importance to effective teaching and learning. Feedback that enables
the pupil to make further progress by understanding more clearly what needs to be done
can enhance motivation and self-conﬁdence. For example, receiving a low mark for the
imaginative quality of an essay or for a description of an experimental procedure without
any guidance as to how the work could have been improved, will tend to dishearten.
Constructive and helpful guidance on how a better piece of work could have been
produced will help stimulate further progress.
The marking of pupils’ work completed as part of classwork and homework tasks is
simply an extension of the normal process of teaching and learning. The major
challenge facing you in marking pupils’ work is how to be helpful and encouraging
for the whole range of attainment in the class. The main problem is that normreferenced marking, based on comparing the work of pupils with each other, will tend
to discourage the lower attainers. Most teachers therefore try to make greater use of


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marking related to attainment standards expected of each pupil, taking account of
previous progress. In this respect, good use can be made of tasks that are more clearly
matched to each pupil’s ability or using tasks which are graded in terms of increasing
difficulty. In addition, you may decide to keep the written record of marks in your own
record books but not report these to pupils. Instead, your feedback to pupils will take
the form of comments about the work, and areas of improvement that are required. It
is also important to give feedback about effort, if you feel a pupil has done less well or
better than expected as a result of their efforts.
It is also helpful to make use of a variety of marking methods, including allowing pupils
to mark their own work or each other’s from time to time. In addition, marks over a
period of time should be based on a variety of assessment activities to ensure that the
run of marks reflects different aspects of attainment. The most important function of
marking to bear in mind is that it should provide helpful and encouraging feedback to
pupils about their progress. In part this may involve helping pupils to think about their
study skills and how they organise their work so that they can better prepare for such
assessment tasks in future.
The importance of developing the skills involved in assessing pupils’ work is highlighted
in a study by Smith and Gorard (2005). The increasing advocacy of the positive impact
of formative assessment on pupils’ learning has led many schools to place much greater
emphasis on providing pupils with more detailed formative feedback on their work.
One school studied by Smith and Gorard sought to take this one step further by
exploring whether giving pupils formative feedback without an overall grade or mark
would be more effective in promoting pupil attainment. Smith and Gorard found that
the use of the ‘formative feedback only’ approach showed no evidence of being more
effective, and in some areas of the data on pupil attainment appeared to be less effective.
However, what was perhaps most evident from the study were apparent shortcomings
in the quality of the formative feedback given at this school. The study highlights how
a school cannot simply take what is advocated to be good practice ‘off the shelf’ and
apply it at their own school; rather the teachers involved have to develop the necessary
understanding and skills underpinning the practice being adopted.

Marking formal assessment tasks
As well as marking classwork and homework, you will also be marking a whole range
of formal assessment tasks, including tests and examinations. The skills involved in such
marking have become increasingly complex with the growth of more detailed marking
practices. Performance in a subject or area of the curriculum is now typically divided
into a number of components or elements, and the marking scheme is devised so that
the mark awarded on a particular aspect of performance is clearly related to the
component or element being assessed. This enables attainment to be recorded in terms
of a profile of components rather than as an overall single mark or grade, or if the latter
is the case, the single mark or grade is based on a specified weighting of the different
components involved. For example, assessing a practical project might involve making
a separate assessment on each of three stages involved: (i) planning the project, (ii)
carrying out the project and analysing the data collected, and (iii) drawing conclusions.

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The marking of formal tasks thus involves careful consideration, not so much of the
correctness of the pupil’s performance, but rather a judgement of what the quality of
the performance indicates. The National Curriculum specifies for each subject area a
number of attainment targets, which together make up the knowledge, understanding
and skills that constitute increasing educational attainment. Each attainment target is
divided into a number of levels to represent increasing attainment. Designing and
marking the associated assessment tasks thus requires a clear appreciation of how
performance relates to a specific level of attainment on the attainment target being
assessed.
Thus, for example, the statement of attainment in science for a particular attainment
target at a particular level might require pupils to be able to measure variations in living
organisms. The task used to measure this must carefully take account of what precise
type of pupil performance would exemplify this statement. To achieve this, the task
needs to reflect a clear understanding of what the statement means and how it relates
to this particular attainment target at the specified level; it also needs to incorporate a
mark scheme for performance that is fair, reliable, valid and practical.

Marking personal qualities and attitudes
The assessment of personal qualities and attitudes has always posed problems of
reliability and validity. Whilst most teachers form impressionistic judgements about
personal qualities and attitudes, some forms of assessment, such as Records of
Achievement, have demanded that teachers’ judgements be based on performance
related to particular tasks where a fair opportunity to display particular qualities or
attitudes (such as acting responsibly, showing initiative, working conscientiously when
unsupervised) can be given. Again, it is important to prepare pupils for such assessment
and to discuss with them what is expected, and how marks or grades are achieved.

Recording pupils’ progress
The need for teachers to keep good records of pupils’ progress has been emphasised
frequently by Ofsted in their inspections of schools. However, it is also important to
recognise that the usefulness of keeping records is dependent on the extent to which the
records are in fact used. Keeping records that are much too detailed or in a form that
serves little purpose will not be a good use of your time.
Keeping a good record of pupils’ progress should serve three main functions:
●

●

●

It should provide a useful basis from which reports to others (e.g. the pupils
themselves, parents, other teachers, other establishments) can be made.
It should highlight any cause for concern if a pupil’s performance shows a marked drop
compared with previous progress.
It should facilitate the planning of future work with each pupil by building upon
previous progress and, in particular, by ensuring that progress is adequate in its breadth
and depth of coverage and that areas requiring remedial work receive attention.


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Keep thorough records of your pupils’ progress

In addition, such records can usefully contribute to the school’s general decision-making
about its own effectiveness and coverage of the programmes of study. In this respect,
notes about the work covered, including samples of pupils’ work and test scores, can
help to ensure that the curriculum provided each year matches pupils’ needs and
abilities adequately.

Reporting pupils’ progress
Feedback to pupils about their progress is of immense importance in contributing to
motivation and further progress, as has been noted already. However, you also need
to report on pupils’ progress on a regular basis to parents and carers, both in the form
of written reports and during meetings with them.
Written reports to parents have been the subject of much debate. On the one hand
parents typically complain that they would like to receive reports more frequently, in
more detail, and for reports to be more meaningful. On the other hand, teachers
complain that producing such reports is very time-consuming and involves a number
of problems that are not easy to resolve. For example, there is a tension between giving
honest reports and avoiding demoralising pupils or parents if the comments are critical
or reﬂect low attainment; in addition, it is difﬁcult to summarise performance in a way
that is concise but which parents can easily understand.
Writing reports that are fair, valid, meaningful to the reader, and have a positive effect
on future progress involves a number of skills. As well as making good use of your
knowledge about each pupil and your records of progress, you need to make comments
that are helpful and constructive. Where you need to be critical, this should usefully
point to what needs to be done in future to improve matters. In addition, school reports
need to adhere to relevant national guidance on their content and format.

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Further reading
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B. and Wiliam, D. (2003) Assessment for Learning:
Putting it into Practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press. An excellent overview of the
‘assessment for learning’ approach.
Gardner, J. (ed.) (2006) Assessment and Learning. London: Sage. An excellent analysis of the issues
involved in considering how the ‘assessment for learning’ approach can contribute to improved
classroom practice.
Tanner, H. (2003) Marking and Assessment. London: Continuum. This book offers a succinct
and helpful overview of key issues concerning assessment and offers advice on how best to address
these.
Weeden, P., Winter, J. and Broadfoot, P. (2002) Assessment: What’s in it for Schools? London:
RoutledgeFalmer. An excellent analysis of the skills that underpin effective assessment linked
with the promotion of pupils’ learning.

Key questions about your assessment
of pupils’ progress
1 Do I make use of an appropriate variety of assessment activities?
2 Do I make use of the various purposes for assessment, including both formative and
summative purposes and also as means of monitoring the success of my own
teaching and further planning?
3 Do I ensure that each assessment activity is well tailored to the purpose for which
it is intended?
4 Is my marking of assessment tasks and feedback to pupils sufficiently speedy,
thorough, constructive and helpful, so as to foster and sustain pupils’ motivation
and self-conﬁdence and facilitate further progress?
5 Do I help pupils to prepare for assessment tasks so as to enable them to achieve
success by having a clear understanding of the expectations required and how these
can best be achieved?
6 Are the assessment activities I use fair in terms of being well matched to the work
covered and to pupils’ abilities, and in terms of being valid indicators of the learning
outcomes being monitored?
7 Are the assessment activities carried out in a way that will facilitate achievement?
8 Do I help develop pupils’ ability to evaluate their own progress through the use of
self-assessment activities?
9 Are my records of pupils’ progress based on a variety of types of assessment activities
and different aspects of performance, and are they well suited to the purposes for
which the records are kept?
10 Are my reports to parents, and others, fair and informative?

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8 Reflection and evaluation
All teachers spend a great deal of time reflecting on and evaluating how well they are
performing, both with particular regard to their classroom teaching and to other aspects
of their work in general. Reflection and evaluation are inherent in the job and are an
essential part of developing your teaching skills (Bubb, 2004; Jacklin et al., 2006; Leach,
2006). Indeed, the TDA (2007) QTS standards highlight the importance of student
teachers being able to:
●

●

●

evaluate the impact of their teaching on the progress of all pupils, and modify their
planning and classroom practice where necessary
reflect on and improve their practice and take responsibility for identifying and meeting
their developing professional needs
identify priorities for their early professional development in the context of induction.

It is impossible to meet the various demands of teaching without planning, organising
and evaluating the activities you carry out. What differs between teachers, however, is
how skilfully and systematically they carry this out.
Over the years, this quality of critically thinking about your own performance in the
classroom, often referred to as ‘reflective teaching’ (Pollard et al., 2005), has been widely
advocated as needing to be fostered and encouraged as part of teachers’ normal practice
and professional development.
All teachers do this in an intuitive and ad hoc way most of the time. However, some
teachers have also been involved in more systematic self-appraisal processes, either as
part of a specific scheme of self-evaluation within the school, or as part of a network
of teachers who have been involved in researching aspects of their own practice within
the teacher action research movement (Costello, 2003; Koshy, 2005).
Working with other teachers as part of a learning community is increasingly recognised
as being a powerful and effective way of enabling teachers to reflect upon and develop
their classroom practice. Indeed, the TDA (2007) QTS standards highlight the
importance of student teachers being able to:
●

●
●
●

●

have a creative and constructively critical approach towards innovation, being prepared
to adapt their practice where benefits and improvements are identified
have a commitment to collaboration and co-operative working
act upon advice and feedback and be open to coaching and mentoring
work as a team member and identify opportunities for working with colleagues,
sharing the development of effective practice with them
ensure that colleagues working with them are appropriately involved in supporting
learning and understand the roles they are expected to fulfil.

In addition, the establishment of formal schemes of teacher appraisal (Jones et al., 2006;
Middlewood and Cardno, 2001) and the publication of guidance for schools on how
school inspectors evaluate the quality of classroom teaching, have contributed to the

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extent to which teachers are engaged in regularly and systematically reflecting on their
own classroom practice.
Teachers also need to continuously update and develop their understanding of subject
matter, and how these can be taught in the classroom, as well as their knowledge and
understanding of how pupils learn and develop, and how pupil learning can be affected
by a variety of developmental, social, religious, ethnic, cultural and linguistic influences.
Whilst some initial grounding in these areas will be established during initial teacher
training, as noted by their inclusion in the TDA (2007) QTS standards, these need to
be revisited in the light of new research findings, as well as in the light of changes in
policies.
For example, the Every Child Matters agenda (Cheminais, 2006; DfES, 2004b) has
placed new requirements on teachers to update their understanding of:
●
●

●

the legal requirements and policy concerning the well-being of pupils
how best to support pupils whose progress, development and well-being is affected
by changes or difficulties in their personal circumstances
when to refer pupils to colleagues for specialist support.

Whilst these requirements are reflected in the TDA (2007) QTS standards, they also
have important implications for the development of new practice amongst established
teachers.

Self-evaluation
There are two key aspects of self-evaluation. First, what aspects of your teaching need
to be considered in order to improve your future practice? Second, how can you best go
about improving your practice in the area that could usefully be developed? The first
aspect thus involves setting yourself, or being set by others, an agenda about classroom
teaching to consider, and then collecting some data that will enable you, or others, to
judge the area that could usefully be developed. The second aspect deals with the
programme for development.

Setting an agenda for classroom teaching
The initial agenda for your classroom teaching can be set in a number of ways. Studies
of teacher self-evaluation indicate that most teachers tend to take as their starting
point some problem that they are concerned about, rather than attempt to formally review
their teaching as a whole. For example, a teacher may feel that they ought to make greater
use of group-work activities, or that coursework activities need to be more clearly
planned, or that too many pupils in the class become restless and inattentive during
lessons. Such concerns may lead the teacher to explore carefully their own current
practice with a view to considering how best to improve future practice. This process
would constitute the first part of a teacher action research strategy, which would then
lead on to devising a solution to improve practice, implementing the solution, and then
evaluating its success.

REFLECTION AND EVALUATION

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Teachers who attempt to review their teaching as a whole are usually involved in a
formal scheme of some sort, in which a checklist of questions about current practice
or a set of rating scales are used. For example, the following list of statements is fairly
typical as a means of stimulating a teacher’s reflections on their current classroom
practice. The teachers are asked to rate themselves on each statement as either ‘I am
happy with this aspect of my teaching’ or ‘I think I could usefully look at this aspect
further’. The statements are:
●
●

●

●

●
●

●
●

●
●
●

I plan my lessons well, with clear aims and a suitable lesson content and structure.
I prepare the materials needed for the lessons, such as worksheets and apparatus, in
good time.
My explanations and instructions are clear and pitched at the right level for pupils to
understand.
I distribute questions around the classroom well and use both open and closed
questions.
I use a variety of learning activities.
My lessons are suitable for the range of ability of pupils in the class (able, average,
less able).
I maintain a level of control and order that is conducive for learning to occur.
I monitor pupils’ learning closely during the lesson and give help to those having
difficulties.
I mark work, including homework, thoroughly, constructively and in good time.
I have good relationships with pupils based on mutual respect and rapport.
My subject expertise is fine for the work I do.

In order to help ensure that teachers are honest in using this list of statements, they
are told that it is for their personal use, simply to help them think about which areas
of their classroom teaching they might like to focus on as part of the self-evaluation or
teacher appraisal process. It is useful to note that the second rating category is carefully
worded so that it does not imply that by wanting to look at this aspect further, your
current practice is unsatisfactory. This is essential, since the need for change in your
teaching often has nothing to do with your current practice being weak, nor does it
mean your previous practice was wrong. Not appreciating this point has caused many
teachers faced with the need to change much unnecessary anguish.

Rating scales
As well as such checklists, many teachers have made use of more sophisticated rating
scales in the role of appraiser when observing the teaching of a colleague. Such
classroom observation instruments vary greatly in format and content, and in particular
whether the rating scale is norm-referenced (e.g. above average, average, below average)
or criterion-referenced (i.e. describes the behaviour indicative of each category on the
rating scale), or a judgemental and ambiguous mixture of both (e.g. outstanding, good,
average, poor).
There is no definitive description of what constitutes effective teaching, as was noted in
Chapter 1. Therefore a whole variety of different classroom observation instruments

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have been used to explore classroom practice, including those devised by government
agencies, researchers, teacher trainers, and schools. The ways in which such observation
schedules have been used have also varied. At one extreme are observers who maintain
a detached stance by sitting at the back of the classroom for the whole lesson, whilst at
the other extreme are those who frequently circulate around the room at appropriate
times, talk to pupils, look at pupils’ work, and even assist with the lesson when possible.
What is of crucial importance in the use of such rating scales is that they lead to an
informative and constructive dialogue between the observer and the observed that helps
to stimulate the quality of the latter’s thinking about their own classroom practice.

Using an agreed list of teaching skills
Over the years, many attempts have been made by government agencies to clearly define
the teaching skills that should be developed during the course of initial teacher training,
and which should then develop further during a teacher’s career supported by
appropriate in-service education and other professional development activities.
Unfortunately the main problem with such attempts is that they tend to emphasise
the summative assessment aspects of teaching skills rather than the formative aspects,
thereby implying that the main aim of teacher appraisal and school inspection is to
identify weaknesses that need development. As was noted earlier, however, the need
of most teachers to develop their classroom practice is more to do with the requirement
to meet new demands stemming from changes in the curriculum and patterns of
teaching, learning and assessment, than to correct weaknesses. Teacher appraisal
and school inspection schemes need to emphasise the formative aspects of appraisal and
provide a supportive ethos that will foster and encourage teachers’ own reflection and
evaluation about their classroom teaching if such schemes are to facilitate teachers’
efforts to monitor and develop their own classroom practice.

Portfolios and profiles
One of the means by which teacher training courses aim to encourage student teachers
to reflect regularly on their classroom practice is to require them to build up a portfolio
of their teaching based on their lesson plans, their notes on how the lessons went, and
feedback from observation of their lessons by course tutors and school mentors. Some
teacher training courses also make use of a variety of profiling documents to comment
on individual lessons and to record student teachers’ progress during the training course,
both with respect to the general classroom teaching and to more specific aspects, such
as the use of a profiling document to record students’ development of skills in the use
of information technology.

Induction as a newly qualified teacher
One of the benefits of building up a portfolio and having a profile of one’s skills at the
end of initial teacher training is that such documents can form a very useful basis from
which to consider your professional development needs during the first few years as a
qualified teacher. Indeed, many schools have a well-established programme to support


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newly qualified teachers during their first year of appointment (the induction year),
in which opportunities to review their progress and their development needs are
provided. This is coupled with having another teacher in the school formally appointed
to be your mentor, and to whom you can go for advice and guidance. The career entry
and development proﬁle completed at the end of the initial teacher training programme
is designed to help make the induction year programme more effective.
Research on the experience of beginning teachers during the induction year has
highlighted the importance of the quality of mentoring that new teachers receive to
enable their conﬁdence and teaching skills to develop. A study by Kyriacou and Kunc
(2007) tracked a group of beginning teachers over a three-year period, covering their
PGCE year and their first two years in post. The quality of mentoring they received
in schools had a major impact on the progress they felt they made in the development
of their teaching skills.

Becoming an expert teacher
The growth of expertise in classroom teaching is clearly crucial for your professional
growth and for the effectiveness of the whole school system. Much attention has
consequently been paid to how teachers can be helped to develop and extend their
teaching skills and to meet the demands for changes in their classroom practice that
must inevitably occur from time to time. Unfortunately, as teachers develop greater
expertise, they are also likely to gain promotion to posts that involve more administrative
work and less classroom teaching, with the result that some of the best classroom
teachers gradually do less teaching as their careers develop. One way of mitigating this
is to establish a grade of expert teacher, which enables a teacher to gain a promoted post
(with additional pay) whilst retaining a full classroom teaching load.
The establishment by the DfES of ‘threshold’ standards for experienced teachers seeks
to recognise and reward the development of teacher expertise and the significant
contribution that such teachers make to the school through the quality of their teaching
and the wider role they play in the work of the school. The threshold standards cover:
●
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●
●
●

knowledge and understanding
teaching and assessment
pupil progress
wider professional effectiveness
professional characteristics.

The threshold standards add to the QTS standards and the induction standards.
Meeting the threshold standards enables teachers to earn a consolidated pay increase
and to have access to further points on their pay scale.
The DfES has also established two further sets of standards: one for the ‘advanced skills
teacher’ and the other for the grade of ‘excellent teacher’. Teachers awarded these two
grades are expected to take a leading role in the development of the classroom practice
of teachers at their own and at other schools. The threshold standards, the advanced
skills teacher standards, and the excellent teacher standards, all require the teacher to
provide evidence that their teaching has led to higher pupil attainment.

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Defining the skills of an expert teacher, however, has been particularly problematic
(Berliner, 1995). It is easy to assume that expert teachers are simply teachers who display
the same range of skills as ‘competent’ teachers, only more so. However, research on
the differences between expert teachers and other teachers reveals that expert teachers
appear to have additional qualities that go beyond those displayed by other teachers.
These additional qualities seem to be:
●
●

●

●

a commitment to their work that goes well beyond the call of duty
some degree of charisma that flows from the quality of their interest in the work
they do and in the pupils they teach
an insightful grasp of the essence of what needs to be learned and how best to get
pupils from where they are now to where they need to be
an insightful ability to anticipate problems and to intervene effectively when problems
do occur so that pupils’ learning can progress smoothly.

Responding to new pedagogies
All teachers need to develop new skills in response to changes in pedagogy.
Developments such as the National Strategies (Webb, 2006), the extension of inclusive
education (Avramidis, 2006) and new ICT technologies (Gillespie, 2006) have all had
a major impact on how teachers teach, giving rise to ‘new pedagogies’. This has
highlighted the importance of teachers’ ability to reflect upon their professional
development needs and to take the action needed to develop new teaching skills in
response to the new pedagogies. MacBeath (2006) notes that school inspections by
Ofsted now place much greater emphasis on the role played by school and teacher selfevaluation in contributing to the development of those teaching skills that underpin
high-quality teaching in response to new pedagogies.
The TDA (2007) QTS standards acknowledge the importance of student teachers
needing to have a secure knowledge and understanding of their subjects/curriculum
area, and related pedagogy within the context of the relevant curricula frameworks. Such
knowledge and understanding, however, needs to be continually developed and
updated. For example, the incorporation of the Every Child Matters agenda into the
QTS standards is reﬂected by the requirement that student teachers need to be aware
of issues concerning the safeguarding and promotion of pupils’ well-being.

Collecting data about your current practice
Whatever the circumstances are in which you come to appraise your classroom teaching,
whether self-initiated or as part of a formal scheme of appraisal, and whether using a
list of teaching skills and some type of observation schedule or not, you will need to
consider detailed information about aspects of your teaching if you are to base your
plans for further development on a systematic analysis of your current practice.
Collecting and receiving such feedback is the area we turn to next.
During a period when there are major changes in the curriculum relating to patterns
of teaching, learning and assessment, it will be relatively clear from the new demands


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Collect as much information as you can about your classroom practice

made on you what areas of your current practice will need to be developed. It may be
that as a primary school teacher you will need to develop your teaching of science or
history topics, or as a secondary school teacher to develop your teaching of
investigational work in mathematics or assessment of coursework tasks in English.
However, it is just as important during periods when major changes are not taking place
in the curriculum, for you to be able to undertake self-initiated reflection on your current
practice, with a view to thinking about aspects of your teaching which you are broadly
happy with but which nevertheless might usefully merit attention. It is in exploring your
current practice during such periods when there is no obvious problem or demand for
you to change your practice, that collecting data in some way can be particularly helpful.

Methods of data collection
There are a variety of ways in which you can collect data about your current practice.
One or more of the following methods are likely to be the most useful.
●

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Writing a diary. This may be done after each lesson with a particular class or classes
or alternatively at the end of each school day. It can be particularly useful in helping
you to clarify the nature of your concerns and in noting particular incidents which are
examples of the concern.
Making a recording of your lessons. This may be done using an audiotape or a videotape.
The main advantage of such recordings is that their detail enables you to highlight
aspects of your teaching which, during the busy-ness of the actual lessons, you are
unaware of as being worthy of attention and development.
Getting feedback from a colleague observing your lessons. This is an essential feature of
formal schemes of teacher appraisal, but has also featured widely in many informal co-

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operative activities amongst teachers exploring their own practice. Feedback from an
observer appears to work best when you brief your observer about the aspect of your
teaching you want feedback on, and when such feedback is descriptive (i.e. describes
what happened) rather than judgemental. Judgemental feedback is also valuable, but
great care needs to be taken to ensure that the judgement comes from a trusted
observer, occurs in a supportive and non-threatening context, and is fair. Interestingly,
observers often claim to learn as much, if not more, about their own teaching from
observing colleagues, as from being observed themselves. Schemes that involve
teachers observing each other have thus been particularly successful in stimulating
teachers’ thinking about their own teaching.
Getting feedback from pupils. You can get useful feedback from pupils in a number of
ways. You could ask pupils to write a diary about your lessons. In some cases this has
been used to encourage pupils to reflect upon their learning experiences linked to a
personal and social education programme or records of achievement. You could ask
pupils to complete a questionnaire about your lessons, which explores aspects of your
teaching and their experience of learning. You could interview pupils individually, or
in groups, or hold a class discussion. Studies that have looked at teachers’ use of
feedback from pupils to evaluate their teaching have invariably found that such feedback
is very valuable and of high quality, and that the main reluctance by many teachers to
solicit such feedback seems to be more to do with a fear that it may undermine the
authority inherent in their role rather than with concerns about its quality.

Many teachers have made use of a mixture of methods for data collection, and once you
have focused more clearly on the particular aspect of your classroom teaching you wish
to explore, the data collection can be made sharper and more specific. For example, a
year 8 class teacher in a junior school used a diary, observations and an audiotape to
explore how well pupils set about various tasks. As a result, he noticed that because he
organised the learning activities so that pupils had to complete an English or a
mathematics task before they could move on to ‘more exciting’ tasks, such as art or
project work, some pupils simply rushed the first task. Furthermore, pupils with
difficulties tended to become frustrated because they could not finish the first task in
good time. He then introduced a rotating timetable in which the first task lasted for a
specified length of time. This relieved the pressure on pupils, and on him, and the new
organisation of the activities led to an improvement in the quality of the work produced
and in the pupils’ attitudes and motivation towards the work.

Ideas for reflection
A number of writers have produced texts aimed at helping teachers to reflect upon some
aspect of their classroom practice by carrying out practical activities that will provide
some useful data with which to analyse their teaching (Neil and Morgan, 2003; Pollard
et al., 2005). Examples of areas that might be addressed in this way are:
●
●

obtaining a ‘measure’ of the classroom climate
exploring your use of classroom rules


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exploring how pupils feel about particular topics
monitoring a particular child’s curricular experiences for one week
examining tasks in terms of their learning demands
investigating question-and-answer sessions
evaluating the techniques you use to assess pupils’ progress
reviewing the motivational qualities of different activities
looking at the quality of your relationships with pupils
examining the time pupils spend on different types of activities
reviewing the work you set for the more able pupils
reviewing your use of information technology activities.

Many of these activities can be carried out by the teacher acting alone and making use
of appropriate materials, whilst others may require the assistance of colleagues. Indeed,
one interesting development in schools has been an increase in the sharing of ideas and
data about one’s own teaching with colleagues, as part of a collaborative scheme in
which teachers try to explore aspects of their own practice. Such schemes may involve
a small group of teachers at a particular school, or a small group of teachers from
different schools. In addition, many in-service workshops for teachers are now based
around the collecting and sharing of data about the development of their practice during
a specified period, lasting say one academic year, during which each teacher focuses
on and develops one particular aspect of the classroom teaching. Unlike traditional
in-service workshops, which tend to be one-off sessions involving inputs from ‘experts’,
this approach means that the development is initiated, developed and sustained over a
long enough period to have a signiﬁcant impact on each teacher’s practice. Furthermore,
the approach also makes positive use on a regular basis of the support and insight of
colleagues engaged in the same enterprise.

Making use of evidence-based classroom practice
There has been a huge increase in the number of sources of information drawing upon
the research evidence for the effectiveness of different aspects of classroom practice
(Marzano, 2003; Petty, 2006; Stronge, 2002; Thomas and Pring, 2004). These include
copies of DfES research reports which are freely available at the DfES website
(www.dfes.gov.uk) and a number of systematic reviews of research which are freely
available at the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Coordinating Centre
(EPPI-Centre) website (http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk). There are also numerous websites (e.g.
www.teachernet.gov.uk; www.ttrb.ac.uk), presentations on Teachers’ TV, and journals
and magazines aimed at teachers in which a more accessible style of writing and/or
presentation is used to present digests of research studies and their implications for
classroom practice.
In addition, a number of initiatives have been funded which involve teachers doing
research on their own practice as part of collaboration with other teachers working in
the same topic area (e.g. academic acceleration for gifted pupils; the use of numeracy
recovery programmes for pupils in Key Stage 2; the use of PowerPoint in drama lessons;
the use of extended coursework projects in History in Key Stage 3). Several studies have
indicated that such collaboration between teachers can have a very positive impact on

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the development of new skills and understanding about aspects of their classroom
practice. A study by Erickson et al. (2005) found that collaborative projects involving
teachers and teacher educators were particularly effective in enhancing the professional
development of the teachers involved and improved the learning environment in these
teachers’ classrooms. They found that such collaborative work was effective because the
work was embedded in the teachers’ actual classroom practice; the teachers were able
to share ideas in an atmosphere of trust; and the teachers also shared a precise mutual
understanding of the issues involved in the aspects of the classroom practice they were
considering.
There is now a wealth of information available to teachers, and attempts are being made
to produce channels for this flow of information in which the information available can
be vetted for quality and accuracy and highlighted in terms of its potential importance
for classroom practice.

Teacher appraisal
Teacher appraisal, as part of a formal scheme operating at your school, should take place
in a context where the aims of the scheme are explicitly stated in written guidelines issued
to all staff, together with details of the procedures to be followed in carrying out, recording
and reporting lesson observations. Such guidelines vary markedly from school to school,
and certain details of the procedures may even operate differently to some extent within
the same school, although they will need to be in line with the national framework for
teacher appraisal in schools (Jones et al., 2006; Middlewood and Cardno, 2001).

The stages of teacher appraisal
Teacher appraisal in schools involves four main stages:
●

●

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A pre-appraisal stage. In this stage, the ‘appraisee’ (the teacher being appraised) is asked
to reflect on all aspects of their work as a teacher, including, in particular, their current
classroom practice and areas of practice they may like to consider in detail or develop
in some way. This stage is likely to involve the appraisee completing a questionnaire,
which will include open-ended questions designed to encourage them to review and
reflect on their current practice and identify any concerns they have.
Classroom observation. This normally involves observation of two lessons. The selection
of the lessons to be observed will be based on prior discussion about which lessons
might be most appropriate for this, and about whether the appraiser could usefully
focus on any particular aspects of the teaching.
An appraisal interview. As part of this interview, the teacher’s classroom practice is
discussed, and any development needs in this respect are agreed and may form the
basis of targets to be met during the subsequent development cycle.
Follow-up action. If problems have been identified during the interview, action
may need to be taken by the school to help resolve these. In addition, support of some
kind may be required to help the appraisee to meet agreed development targets.


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The role of the appraiser
One of the key tasks of the appraiser is to help a colleague reflect upon and develop
their classroom teaching skills. This involves a number of important issues. First, the
relationship between the appraiser and appraisee must be based on mutual trust and
respect. The appraiser must have credibility with the appraisee and be seen as someone
whose observations and comments will be valued. The appraisal process must also be
collaborative (i.e. the appraiser and appraisee are jointly helping each other to make the
process as valuable and as worthwhile as possible).
Second, the appraiser needs to be extremely careful and sensitive in how they
communicate feedback to the appraisee. What is said must be scrupulously fair, and
only judgemental in so far as the appraiser is raising an issue for discussion. The tone
of the discussion should be one of equals comparing notes and views, and not one of
the appraiser telling the appraisee how to teach better.
Third, it is essential that teachers being appraised feel they have ownership over the
process. This means that the appraiser needs to help the appraisee reflect on their own
practice and offer useful feedback to help them do so. Carrying out this role will require
the appraiser to come to an understanding of the teacher’s thoughts about their own
teaching, their aims and intentions for a lesson, and their concerns about areas that
might usefully be looked at in detail. The extent to which the appraiser is able to convey
this may be limited by the nature of the scheme itself and how far its emphasis is clearly
formative or summative. For example, some schemes have the tone of being a
professional review, whilst others seem to have the tone of being more judgemental and
inspectorial.

Recording the results of the appraisal
Part of the appraisal process requires that an agreed record of the appraisal be drawn
up. At the very least this will be a written statement of what was agreed at the appraisal
interview in terms of the teacher’s current performance and development targets. At the
other extreme, however, some documents have included a copy of the appraisee’s initial
self-review, the appraiser’s comments on the lessons observed, and a summary of the
areas and issues covered in the appraisal interview. In some schemes the observations
of classroom teaching were recorded in the form of a profile. A typical profile comprises
three elements together with a prompt list for each, as follows:
●

●

●

Preparation. The activity was part of a properly planned programme; the aim of the
activity was clear; a suitable approach was chosen from the options available; adequate
and suitable resources were available; the learning environment had been considered.
Teaching skills. The material was well presented; the pupils were actively involved; the
teacher adapted the approach when necessary, was aware of individual needs within
the group; and displayed mastery of the subject matter.
Follow-up. Homework is set regularly (if appropriate); pupils’ work is marked and
recorded regularly; pupils receive appropriate feedback about their work; parents are
informed of pupils’ work and progress in accordance with school policy; the teacher
evaluates the success of their teaching.

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This teacher appraisal profile contains a space next to each of these three elements to
record a summary of the discussion between the appraiser and appraisee. While a
detailed listing of the major areas to be covered in an appraisal, together with their
specific constituent elements, is helpful in indicating the aspects of teaching that may
usefully receive attention, it becomes all too easy for the recording format to dictate what
is looked at. As far as classroom teaching is concerned, the elements listed can take on
a prescriptive quality and emphasise the summative aspect of appraisal. This will
undermine the sense of ownership needed for the formative purpose to be encouraged.
Fortunately, the experience of many teacher appraisal schemes indicates that a formative
approach designed to encourage self-reflection and development has been widely
employed (Jones et al., 2006; Middlewood and Cardno, 2001).

Helping teachers to develop their classroom teaching skills
In helping colleagues to develop their classroom teaching skills, it is often essential to
go beyond simply giving advice and guidance. The teachers may need a variety of
experiences and support in order to develop in a particular way. Most significantly, they
may benefit from observing colleagues in their own school or teachers in other schools,
or by taking part in workshops and courses for experienced teachers aimed at developing
specific skills and expertise.
Changes in teaching, learning and assessment practices in schools have major
implications for in-service training and the provision of new resources. To expect
teachers, for example, to be able to use the latest information technology packages, to
prepare new coursework assessment activities, to adopt new investigational tasks, clearly
requires major training support for those teachers who are not confident or do not have
sufficient current expertise in such approaches. Appraisal must not simply identify such
needs, but should also plan for how such needs can best be met.

Managing your time
There are few jobs that can compare with teaching for the variety of demands you have
to deal with: lesson planning, classroom teaching, marking, administration, dealing
with pupils’ personal problems, school-based decision-making, setting examinations,
meeting parents, collaborating with colleagues, carrying out managerial responsibilities,
helping new members of staff and student teachers, and the purchase of resources and
equipment, such as textbooks, machinery and materials. Being able to cope with such
demands efficiently and effectively will have a bearing, directly or indirectly, on the
quality of teaching and learning that takes place in your lessons.

Effective time management
You will need to develop skills that enable you to manage your time and effort to best
effect. In addition, because of the changing nature of your work as a teacher as a result
of your own career development and changes in teaching generally, you will need to
review and reflect regularly upon how well you are doing this.


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Time-management skills are essential if you are to manage your work and effort to best
effect (Brown and Ralph, 1998; Neil and Morgan, 2003). Successful time management
involves a number of important elements.
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Be aware of your time. You need to think about how much time you spend on particular
demands, and decide whether this needs to be altered. For example, you may be
spending too much time planning and preparing lessons to the point where you are
‘gilding the lily’. Analysis may reveal that you could reduce planning time without any
noticeable loss of quality. You may also be able to improve on the efficiency of your
planning by, for example, making greater use of lesson plans given previously or by
planning a course of lessons at the same time rather than individually.
Prioritise. You have to decide in which order to undertake various tasks, taking account
of their importance and urgency. The more important a task is, the more you should
budget time to carry it out well in advance of the deadline, so that you do not have
to do a rushed job under pressure at the last minute. If the task is urgent, you need
to be flexible in postponing another task that can wait. In general, you should loosely
try to meet demands in the order in which they confront you, but be able to prioritise
urgent and important tasks as and when necessary.
Plan your time. You need to think about planning your time in the short term (the
school day), the medium term (the school week), and the long term (the academic
term and year). Your planning for each time-frame ought to reflect your prioritising, so that by the end of each period the tasks with highest priority have been
completed effectively, and those with lowest priority have been slotted in as and when
appropriate. Advance planning is helpful in enabling you to prepare in good time and
make necessary arrangements or take on other commitments in the light of such
planning.
Match time to tasks. Everyone has preferences about when and how they work most
efficiently for given tasks. For example, some teachers may find that marking work
late during a weekday evening is particularly productive, whilst others may find using
some time immediately after the end of a school day works better. Organising your
time so that you can undertake particular tasks at your most efficient time for each
can help you develop regular routines that work well.
Deal with small tasks quickly. There are a number of tasks that can be dealt with in a
short period of time, either immediately or at an early opportunity. Getting such tasks
done and out of the way as soon as possible helps to keep your desk clear. Leaving
them for later often results in your finding you have several rather small tasks needing
to be done that begin to clutter up your planning, and their delay in completion may
start to cause inconvenience to yourself and others. However, be alert to the fact that
some such tasks, although small, may require more considered and careful attention,
which you may need to think through or on which you may need to consult others
before acting.

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Do not procrastinate. Once you have recognised that there is a task to be done, try
to plan when you are going to carry it out, and then do so at that time. Much time
can be wasted by thinking about starting a task on several occasions and each time
deciding to leave it for no good reason, or because it involves some unpleasantness
that you are inclined to put off.
Be realistic. You need to set yourself realistic demands, which means deciding what
quality of work you can achieve in the time available. You may be trying to achieve a
much higher quality than is really required, or carrying out a task much sooner than
is sensible. Try not to accept unrealistic deadlines from others, as often such deadlines
can easily be made more realistic.
Be able to say ‘no’. Some teachers always say ‘yes’ when asked to undertake various
tasks, and this can easily result in them becoming overloaded, and being the first to be
approached when a new task needs to be allocated. Saying ‘no’ occasionally provides
others with feedback about how busy you may be and whether or not you feel the
task is something you could usefully take on at the moment (this will help others in
the school decide how best to manage the allocation of tasks to staff as a whole).
Delegate. There are many tasks you can appropriately ask a colleague or a pupil to
undertake and, from time to time, you should review whether some of the tasks you
carry out should be delegated. For example, you could easily find yourself spending a
whole day, off and on, trying to find out something about a pupil’s circumstances that
a colleague was better placed to have found out in just a few minutes. You may also
be spending too much time on routine tasks, such as handing out books, equipment,
worksheets, collecting marks and checking progress, in ways that can be better done
by asking pupils to carry out some of these tasks.

As well as developing time management skills yourself, you should also be helping
others to do so. For example, you should help pupils become aware of how to organise
and pace their efforts in meeting deadlines within a lesson or over a longer period. In
your dealings with colleagues, you can also help them to plan how tasks that affect
you and others need to be organised so that appropriate deadlines and task allocations
are set; for example, planning that pupils do not have too many coursework deadlines
falling on the same date, or that time to mark examination work does not coincide
unnecessarily with other busy periods in the school.
Time-management skills are not a panacea that will alleviate all time pressures on you.
Nevertheless, they do have a major impact on keeping avoidable pressures to a
minimum, and helping you to maintain a high quality of performance in how you
undertake the variety of tasks facing you. Indeed, they are one of the important sets of
skills a new teacher needs to develop in the early years of teaching, and then needs to
develop further as the teacher’s role and commitments in school alter.

Dealing with stress
When teachers feel angry, depressed, anxious, nervous, frustrated or tense as a result
of some aspect of their work as teachers, this is referred to as ‘teacher stress’. Teacher


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stress has been widely discussed and researched for many years, and it appears that most
teachers experience some stress from time to time, and that a sizeable number of
teachers – about one in four – experience a great deal of stress fairly often (Hayes, C.
2006; Kyriacou, 2000). Being able to deal with the demands of teaching so that sources
of stress are minimised or dealt with effectively is another important set of skills needed
by teachers.

Sources of teacher stress
The main sources of stress facing teachers fall into ten areas:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

teaching pupils who lack motivation
maintaining discipline
time pressures and workload
coping with change
being evaluated by others
dealing with colleagues
self-esteem and status
administration and management
role conﬂict and ambiguity
poor working conditions.

How stress is triggered
The particular sources of stress experienced by individual teachers vary greatly from
teacher to teacher. However, what appears to be central to the experience of stress is
that it is triggered by the teacher’s perception that the demands made on them threaten
their self-esteem or well-being in some way.
As a teacher, there are a whole host of demands that have to be dealt with, including
disciplining pupils, getting marking done in time, explaining a pupil’s poor progress
to their parents, ﬁnding that equipment needed for a lesson is out of order. Any one
of these situations has the potential to lead to the experience of stress. What seems to
be crucial, however, is that two conditions are evident:
●

●

The teacher feels that meeting the demands made is important (i.e. failure to meet
the demands successfully may have undesirable consequences).
The teacher feels that meeting these demands successfully will be difficult or
impossible to achieve in the particular circumstances.

As a result of these two conditions, the teacher views the situation facing them as
threatening, and that immediately triggers the experience of stress. If, however, the
teacher does not view the demands as important or feels that they can easily meet the
demands, then no threat is perceived, and hence no stress is triggered. For example, if
in the middle of a lesson a pupil is rude to you, in a split second you may judge that
you are not sure how to deal with the situation, and begin to feel nervous and anxious,

136


particularly if you feel the situation may escalate. Furthermore, if you feel that by failing
to deal with the situation you may be seen by pupils, colleagues, or yourself, as having
inadequate skills in class control, this will threaten your self-esteem. Your feelings may
be particularly strong if you regard the remark as an intolerable insult, which
embarrasses you in front of the whole class. In such circumstances you will experience
stress. In contrast, if you judge the situation as one you can deal with quite easily, and
perhaps even as a rather trivial incident of little consequence, you will experience no
stress.
Thus the reason why demands that cause a great deal of stress to one teacher may cause
little stress to another teacher, lies simply in how the two teachers perceive the situation
differently in terms of its importance and their ability to deal with it.

The impact of stress on your teaching
Teacher stress may undermine the quality of your teaching in two main ways. First, if
you find teaching stressful over a long period, it may start to undermine your satisfaction
with the work, and may lead to you becoming disaffected with teaching. This is likely
to have some impact on the time and effort you are prepared to give to the quality of
your teaching. Second, when you experience stress, this can undermine the quality of
your interaction with pupils in the classroom. Effective teaching very much depends on
a positive classroom climate, and, in particular, on a good rapport with pupils, coupled
with supporting and encouraging pupils’ efforts. When you experience stress, that
generosity of spirit towards pupils, which contributes to a positive classroom climate,
can disappear, and you may react to problems and difficulties in a less well tempered
or, even worse, in an openly hostile manner. Therefore being able to deal effectively
with stress will help you to maintain a high quality of teaching.

Coping strategies
Dealing with stress successfully involves using two types of coping strategy: direct action
techniques and palliative techniques. In direct action techniques, you need to identify
what is causing you stress and why, and then decide on a course of action that will
deal successfully with that source of stress.
For example, if a particular pupil is disruptive almost every lesson, you may try a new
strategy to deal with this. If you feel friction has developed between you and a colleague,
you may try to re-establish a good relationship by being overtly more sociable and
friendly towards your colleague. If you find that you are not able to mark pupils’ work
in good time, you may use some time-management strategies to budget your time
differently. As well as taking action on your own initiative, you can also usefully consult
with colleagues to see if certain problems are common to them, or whether action
involving colleagues can help deal with the source of stress. The use of direct action
techniques to deal with sources of stress may lead to immediate success, or may involve
long-term action, particularly if successful action depends on you improving certain
skills.


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Take time to relax and unwind after work

However, there are some sources of stress that you will not be able to deal with
successfully by direct action techniques, and here you will need to use palliative
techniques. Palliative techniques are things you can do to relieve the experience of stress,
even when the source of stress persists. Particularly useful are mental techniques, such
as getting things in perspective, trying to see the humour in a situation, trying to detach
yourself from personal and emotional involvement in a situation, and sharing your
worries and concerns with others. In addition, physical techniques, such as trying to
relax whenever possible, or having a coffee or a bar of chocolate during break time, are
useful. Some teachers have developed useful physical techniques based on relaxation
exercises that can help them to keep calm and relaxed in a stressful situation. Being able
to relax and unwind after work is also very important.

Developing your own approach to coping with stress
In general, direct action techniques should always be tried to deal with a particular
source of stress before palliative techniques are used, since if the former are successful,
the source of stress is dealt with rather than simply accommodated. Your approach to
stress, however, needs to be tailored to your circumstances and personality. For example,
while for one teacher more preparation time at home would be helpful, for another
more time spent at home relaxing would be better. Nevertheless, the following advice
is generally useful:

138
●
●

●

●

●
●


Identify and deal with problems as soon as possible.
Develop skills and procedures to help you deal with the demands on you, particularly
organisational and time-management skills.
See whether some sources of stress are partly of your own making, such as avoidable
confrontations with pupils or colleagues, or accepting tasks that are too taxing.
Keep things in perspective, and try to form realistic expectations about your own
performance and that of others.
Share your worries and concerns with others.
Maintain a balance between your work as a teacher and your life outside school (a
healthy and enjoyable life outside school will enhance your self-esteem and the inner
strength you have to deal with problems at school).

It is also important to note that teachers collectively can do much to mitigate stress by
establishing a supportive climate in the school to help each other overcome difficulties,
and by ensuring that demands on teachers are organised and allocated in a way that
does not create stress which could have been avoided, such as allocating too many
important tasks to the same member of staff, or fixing important deadlines too near to
each other.

Further reading
Bubb, S. (2004) The Insider’s Guide to Early Professional Development: Succeed in Your First Five
Years as a Teacher. London: RoutledgeFalmer. This book includes a good overview of the areas
where beginning teachers need to develop their understanding and skills.
Jacklin, A., Griffiths, V. and Robinson, C. (2006) Beginning Primary Teaching: Moving Beyond
Survival. Maidenhead: Open University Press. A very good analysis of the areas of professional
development, including the skills involved in improving classroom practice, for primary school
teachers.
Leach, S. (2006) How to be a Successful Secondary Teacher. London: Continuum. An insightful
and well-informed guide to the areas of professional development for beginning secondary school
teachers.
Petty, G. (2006) Evidence-Based Teaching: A Practical Approach. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
An excellent analysis of effective teaching which draws upon research evidence concerning the
effectiveness of different teaching methods.

Key questions about your reflection and evaluation
1 Do I regularly consider my current practice with a view to identifying aspects that
can be usefully developed?
2 Do I make adequate use of evaluating my lessons in informing my future planning
and practice?


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3 Do I make use of systematic methods of collecting data about my current practice
that may be helpful?
4 Do I try to keep well-informed about developments in teaching, learning and
assessment in schools that have implications for my teaching?
5 Do I make use of a variety of different ways of developing a particular teaching skill
(i.e. attending workshops, using training manuals, collaborating with colleagues)?
6 Do I make the best use of my involvement in a scheme of teacher appraisal to
consider my development needs?
7 How well do I help colleagues to appraise and develop their classroom practice?
8 Do I regularly review how I can organise my time and effort to better effect?
9 Do I use a range of useful strategies and techniques to deal with sources of stress
effectively?
10 Do I help create a supportive climate in my school to help colleagues discuss and
overcome problems?

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Van Der Valk, T. and Broekman, H. (1999) ‘The lesson preparation method: a way
investigating pre-service teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge’. European Journal of
Teacher Education, vol. 22 (1), pp. 11–22.
Walsh, J. A. and Settes, B. D. (2005) Quality Questioning: Research-based Practice to Engage
Every Learner. London: Sage.
Watkins, C. (2005) Classrooms as Learning Communities: What’s in it for Schools? London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Webb, R. (2006) ‘Teachers’ perspectives on teaching and learning in a performativity
culture’. In Webb, R. (ed.) Changing Teaching and Learning in the Primary School. (pp.
33–46). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Weeden, P., Winter, J. and Broadfoot, P. (2002) Assessment: What’s in it for Schools? London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Wheeler, S. (ed.) (2005) Transforming Primary ICT. Exeter: Learning Matters.
Wragg, E. C. (2005) The Art and Science of Teaching and Learning: The Selected Works of Ted
Wragg. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001a) Explaining in the Primary School, 2nd edn. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001b) Explaining in the Secondary School, 2nd edn. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001c) Questioning in the Primary School, 2nd edn. London:
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Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001d) Questioning in the Secondary School, 2nd edn. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.

Author index
Avramidis, E. 83, 88, 126
Becta 47
Benmansour, N. 83, 88
Berliner, D. 126
Black, P. 61, 109, 120
Blatchford, P. 63
Borich, G. D. 36, 53
Brandes, G. M. 130
Briggs, M. 107
Broadfoot, P. 68, 107, 120
Broekman, H. 24
Brophy, J. E. 72, 82
Brown, G. 38
Brown, M. 133
Bubb, S. 121, 138
Butt, G. 19, 33
Campbell, J. 3, 5, 17, 70, 82
Cardno, C. E. M. 6, 121, 130, 132
Chambers, G. N. 8
Chaplain, R. 83, 103
Cheminais, R. 8, 70, 122
Cheng, H. 77
Clarke, S. 28, 33, 107
Cohen, L. 45
Collins, J. 3, 121, 128
Costello, P. 14, 121
Crawley, T. 8
Cullingford, C. 61, 68, 82
Day, C. 3, 18, 68
Dean, J. 54, 67
DfES 6, 8, 32, 46, 58, 109, 122
Erickson, G. 130
Esarte-Sarries, V. 41
Evertson, C. M. 83
Fraser, B. J. 70
Freiberg, H. J. 77
Galton, M. 63
Gardner, J. 61
Gheen, M. 68
Giannakaki, M. S. 8
Gillespie, H. 126
Gillies, R. M. 43

Gorard, S. 117
Grifﬁths, V. 121, 138
Gronlund, N.E.T. 20, 33
Gu, Q. 68
Hallam, S. 48
Hardman, F. 41, 71
Hargreaves, D. H. 77
Harrison, C. 61, 109, 120
Hay McBer 5
Haydn, T. 54, 67
Hayes, C. 135
Hayes, D. 41, 53
Higgins, S. 71
Hobson, A.J. 8
Hoie, H. 83, 88
Hopper, R. 41, 53
Hultgren, A. 83, 88
Ireson, J. 48
Jacklin, A. 121, 138
Jaques, D. 62
James, M. 46
Jenkin, M. 6, 121, 130, 132
Jones, J. 6, 121, 130, 132
Jones, S. 41, 53
Kaplan, A. 68
Kennedy, D. 83, 88
Kerr, K. 8
Kerry, T. 5, 18, 38, 39, 53, 67
Kington, A. 68
Koshy, V. 14, 121
Kounin, J. S. 56, 60
Kunc, R. 125
Kutnick, P. 63
Kyriacou, C. 6, 10, 36, 54, 60, 67, 77, 83,
88, 93, 125, 135
Kyriakides, L. 3, 5, 17, 70, 82
Laslett, R. 88
Leach, S. 121, 138
Leask, M. 27, 45
Lee, C. 61, 109, 120
Lewis, A. 49
Lord, S. 6, 121, 130, 132

AUTHOR INDEX

1111
21
31
4
51
61
7
8
9
10
1
1112
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
46
471111

MacBeath, J. 126
Maddock, M. 3, 121, 128
Malderez, A. 8
Manion, L. 45
Marshall, B. 61, 109, 120
Martin, C. 107
Marzano, R. J. 10, 129
Maslow, A. H. 77
McCormick, J. 45
McCutcheon, G. 24
McKelvey, J. 60
McNamara, E. 103
McNeil, F. 47
McNess, E. 68
Merry, R. 41
Middlewood, D. 6, 121, 130, 132
Midgley, C. 68
Milner, H. R. 24
Mitchell, I. 130
Mitchell, J. 130
Morgan, C. 128, 133
Morrison, K. 45
Moyles, J. 41
Mroz, M. 41
Muijs, D. 3, 5, 6, 17, 67, 70, 82
Mujtaba, T. 68
Myhill, D. 41, 53
Neil, P. 128, 133
Nivaldo, J. 20, 33
Norwich, B. 49
O’Donnell, A. M. 109
Ofsted 7, 19, 58
Opdenakker, M.-C. 71
Ortega, J. 83, 88
Osborn, M. 68
Pachler, N. 27
Paterson, F. 41
Pell, R. G. 8
Perrott, E. 15
Petty, G. 10, 18, 129, 138
Pollard, A. 3, 46, 68, 121, 128
Porter, L. 83, 103
Postholm, M. B. 112
Prenzel, M. 56
Pring, R. 10, 129
Pritchard, A. 45
Pye, J. 69, 75

Ralph, S. 133
Reeve, J. 109
Reynolds, D. 3, 6, 67, 70
Rimmele, R. 56
Robins, A. 4
Robinson, C. 121, 138
Robinson, W. 3, 5, 17, 70, 82
Rogers, B. 83, 89, 104
Rogers, C. R. 77
Roper, T. 8
Sammons, P. 47, 68
Sebba, J. 63
Seidel, T. 56
Settes, B. D. 38
Shulman, L. S. 3
Simco, N. 3, 121, 128
Skowron, J. 19
Smees, R. 68
Smith, C. J. 88
Smith, E. 117
Smith, F. 41
Smith, I. 45
Smith, J. K. 109
Steer, A. 83
Stephens, P. 4, 8, 83, 88
Stobart, G. 68
Stronge, J. H. 10, 129
Swafﬁeld, S. 3, 121, 128
Swatton, P. 107
Tabuchi, I. 83, 88
Tanner, H. 116, 120
Thomas, G. 10, 129
Thorp, J. 63
Tileston, D. W. 19, 34
Tomlinson, P. D. 8
Tracey, L. 8
Training and Development Agency
for Schools 8, 9, 20, 28, 33, 36, 47,
49, 58, 71, 83, 93, 103, 110, 121,
122, 126
Triggs, P. 68
Van Damme, J. 71
Van Der Valk, T. 24
Wall, K. 41
Walsh, J. A. 38
Warin, J. 3, 121, 128
Warwick, P. 3, 121, 128

147

148

AUTHOR INDEX

Watkins, C. 70, 82
Webb, R. 126
Weeden, P. 107, 120
Weinstein, C. S. 83
Wheeler, S. 27

Wilding, M. 6, 18, 67
Wiliam, D. 61, 109, 120
Winter, J. 107, 120
Woodﬁeld, A. 107
Wragg, E.C. 2, 38, 70, 89

1111
21
31
4
51
61
7
8
9
10
1
1112
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
46
471111

Subject index
action research 14, 121
active learning 43–44, 78, 80
advanced skills teacher standards 10
assessment 13, 27–29, 31–33, 105–120
assessment for learning 46, 109
authority 86–89
baseline assessment 109
clarity 37–38
classroom appearance 79–80
classroom climate 12, 68–82
classroom rules 88–89
confrontations 100–101
co-operative activities 43
counselling 92–93
differentiation 48
discipline 13, 83–104
educational objectives 19–21, 25
EPPI-Centre 129
Every Child Matters 8, 70, 93, 109, 122,
126
evidence-based teaching 10, 129
examinations 114, 117
excellent teacher standards 10
expert teacher 125–126
explaining 36–38
feedback 61, 73–79, 105–109, 116–119
first impressions 71, 89
formative assessment 107
group work 20, 42–44, 62–63
hidden curriculum 77
humanistic approach 77–78
ICT 9, 27, 30, 31–33, 42, 47, 51, 62, 63,
71, 107, 126
inclusion 49

inclusive teaching 49, 70
induction standards 9
investigation activities 42
learning difficulties 49, 100, 106
learning styles 45–46
lesson beginnings 54–56
lesson endings 57
lesson management 12, 54–67
lesson presentation 12, 35–53
marking 116–120
matching 47–49
mentoring 4, 124–125
mixed-ability teaching 48, 81
monitoring 28–29, 49, 58–62, 90–91,
102, 112
motivation 72–74
National Curriculum 20–21, 31, 109,
110, 112, 114, 118
pace 59–60
pastoral care 75, 92–93
pedagogy 126
peer tutoring 50–51
performance review 6
personalised learning 46–47
planning 12, 19–34
portfolios 111, 124–125
positive teaching 103
preparation 12, 19–34
professional development 16–17,
121–124
profiles 124–125
punishments 96–100
pupil ability 47–51
pupil expectations 77–79
pupil involvement 57–62
pupil misbehaviour 58, 83–104
pupil self-esteem 68–69, 75–79, 85,
100

150

SUBJECT INDEX

QTS standards 9–10, 20, 28, 33, 36,
46–48, 58, 71, 83, 93, 103, 110, 121,
122, 125, 126
questioning 38–40
record keeping 32–33, 118–119
records of achievement 78, 110–111,
118
reﬂection 4, 13, 121–139
relationships 68–69, 74–76
reprimands 89–96
resources 51–52
scaffolding 50, 61
school reports 119–120
setting 48
special education needs 48–49, 93, 102,
113–114
streaming 48

stress 134–138
study skills 57, 69, 117
summative assessment 107
teacher appraisal 6, 121–139
teacher enthusiasm 36
teacher expectations 48, 58, 72, 74
teacher manner 35–36, 75–76, 86–89
teaching styles 45–46
tests 113–114, 117–118
threshold standards 10
time management 60, 63, 132–133
transitions 56–57
value-added 109–110
whole class interactive teaching 20,
35–41, 43–44
withitness 60

Responses to previous editions of Essential Teaching Skills by Chris Kyriacou:
Chris Kyriacou not only knows how to communicate, but shows every
understanding of what classroom life is like.
Times Educational Supplement
One of the best general guides available for prospective teachers at both
primary and secondary level.
Journal of Education for Teaching
The third edition of this enormously successful book has been revised in line
with the new government standards for the award of qualified teacher status
(QTS), which apply from September 2007 onwards.
Using his trademark familiar and accessible style, Chris Kyriacou has covered:
the nature and development of teaching skills
planning, preparing, presenting and managing lessons
classroom climate and discipline
assessing and evaluating pupil progress
reflection and self-evaluation
This third edition also includes new and expanded coverage of:
personalised learning
new uses of ICT
whole-class interactive teaching
assessment for learning
This book is an indispensable resource for students and newly qualified
teachers alike, and an invaluable aid for qualified teachers’ continuing
professional development.
Dr Chris Kyriacou is Reader in Educational Psychology and Director of
Graduate Studies at the Department of Educational Studies, University of York.

Also available from Nelson Thornes:
Effective Teaching in Schools: Theory and Practice, Second Edition
Stress-Busting for Teachers
Helping Troubled Pupils
Chris Kyriacou
Teaching Today: A Practical Guide, Fourth Edition
Geoff Petty
For a full listing of Nelson Thornes teacher training and education titles,
please telephone 01242 267268.

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