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A S M A R I N 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 3 7
M E I L E N A 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 3
M E R L I V I S K A 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 2
R I A M AYA L E S TA R I M A N U R U N G 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 0 9
S E P T Y R I A N I PA N G I N D O M A N 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 3 8
Y U L I TA A R I D I A N A 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 6
S R I WA H Y U N I 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 4
ADVISORS : PROF. DR. INDAWAN SYAHR, M.PD
DR. MAGDAD HATIM, M.HUM
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND
GRAMMAR
OUTLINE
 Introduction
 References
 Conjunction
 Theme and Rheme
 Substitution and Ellipsis
 Tense and Aspect
INTRODUCTION
 Discourse analysis and grammar study familiar
terms like :clause , pronoun, adverbial and
conjunction and attempt to relate them to a less
familiar set of terms : theme, rheme , reference
and anaphoric in order to make link between
grammar and discourse.
GRAMMATICAL COHESION AND
TEXTUALITY
 Spoken and written discourses display grammatical
connections between individual clauses and
utterances.
 These grammatical links can be classified under
three broad types :
Reference or co- reference
Ellipsis/ substitution
Conjunction
REFERENCES
 The term reference is traditionally used in semantics
to define the relationship between a word and what it
points to in the real world, but in Halliday and
Hasan’s (1976) model it simply refers to the
relationship between two linguistic expressions
 Reference as an act by which a speaker (or writer)
uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to
identify something.
 Reference is cohesion created when "an item in one
sentence refers to an item in another sentence"
(Johnstone 118).
REFERENCES
(SITUATIONAL)
EXOPHORIC
TO PRECIDING
(TEXT ANAPHORA)
TO FOLLOWING
(TEXT CATAPHORA)
(TEXTUAL)
ENDOPHORIC
EXOPHORIC REFERENCES
(Looking outward- outside the text).
 The referent is not in the immediate context but is
assumed by the speaker/writer to be part of a shared
world, in terms of knowledge and experience.
 Examples of exophora can be words like I, mine, you,
and we, which point to things (the speakers or the
speakers' possessions) in the environment in which a
text occurs.
ENDHOPORIC REFERENCES
 References to elements in the text are called
Endophoric references.
 Endophoric referencing can be divided into two
areas:
1. Anaphoric
2. Cataphoric
ANAPHORIC (backward references)
• Refers to any reference that “points backwards” to
previously mentioned information in text. Usually items
such : as he/she or them ,it, this , can be decoded without
major difficulty.
e.g. Tom likes ice cream but Bill can’t eat it.
The teacher asked Ahmad to read so he read.
CATAPHORIC (forward references)
• Refers to any reference that “points forward” to
information that will be presented later in the text.
e.g. When I met her, Mary looked ill.
Here is the news. The Prime Minister . . ….
CONJUNCTION
 Conjunction acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or
sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a
meaningful pattern between them.
 Conjunctions are not a way of simply joining
sentences. Their role in the text is wider than that,
because they provide the listener/reader with
information for the interpretation of the utterance;
that is why some linguists prefer to describe them as
discourse markers.
Elaboration
• means one clause that
expands another by
elaborating on it (or some
portion of it) by restating
in other words, specifying
in grater detail,
commenting, or
exemplifying (Halliday,
1985: 196)
• i.e., in other words,
that is, for example, by
the way, anyway, or
rather, and in short.
Extension
• means one clause
expands another by
extending beyond it by
adding some new
element, giving an
exception to it, or
offering an alternative
(Halliday, 1985: 197)
• i.e., and, moreover, nor,
but, however, instead,
alternatively, and or.
Enhancement
• means one clause
expands another by
embellishing around it
by qualifying it with
some circumstantial
feature of time, place,
cause or condition
(Halliday, 1985: 197).
• i.e., finally, secondly,
next, meanwhile,
likewise, therefore,
nevertheless, and in
that respect.
Sub Types of Conjunction
Additive
• acts to
structurally
coordinate or
link by adding to
the presupposed
item divided
into positive and
negative
• i.e., and, also,
moreover, in
addition, nor,
etc
Causal
• Some cause
expressions are
general, others
relate more
specifically to
result, reason or
purpose.
• i.e., in
consequence, on
account of this,
for that
purpose, etc.
Adversative
• It is conjunction
which relates
two clauses that
state contras
each other. It
acts also to
indicate
contrary to
expectation
• i.e., but, yet, on
the other hand,
however, etc.
Temporal
• i.e., then, next,
afterwards, just
then, before
that, in the end,
at once, soon,
next time, next
day,
meanwhile, at
this moment,
etc.
THEME AND RHEME
 M. A. K. Halliday (1985a:39),
Theme functions as the ‘starting point for the message’ the
element which the clause is going to be ‘about’ and rheme is
the rest of the message, which provides the additional
information added to the starting point.
 Gerot and Wignell (1994:103)
Theme as the element(s) which come(s) first in the clause,
and the rest of the clause is called rheme.
 Thornbury (2005: 38)
What the sentence is about (its topic) and what the writer
or speaker wants to tell you about the topic (the comment)
Theme/ topic Rheme/ comment
Our dog, Rufus limped into the room.
His back paw was red with infection
but he forgot all about it.
When he was distracted by the snarling cat
he began to chase her
but his paw prevented him.
It was throbbing painfully.
He whimpered
and (he) turned to Sammy for comfort and attention.
THEME TYPES
IDEATIONAL
TEXTUAL
INTERPERSONAL
UNMARKED
Theme =
Subject
MARKED
Theme ≠
Subject
 The Ideational or Topical Theme is usually
but not always the first nominal group in the
clause. Topical Themes may also be nominal
group complexes, adverbial groups, and
prepositional phrases or embedded clauses.
 Topical themes serves as participant,
circumstance, process.
IDEATIONAL THEME
EXAMPLE
Unmarked Topical Theme:
 John went up the hill. (Nominal Group as Theme)
 John and Jill went up the hill. (Nominal Group Complex as
Theme)
 (What John and Jill did) was go up the hill. (Embedded
clause)
Marked Topical Theme:
 Someday, you will understand that. (Adverbial as Theme)
 At Hotel, Marry and John will stay. (Prepositional Phrase
as Theme)
 Jasmine, I love the smell of. (Complement as Theme)
TEXTUAL THEME
 The Textual themes serve primarily to relate one
clause (complex) with a preceding one and are
typically realized by conjunction and continuatives.
Example :
 Continuatives as Theme (well, right, OK, now, anyway, of
course, etc)
e.g.: Well, anyway, we arrived on time.
 Connective as Theme (moreover, furthermore, on the other
hand, etc)
e.g.: Moreover, Mr. Johnson, the problem itself is
simply too complex to solve now.
INTERPERSONAL THEME
 Interpersonal theme functioning to code the
speaker’s or writer’s personal judgment on meaning.
They may be Modal Adjuncts, Vocatives, Finite or
WH-elements.
Example :
 Perhaps, we can wait until next week. (Modal Adjunct as
Theme)
 Dearly beloved, we are gathered here today. (vocative as
theme)
 What tremendously easy questions you ask! (WH-
elements as theme)
SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS
 Are used when “a speaker or writer wishes
to avoid the repetition of a lexical item and
draw on one of the grammatical resources
of the language or replace the item.”
SUBSTITUTION
 Is the replacement of a word or phrase with a
“filler” word ( such as one, so, or do ) to avoid
repetition.
Substitution
Nominal Verbal Clausal
( one / ones ) ( do / so ) ( so / not )
NOMINAL SUBSTITUTION
 When a noun phrase is elided or
substitute.
 By using “ One and Ones”
E.g. 1. This car is mine, but that one is
yours.
2. Let’s go and see the birds. Ones
are on the tree.
VERBAL SUBSTITUTION
 When a verb phrase is elided or substitute.
 By using “Do”
E.g. Did Marry take that letter?
She might have done.
 Do / Do not and auxiliaries.
She can drive the car, but I cannot.
She wrote the homework, but I did not.
CLAUSAL SUBSTITUTION
 When the entire clause or a large part of it is
elided or substitute.
 By using “So or Not”
E.g. Do you need a lift? If so, wait for me; If not
I’ll see you there.
ELLIPSIS
 Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the omission of elements
normally required by the grammar which the
speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context
and therefore need not be raised.
 Ellipsis is distinguished by the structure having some
missing elements.
Ellipsis
Nominal Verbal Clausal
NOMINAL ELLIPSIS
• Means the omission of a noun head in a nominal
group
E.g. Nelly liked the green tiles: I preferred the
blue.
VERBAL ELLIPSIS
• Define as a verbal group whose structure does
not fully express its systematic features.
E.g. What have you been doing?
Swimming
CLAUSAL ELLIPSIS
 Represents the omission of a part of the
clause of elements or all of it.
E.g. If you could be back here at five
thirty, I’d like you to be back here at
five thirty.
If you could, I’d like you to be back
here at five thirty.
TENSE AND ASPECT
 Tense- related to time when activity or state occur.
 Aspect in a language comments upon some
characteristic of the activity or state
 TENSE
 PAST PRESENT FUTURE
 ASPECT
 PROGRESSIVE PERFECT
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
THANK YOU

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Discourse analysis and grammar

  • 1. A S M A R I N 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 3 7 M E I L E N A 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 3 M E R L I V I S K A 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 2 R I A M AYA L E S TA R I M A N U R U N G 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 0 9 S E P T Y R I A N I PA N G I N D O M A N 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 3 8 Y U L I TA A R I D I A N A 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 6 S R I WA H Y U N I 2 0 1 4 6 0 1 2 0 2 4 ADVISORS : PROF. DR. INDAWAN SYAHR, M.PD DR. MAGDAD HATIM, M.HUM DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND GRAMMAR
  • 2. OUTLINE  Introduction  References  Conjunction  Theme and Rheme  Substitution and Ellipsis  Tense and Aspect
  • 3. INTRODUCTION  Discourse analysis and grammar study familiar terms like :clause , pronoun, adverbial and conjunction and attempt to relate them to a less familiar set of terms : theme, rheme , reference and anaphoric in order to make link between grammar and discourse.
  • 4. GRAMMATICAL COHESION AND TEXTUALITY  Spoken and written discourses display grammatical connections between individual clauses and utterances.  These grammatical links can be classified under three broad types : Reference or co- reference Ellipsis/ substitution Conjunction
  • 5. REFERENCES  The term reference is traditionally used in semantics to define the relationship between a word and what it points to in the real world, but in Halliday and Hasan’s (1976) model it simply refers to the relationship between two linguistic expressions  Reference as an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something.  Reference is cohesion created when "an item in one sentence refers to an item in another sentence" (Johnstone 118).
  • 6. REFERENCES (SITUATIONAL) EXOPHORIC TO PRECIDING (TEXT ANAPHORA) TO FOLLOWING (TEXT CATAPHORA) (TEXTUAL) ENDOPHORIC
  • 7. EXOPHORIC REFERENCES (Looking outward- outside the text).  The referent is not in the immediate context but is assumed by the speaker/writer to be part of a shared world, in terms of knowledge and experience.  Examples of exophora can be words like I, mine, you, and we, which point to things (the speakers or the speakers' possessions) in the environment in which a text occurs.
  • 8. ENDHOPORIC REFERENCES  References to elements in the text are called Endophoric references.  Endophoric referencing can be divided into two areas: 1. Anaphoric 2. Cataphoric
  • 9. ANAPHORIC (backward references) • Refers to any reference that “points backwards” to previously mentioned information in text. Usually items such : as he/she or them ,it, this , can be decoded without major difficulty. e.g. Tom likes ice cream but Bill can’t eat it. The teacher asked Ahmad to read so he read. CATAPHORIC (forward references) • Refers to any reference that “points forward” to information that will be presented later in the text. e.g. When I met her, Mary looked ill. Here is the news. The Prime Minister . . ….
  • 10. CONJUNCTION  Conjunction acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful pattern between them.  Conjunctions are not a way of simply joining sentences. Their role in the text is wider than that, because they provide the listener/reader with information for the interpretation of the utterance; that is why some linguists prefer to describe them as discourse markers.
  • 11. Elaboration • means one clause that expands another by elaborating on it (or some portion of it) by restating in other words, specifying in grater detail, commenting, or exemplifying (Halliday, 1985: 196) • i.e., in other words, that is, for example, by the way, anyway, or rather, and in short. Extension • means one clause expands another by extending beyond it by adding some new element, giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative (Halliday, 1985: 197) • i.e., and, moreover, nor, but, however, instead, alternatively, and or. Enhancement • means one clause expands another by embellishing around it by qualifying it with some circumstantial feature of time, place, cause or condition (Halliday, 1985: 197). • i.e., finally, secondly, next, meanwhile, likewise, therefore, nevertheless, and in that respect.
  • 12. Sub Types of Conjunction Additive • acts to structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item divided into positive and negative • i.e., and, also, moreover, in addition, nor, etc Causal • Some cause expressions are general, others relate more specifically to result, reason or purpose. • i.e., in consequence, on account of this, for that purpose, etc. Adversative • It is conjunction which relates two clauses that state contras each other. It acts also to indicate contrary to expectation • i.e., but, yet, on the other hand, however, etc. Temporal • i.e., then, next, afterwards, just then, before that, in the end, at once, soon, next time, next day, meanwhile, at this moment, etc.
  • 13. THEME AND RHEME  M. A. K. Halliday (1985a:39), Theme functions as the ‘starting point for the message’ the element which the clause is going to be ‘about’ and rheme is the rest of the message, which provides the additional information added to the starting point.  Gerot and Wignell (1994:103) Theme as the element(s) which come(s) first in the clause, and the rest of the clause is called rheme.  Thornbury (2005: 38) What the sentence is about (its topic) and what the writer or speaker wants to tell you about the topic (the comment)
  • 14. Theme/ topic Rheme/ comment Our dog, Rufus limped into the room. His back paw was red with infection but he forgot all about it. When he was distracted by the snarling cat he began to chase her but his paw prevented him. It was throbbing painfully. He whimpered and (he) turned to Sammy for comfort and attention.
  • 16.  The Ideational or Topical Theme is usually but not always the first nominal group in the clause. Topical Themes may also be nominal group complexes, adverbial groups, and prepositional phrases or embedded clauses.  Topical themes serves as participant, circumstance, process. IDEATIONAL THEME
  • 17. EXAMPLE Unmarked Topical Theme:  John went up the hill. (Nominal Group as Theme)  John and Jill went up the hill. (Nominal Group Complex as Theme)  (What John and Jill did) was go up the hill. (Embedded clause) Marked Topical Theme:  Someday, you will understand that. (Adverbial as Theme)  At Hotel, Marry and John will stay. (Prepositional Phrase as Theme)  Jasmine, I love the smell of. (Complement as Theme)
  • 18. TEXTUAL THEME  The Textual themes serve primarily to relate one clause (complex) with a preceding one and are typically realized by conjunction and continuatives. Example :  Continuatives as Theme (well, right, OK, now, anyway, of course, etc) e.g.: Well, anyway, we arrived on time.  Connective as Theme (moreover, furthermore, on the other hand, etc) e.g.: Moreover, Mr. Johnson, the problem itself is simply too complex to solve now.
  • 19. INTERPERSONAL THEME  Interpersonal theme functioning to code the speaker’s or writer’s personal judgment on meaning. They may be Modal Adjuncts, Vocatives, Finite or WH-elements. Example :  Perhaps, we can wait until next week. (Modal Adjunct as Theme)  Dearly beloved, we are gathered here today. (vocative as theme)  What tremendously easy questions you ask! (WH- elements as theme)
  • 20. SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS  Are used when “a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the repetition of a lexical item and draw on one of the grammatical resources of the language or replace the item.”
  • 21. SUBSTITUTION  Is the replacement of a word or phrase with a “filler” word ( such as one, so, or do ) to avoid repetition. Substitution Nominal Verbal Clausal ( one / ones ) ( do / so ) ( so / not )
  • 22. NOMINAL SUBSTITUTION  When a noun phrase is elided or substitute.  By using “ One and Ones” E.g. 1. This car is mine, but that one is yours. 2. Let’s go and see the birds. Ones are on the tree.
  • 23. VERBAL SUBSTITUTION  When a verb phrase is elided or substitute.  By using “Do” E.g. Did Marry take that letter? She might have done.  Do / Do not and auxiliaries. She can drive the car, but I cannot. She wrote the homework, but I did not.
  • 24. CLAUSAL SUBSTITUTION  When the entire clause or a large part of it is elided or substitute.  By using “So or Not” E.g. Do you need a lift? If so, wait for me; If not I’ll see you there.
  • 25. ELLIPSIS  Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised.  Ellipsis is distinguished by the structure having some missing elements. Ellipsis Nominal Verbal Clausal
  • 26. NOMINAL ELLIPSIS • Means the omission of a noun head in a nominal group E.g. Nelly liked the green tiles: I preferred the blue. VERBAL ELLIPSIS • Define as a verbal group whose structure does not fully express its systematic features. E.g. What have you been doing? Swimming
  • 27. CLAUSAL ELLIPSIS  Represents the omission of a part of the clause of elements or all of it. E.g. If you could be back here at five thirty, I’d like you to be back here at five thirty. If you could, I’d like you to be back here at five thirty.
  • 28. TENSE AND ASPECT  Tense- related to time when activity or state occur.  Aspect in a language comments upon some characteristic of the activity or state
  • 29.  TENSE  PAST PRESENT FUTURE  ASPECT  PROGRESSIVE PERFECT PAST PRESENT FUTURE