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Discourse Analysis
An introduction
Based on Brown and Yule's Discourse Analysis
(1983)

What is Discourse Analysis?
Deﬁnition
Discourse analysis is the study of language in use,
beyond the sentence level. It examines how language is
used in real communication to construct meaning.
- Key Focus
- The relationship between language and context.
- How meaning is created and interpreted in texts and
conversations.
-Example:
Analyzing a conversation to understand how
participants take turns and manage topics.

Historical Background
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Origins:
Discourse analysis emerged in the mid-20th century as
linguists began to study language beyond isolated
sentences.
- Key Inﬂuences:
- Structural linguistics (e.g., Saussure).
- Pragmatics (e.g., Austin, Grice).
- Sociolinguistics (e.g., Labov).
- Development:
Brown and Yule’s work (1983) contributed to the
functional approach to discourse analysis.

Key Figures in Discourse
Analysis
-Gillian Brown and George Yule:
- Authors of Discourse Analysis(1983).
- Emphasized the functional approach to
language.
- Michael Halliday:
- Developed systemic functional linguistics.
- John Sinclair:
- Pioneered corpus-based discourse analysis.
- Others:
- Deborah Tannen (gender and discourse),

Why Study Discourse Analysis?
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Applications:
- Linguistics: Understanding real-world
language use.
- Education: Improving teaching and learning
methods.
- Media: Analyzing news, ads, and social media.
- Sociology: Examining power and ideology in
language.
- Example:
Analyzing political speeches to uncover hidden
agendas.

Text Vs. Discourse
Text
- The physical product of language (written or spoken).
- Example: A novel, a speech transcript.
- Discourse
- The process of meaning-making in context.
- Example: A conversation between friends.
- Key Difference:
Text is static; discourse is dynamic and context-dependent.

Spoken Vs. Written Discourse
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Spoken Discourse:
- Immediate, interactive, and often informal.
- Features: pauses, overlaps, intonation.
- Example: A casual conversation.
- Written Discourse:
- Planned, structured, and often formal.
- Features: grammar, punctuation, coherence.
- Example: An academic essay.
- Key Difference:
Spoken discourse is more context-dependent; written
discourse is more self-contained.

Discourse as Process vs.
Product
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Discourse as Process:
- Focuses on how language is used in real-time
communication.
- Example: Analyzing turn-taking in a conversation.
- Discourse as Product:
- Focuses on the ﬁnal output of communication (e.g.,
a written text).
- Example: Analyzing the structure of a news article.
- Key Point:
Both perspectives are important in discourse
analysis.

Key Questions in Discourse
Analysis
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- What is being communicated?
- The content and meaning of the discourse.
- How is it structured?
- The organization of language (e.g., cohesion,
coherence).
- Why is it communicated this way?
- The purpose and context of the discourse.
- Example
Analyzing a job interview to understand how
candidates present themselves.

Overview of Brown and Yule's
Approach
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- Functional Approach:
- Focuses on how language is used to achieve
speciﬁc purposes.
- Key Concepts:
- Cohesion and coherence.
- Context and shared knowledge.
- Discourse structure (e.g., turn-taking, adjacency
pairs).
- Example:
Analyzing a classroom discussion to understand how
teachers and students interact.

Language as a Social
Phenomenon
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- Key Idea:
Language is not just a set of rules; it is a tool
for social interaction.
- Examples:
- Greetings (e.g., "Hello," "How are you?").
- Politeness strategies (e.g., "Could you please.
..?").
- Implication:
Discourse analysis examines how language
reﬂects and shapes social relationships.

Context in Discourse
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- Types of Context
- Situational: The physical setting of
communication.
- Cultural: Shared knowledge and norms of
participants.
- Linguistic: The surrounding text or
conversation.
- Example:
The meaning of "It's cold in here" depends on
context (e.g., a request to close the window or
a comment on the weather).

The Role of Participants
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- Speaker:
- The person producing the discourse.
- Listener:
- The person interpreting the discourse.
- Roles:
- Can shift in conversation (e.g., speaker
becomes listener).
- Example:
In a debate, participants take turns as speaker
and listener.

Shared Knowledge
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- Deﬁnition
Background knowledge that participants bring
to a conversation.
- Types:
- Cultural: Knowledge shared by a community
(e.g., holidays, traditions).
- Personal: Knowledge shared by individuals
(e.g., inside jokes).
- Example:
Saying "The Eiffel Tower" assumes the listener
knows what it is.

Discourse and Pragmatics
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Pragmatics:
The study of meaning in context.
- Connection to Discourse Analysis:
Both examine how language is used in real
communication.
- Example:
Analyzing implied meanings (e.g., "Can you
pass the salt?" is a request, not a question
about ability).

Speech Acts in Discourse
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Deﬁnition:
Speech acts are actions performed through
language (e.g., requests, apologies, promises).
- Key Theorists:
- J.L. Austin: Introduced the concept of
speech acts.
- John Searle: Classiﬁed speech acts into
categories (e.g., directives, commissives).
- Example:
"I promise to help you" is a commissive
speech act.

Grice's Cooperative Principle
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- Deﬁnition:
A set of guidelines for effective communication.
- Maxims:
- Quantity: Be as informative as needed.
- Quality: Be truthful.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Manner: Be clear and concise.
- Example:
Violating the maxim of relation: "Nice weather we’re
having" in a business meeting.

Politeness Theory
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Deﬁnition:
How speakers use language to maintain
social harmony.
- Key Theorists:
- Brown and Levinson: Introduced politeness
strategies (e.g., positive and negative
politeness).
- Example:
Positive politeness: "You’re doing great!"
Negative politeness: "Could you possibly help
me?"

Discourse and Power
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- Key Idea:
Language reﬂects and reinforces power
dynamics.
- Example:
A boss giving orders to an employee.
- Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA):
Examines how power and ideology are
embedded in language.

Ideology in Discourse
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- Definition:
Beliefs and values that influence language use.
- Example:
Political speeches promoting specific
ideologies.
- CDA Approach:
Analyzes how language shapes and reflects
societal beliefs.

Discourse and Culture
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Key Idea:
Language use varies across cultures.
- Example:
Direct vs. indirect communication styles (e.g.,
American vs. Japanese).
- Implication:
Misunderstandings can arise in cross-cultural
communication.

Discourse and Gender
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Key Idea:
Gender inﬂuences language use.
- Example:
Women often use more collaborative
language; men may use more competitive
language.
- Research:
Deborah Tannen’s work on gender and
discourse.

Discourse and Identity
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- Key Idea:
Language reﬂects personal and group identity.
- Example:
Slang used by teenagers to signal group
membership.
- Implication:
Discourse analysis can reveal how identity is
constructed through language.

Discourse and Society
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- Key Idea:
Language reﬂects and shapes social
structures.
- Example:
The use of formal vs. informal language in
different social settings.
- Implication:
Discourse analysis can uncover societal
norms and hierarchies.

Discourse and Cognition
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Key Idea:
Mental processes inﬂuence discourse
comprehension.
- Example:
How readers infer meaning from context.
- Connection:
Schema theory explains how prior knowledge
shapes understanding.

Discourse and Memory
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Key Idea:
Language use affects what we remember.
- Example:
Repetition in discourse enhances memory.
- Implication:
Discourse analysis can improve teaching and
learning strategies.

Discourse and Emotion
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Key Idea:
Language expresses and evokes emotions.
- Example:
Emotive language in poetry or speeches.
- Implication:
Discourse analysis can explore the emotional
impact of language.

Discourse and Technology
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Key Idea:
Technology shapes how we communicate.
- Example:
Social media platforms inﬂuence discourse
structure (e.g., hashtags, emojis).
- Implication:
Discourse analysis must adapt to new forms
of communication.

Discourse and Education
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Key Idea
Language plays a central role in teaching and
learning.
- Example:
Classroom discourse patterns (e.g., teacher-
student interactions).
- Implication:
Discourse analysis can improve educational
practices.

Summary of Foundations
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- Recap:
Discourse analysis examines language in use,
focusing on meaning, context, and structure.
- Key Takeaways:
- Language is more than words; it’s about how
we use it.
- Understanding discourse helps us analyze
real-world communication.

What is Cohesion?
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- Deﬁnition:
Cohesion refers to the linguistic devices that
link sentences together.
- Example:
Pronouns like "he" or "she" refer back to
previously mentioned nouns.
- Importance:
Cohesion helps create a sense of unity in a
text.

Types of Cohesive Devices
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Reference:
Using pronouns or demonstratives to refer to something (e.g., "
this," "that").
- Substitution:
Replacing a word or phrase with another (e.g., "do" in "I like
apples, and so does she").
- Ellipsis:
Omitting words that are understood (e.g., "Want some coffee?").
- Conjunction:
Using linking words (e.g., "and," "but," "because").
- Lexical Cohesion:
Repeating words or using synonyms (e.g., "car" and "vehicle").

Reference
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- Types:
- Anaphoric: Referring back (e.g., "John said
he was tired").
- Cataphoric: Referring forward (e.g., "Here’s
the plan: we’ll leave at 5").
- Exophoric: Referring to something outside
the text (e.g., "Look at that!").
- Example:
"The cat sat on the mat. It was ﬂuffy." ("It"
refers back to "the cat").

Substitution
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- Types:
- Nominal: Replacing a noun (e.g., "I prefer the
red dress to the blue one").
- Verbal: Replacing a verb (e.g., "She sings
better than he does").
- Clausal: Replacing a clause (e.g., "Will it rain?
I hope not").
- Example:
"I like tea. Do you?" ("Do you?" substitutes for "
Do you like tea?").

Ellipsis
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- Types:
- Nominal: Omitting a noun (e.g., "I ordered tea,
and she [ordered] coffee").
- Verbal: Omitting a verb (e.g., "She can swim,
but I can’t [swim]").
- Clausal: Omitting a clause (e.g., "Are you
coming? [I’m] Not sure").
- Example:
"Who wants ice cream?" "Me!" ("Me!" implies "I
want ice cream").

Conjunction
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Types:
- Additive: Adding information (e.g., "and," "
also").
- Adversative: Contrasting information (e.g., "
but," "however").
- Causal: Showing cause and effect (e.g., "
because," "so").
- Temporal: Showing time relationships (e.g., "
then," "after").
- Example:
"I was tired, so I went to bed."

Lexical Cohesion
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Types:
- Repetition: Repeating the same word (e.g., "
The cat chased the mouse. The cat was fast").
- Synonyms: Using different words with similar
meanings (e.g., "happy," "joyful").
- Collocations: Words that commonly occur
together (e.g., "strong coffee").
- Example:
"The dog barked. The sound was loud."

What's Coherence?
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Deﬁnition:
Coherence refers to the overall sense-making
of a text.
- Example:
A well-structured essay vs. a random
collection of sentences.
- Key Point:
Coherence depends on the reader’s ability to
infer meaning.

Global vs. Local Coherences
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- Global Coherence:
The overall meaning and structure of a text.
- Local Coherence:
The relationship between individual sentences.
- Example:
A novel has global coherence (plot); each
chapter has local coherence (scene).

Coherence and Inference
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Key Idea:
Readers infer meaning based on context and
prior knowledge.
- Example:
"She opened the door. The room was dark."
(Inference: She entered the room).
- Implication
Coherence depends on the reader’s ability to
make connections.

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